Part 79
Comment: The form of the resurrection body is one of the many problems raised by the doctrine of bodily resurrection. 2 Apoc. Bar. here takes the view that the dead will emerge from their graves with recognizably the same bodies with which they were buried. Then, after the final judgement, they will be transformed: the wicked will 'go from bad to worse' (their physical degeneration being hastened by the anguish of seeing the glorification of the righteous), and they will pass into a place of torment; the righteous will become like angels and pass into Paradise, where, in an anticipation of the later doctrine of the beatific vision, they will enjoy direct intercourse with the unseen angelic world. On 2 Apoc. Bar. see MAJ GEN c.6.
And it is according to this statute that [they] shall proceed (22) at every me[al at which] at least ten men are [gathered together.
Comment: According to Qumran theology there would be two Messiahs—a priestly (the Messiah of Aaron) and a political (the Messiah of David). The new messianic order would be inaugurated by a great solemn national assembly in which Israel (or rather the surviving elect portion of Israel) would join in a banquet with the two Messiahs to inagurate the messianic age. Significantly all subsequent meals at which at least ten men are present will be held as a memorial of this inaugural feast. On the Messianic Rule see MAJ GEN c.8.
D. Wisdom
9. 2 Apocalypse of Baruch, 50:1—4; 51:1—13: The Form of the Resurrection Body
1. The Chapters of the Fathers (Pirqei 'Abot), 2:1—6: Miscellaneous Moral Maxims
(50:1) And he (God) answered and said to me, Listen, Baruch, to what I say, and engrave on the memory of your heart everything that you learn. (2) The earth will surely give back the dead that it now receives so as to preserve them: without changing their form, it will give them back just as it received them; and as I delivered them to it, so will it raise them again. (3) For it will be necessary then to show to the living that the dead have come back to life again, and that those who have departed have returned. (4) And when those who are acquaintances now have recognized each other, then the judgement proper will begin, and the events spoken of before will come to pass.
(2:1) Rabbi said: Which is the straight way that a man should choose? Whatever is an honour to him and gets honour from men. Be as careful to fulfil a light precept as a weighty one, for you do not know what recompense is awarded for each precept. Reckon the loss
(incurred) through (fulfilling) a precept against its reward, and the reward (gained) from a transgression against its loss. Consider three things and you will not fall into the hands of transgression: know what is above you—a seeing eye and a hearing ear and all your deeds recorded in a book.
(2) Rabban Gamaliel the son of Rabbi Judah the Prince says: It is excellent to combine the study of the Torah with a worldly occupation, for toiling at both of them puts sin out of mind. But all study of the Torah without worldly labour comes to nothing in the end and brings sin in its train. Let all those who labour with the congregation labour with them for the sake of Heaven, for the merit of their Fathers sustains them and their righteousness endures for ever. And as for you, (God will say,) I count you worthy of great reward as though you yourselves had done everything.
(51:1) And after the appointed day is over, the appearance of those who have been condemned and the glory of those who have been justified will be changed. (2) For the appearance of the evildoers will go from bad to worse, as they suffer torment. (3) But the glory of those who have now been justified through their obedience to my law, who have shown understanding during their lives, and who have planted the root of wisdom in their hearts—their splendour will become more glorious as they are transformed, and their features will assume a luminous beauty, so that they may be able to attain and receive the world which does not die, which has been promised to them then. (4) The others who return then will lament greatly because they rejected my law, and stopped up their ears, so that they might not hear wisdom or receive understanding. (5) For they will see those whom they now regard as their inferiors elevated and glorified above them, for both these and those will be transformed, the one into the splendour of angels, and the other into terrible forms and horrible shapes, and they will utterly waste away. (6) Fortheywill see all this first; and afterwards they will depart to be tormented.
(3) Be heedful of the government for they only bring a man near them for their own ends: they seem to be friends when it is to their advantage, but they do not stand by a man when he is in distress.
(4) He used to say: Do his will as if it was your will so that he may do your will as if it was his will. Negate your will before his will so that he may negate the will of others before your will.
(5) Hillel says: Do not separate yourself from the congregation, and do not put any trust in yourself till the day of your death. Do not judge your fellow till you have been in his situation. Do not suppose that anything (you say) which cannot be understood (at once) will be understood in the end. Do not say, 'When I have leisure I will study.' Perhaps you never will have leisure.
(7) But those who have been saved by their works, whose hope has been in the law, who have put their trust in understanding, and their confidence in wisdom, shall see marvels in their time. (8) For they shall see a world which is now invisible to them, and they shall see a time which is now hidden from them, (9) and time shall no longer age them. (10) In the heights of that world shall they dwell, and they shall be like angels, and comparable to stars; and they shall be changed into whatever form they will, from beauty into loveliness, and from light to the splendour of glory, (n) The extent of Paradise will be spread before their eyes, and they will be shown the majestic
(6) He used to say: A boor does not fear sin, an ignoramus cannot be pious, a shy person cannot learn nor a short-tempered person teach, and whoever engages much in trade cannot become wise. Where there are no men strive to be a man.
Comment: Though clearly within the ancient wisdom tradition of pithy sayings that provide food for thought, the values of 'Abot are those dear to the rabbis' hearts: the centrality
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of the study of Torah to a moral life; engaging with the congregation; doing everything 'for the sake of heaven' (i.e. not for financial gain or personal glory); the need to live a balanced life combining study of Torah with a trade or profession, to 'put sin out of mind', and, as is stated elsewhere in 'Abot, to avoid taking payment for teaching the necessary truths of Torah. See further MAJ GEN B.II, D.2.
principle well known in his own society. The ease and speed with which Hillel converts the Gentile, contrary to normal rabbinic procedure, does not seem to have troubled the narrator. It is unlikely that this story is historically accurate since it appears for the first time in the Babylonian Talmud, which was edited around 500 CE, some 500 years after the time of Hillel (see MAJ GEN B.II). However, the debate on what is 'the great principle' that sums up the whole Torah goes back to Second Temple times (see MAJ GEN 0.3).
2. Babylonian Talmud, Sabbat, 313: Hillel andtheGolden Rule
Our rabbis taught: Once a heathen came before Shammai and asked him: 'How many Torahs do you have?' Two,' he replied, 'the Written Torah and the Oral Torah.' The heathen said: 'I believe you about the Written Torah, but not about the Oral. Make me a proselyte on condition that you teach me only the Written Torah.' Shammai scolded him and angrily ordered him to get out. When he went before Hillel, he made him a proselyte. On the first day he taught him 'aleph, beth, gimmel, dalet. The following day he reversed the order of the letters. The heathen protested: 'But yesterday you did not teach them to me thus.' 'Must you not rely upon me in this matter?' Hillel replied. 'Then rely on me with respect also to the Oral Torah.'
3. Testament of Reuben, 5:1—6:4: The Wiles of Women
(5:1) For women are evil, my children, and since they lack authority or power over a man, they scheme how they might entice him to themselves by means of their physical attractions. (2) And whoever they cannot bewitch by physical appearance they conquer by guile.
(3) Indeed, the angel of the Lord told me and taught me that women are more easily overcome by the spirit of promiscuity than are men. They plot in their hearts against men; then by adorning themselves they first lead men's minds astray, then by a glance they implant their venom, and finally by the (sexual) act they take them captive.
(4) For a woman is not able to coerce a man openly, but by a harlot's attractions she accomplishes her villainy. (5) Flee, therefore, my children, from sexual promiscuity, and command your wives and your daughters not to adorn their heads and faces to deceive men's minds. For every woman who schemes in this way is destined for eternal punishment.
On another occasion it happened that a heathen came before Shammai and said to him: 'Make me a proselyte on condition that you teach me the whole Torah while I stand on one foot.' Shammai drove him out with the builder's cubit which was in his hand. When he went before Hillel, he made him a proselyte. He said to him, 'What is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbour. That is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary. Go and learn!'
(6) For it was thus that they allured the Watchers, who were before the Flood. As they gazed continuously at the women, they were filled with desire for them and committed the act in their minds. They changed themselves into the form of human males, and while the women were having intercourse with their husbands they appeared to them. Because the women's minds were filled with lust for these apparitions, they gave birth to giants, for the Watchers appeared to them to reach up to heaven.
On another occasion it happened that a heathen was passing behind a school and heard the voice of a teacher reciting. 'And these are the garments which they shall make: a breastplate and an ephod' (Ex 28:4). Said he: 'For whom are these made?' 'For the high priest', said they. The heathen said to himself: 'I will go and become a proselyte, so that I may be appointed a high priest.' So he went before Shammai and said to him: 'Make me a proselyte on condition that you appoint me high priest.' Shammai drove him out with the builder's cubit which was in his hand. When he went before Hillel, he made him a proselyte. Hillel said to him: 'No one is appointed king who does not know the arts of government. Go and study the arts of government!' He went and read. When he came to the words, "The stranger that comes nigh shall be put to death' (Num 1:51), he asked Hillel: 'To whom does this verse apply?' 'Even to David, king of Israel,' was the answer. Thereupon the proselyte reasoned a fortiori: 'If the words, "The stranger that comes nigh shall be put to death", are applied in Scripture to Israel, who are called sons of the Omnipresent, and whom in his love he designated, "Israel, my firstborn son" (Ex 4:22), how much more do they apply to a mere proselyte, who comes with his staff and his bag!' He went before Shammai and said to him: 'Could I ever have been eligible to be High Priest? Is it not written in the Torah, "The stranger that comes nigh shall be put to death"? He went before Hillel and said to him: 'O gentle Hillel, may blessings rest on your head for bringing me under the wings of the Shekinah [the Divine Presence]!'
(6:1) So guard yourself against sexual promiscuity, and if you want to remain pure in your mind, guard your senses from women. (2) And command the women not to associate with men, so that they too may be (3) pure in mind. For constant meetings, even though the ungodly act itself is not committed, are for these women an incurable disease, and for us they bring Beliar's ruin and eternal disgrace. (4) Because in sexual promiscuity there is neither understanding nor piety, and in the desire for it all forms of jealousy reside.
Comment: The advice is aptly given by Reuben, who succumbed to the charms of Bilhah, his father's concubine, and committed incest with her (Gen 35:22). Women are all essentially harlots, who scheme to dominate men sexually. 5:6 seems to imply that male sexuality is constructed by women, without whom men would be asexual (cf. ANTH G.2). Apparently unconcerned by the need to procreate, the author dubs sexual intercourse 'the ungodly act' (6:3). The reference to the fall of the Watchers (see ANTH A.4) is noteworthy. The author rejects as too problematic the idea that the women could have had physical intercourse with heavenly beings. His alternative explanation relies on the idea that the images in the mind during intercourse can affect the nature of the offspring. On the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs see MAJ GEN 0.4.
Some time later when the three proselytes met in one place, they said: 'Shammai's impatience nearly drove us out of the world, but Hillel's gentleness brought us under the wings of the Shekinah!'
Comment: Hillel exemplifies the patience of the great Sage, in contrast to his irascible contemporary Shammai. His summation of the Torah is, curiously, not a statement from Torah itself, but a commonplace of folk ethics. However, there are grounds for thinking that some rabbis saw the Golden Rule as essentially another formulation of the love-commandment of Lev 19:18, 'You shall love your neighbour as yourself Hillel reaches out to the Gentile where he is and quotes him a
4. Community Rule (iQS), 3:13-4:1, 15-26: Instruction on the Two Spirits
(3:13) For the Master (Maskil), so that he may instruct and teach all the Sons of Light concerning the nature of all the children of men (14) with
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be assigned in accordance with the spirit that is within [them at the time] of the visitation.
respect to the kind of spirit which they possess, concerning the signs which they show in their works, and concerning their generations—the times when they are visited for chastisement and (15) the times when they have peace.
Comment: Though prepositional and overtly theological to a degree scarcely paralleled in early Jewish literature, the Instruction on the Two Spirits begs many questions. At first reading it seems to be advocating a rigid, almost Calvinistic, determinism: every man's destiny is foreordained by the portions of good and evil that God has assigned to him. Some at Qumran may actually have understood the text in this way (see ANTH 0.7). But it can be read differently. All that has been foreordained is that there should be two principles—good and evil—and that everyone should have a share in both. It is possible to change one's portions in good and evil through submission to 'the truth'. It is clearly envisaged that the residual evil in the righteous will be eradicated at the end of history through the truth. And the statement that one's destiny is determined by the proportions that prevail in one's spirit 'at the time of the visitation', implies that the proportions can be altered, otherwise there is little point in mentioning a census date. The objedification of good and evil into cosmic principles, and their close identification with personal agents (the Prince of Light and the Angel of Darkness) may reflect the influence of Persian thought. See further MAJ GEN 0.5, F.2.
From the God of knowledge comes all that is and shall be. Before ever they existed he determined their whole design, (16) and when, at their appointed times, they come into being, it is in accordance with his glorious design that they accomplish their tasks without change. In his hand are (17) the laws of all things, and he provides them with everything they need.
He created man to govern (18) the world, and has appointed for him two spirits in which to walk until the time of his visitation—the spirits of (19) truth and of falsehood. From the source of light truth is born, but from the fountain of darkness falsehood originates. (20) The Prince of Light rules over all the children of righteousness, and they walk in the ways of light, but the Angel of (21) Darkness rules over all children of falsehood, and they walk in the ways of darkness. The Angel of Darkness leads astray (22) all the children of righteousness, and, until his end, all their sins, iniquities, wickedness, and wrongdoings are caused by his dominion, (23) in accordance with the mysteries of God. And all their afflictions and their times of suffering are (the result) of his hostile rule; (24) for all his allotted spirits seek to overthrow the Sons of Light.
But the God of Israel and his Angel of Truth assist all (25) the Sons of Light. For it he who created the spirits of light and of darkness, and founded every action upon them (26) and every deed [upon] their [ways]. And God loves the one, (4:1) world without end, and takes delight in its works foreover; but the assembly of the other he loathes and hates its ways eternally...
5. i Enoch, 72:2-37: The Motion of the Sun in the Heavens
(15) In these (two spirits) the natures of all the children of men (partake), and in their divisions their hosts have a share, throughout all their generations, and walk in their ways. And all the deeds that they do, (16) for everlasting ages, shall be according to whether each man's portion in their divisions is great or small. For God has established the spirits in equal measure until the final (17) age, and has set eternal enmity between their divisions. Truth loathes the works of falsehood, and falsehood loathes all the ways of truth. And there is fierce (18) dispute about all their judgements, for they do not walk together.
(72:2) This is the first law of the luminaries: the light (called) the sun rises in the gates of heaven that are in the east and it sets in the gates of heaven that are in the west.
(3) And I saw six gates from which the sun rises and six gates in which the sun sets. The moon (also) rises and sets in the same gates, as well as the leaders of the stars (the planets and major stars), together with those whom they lead. (There are) six (gates) in the east and six in the west, all arranged in sequence, one beside the other. And there are many windows to the right (= north) and the left (= south) of these gates.
But in the mysteries of his understanding, and in his glorious wisdom, God has ordained an end for falsehood, and at the time of
(4) And the greater light called the sun comes out first. Its roundness is like the roundness of heaven, and it is totally filled with fire which gives off light and heat.
(19) the (final) visitation he will destroy it forever. Then truth shall prevail in the world, for it will have wallowed in the ways of wickedness during the dominion of falsehood till (20) the time appointed for judgement. Then God will purify all the deeds of men through his truth; he will refine for himself the children of men by rooting out all the spirit of falsehood from their physical (21) frame, and by purifying them from all their wicked deeds through a spirit of holiness. He shall shed upon them, like purifying water, the spirit of truth (to cleanse them) from all lying abominations. And they shall be plunged (22) into a purifying spirit, so that the upright in knowledge may be instructed in the knowledge of the Most High and those who are perfect in the way may be enlightened in the wisdom of the sons of heaven. For God has chosen them for an everlasting covenant, (23) and all the glory of Adam shall be theirs, without falsehood, and all the works of deceit shall be put to shame.
(5) The winds blow along the chariot on which it rises. And the sun goes down from heaven and turns northwards in order to reach the east; and it is guided in such a way that it arrives at the (correct) gate and shines (again) in heaven.
(6) In this way the sun rises in the first month from the great gate, the fourth of those gates that are in the east. (7) And in this fourth gate from which the sun rises in the first month there are twelve window-openings from which flames issue when they are opened at their appointed times.
(8) When the sun rises in heaven it emerges from this fourth gate for thirty days, and it sets exactly in the fourth gate in the west of heaven. (9) During this period day increases and night decreases until the thirtieth day. (10) And on the thirtieth day the day is two parts longer than the night, the day being exactly ten parts and the night eight parts, (n) And the sun rises from the fourth gate and sets in the fourth (gate).
Until now the spirits of truth and falsehood struggle in the hearts of men (24) and they walk in both wisdom and folly. According to a man's portion in truth so he hates falsehood, and according to his inheritance in the lot of falsehood so he acts wickedly and (25) hates truth. For God has established the two spirits in equal measure until the foreordained end and until all things are made new, and he knows the deeds that they do for (26) everfmore]. He has apportioned them to the children of men so that they may know
The sun returns to the fifth gate in the east for thirty mornings, and rises from it and sets in the fifth gate (in the west). (12) Then the day increases by two parts, till the day amounts to eleven parts, and the night decreases till it amounts to seven parts.
(13) The sun returns to the east and enters the sixth gate, and rises and sets in the sixth gate for thirty-one days, to act as a sign. (14) During this period the day increases over the night (until) the day is
I [and evil, and] so that the (final) destinies of all the living may
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double the night, the day amounting to twelve parts and night decreasing to six parts. (15) Then the sun sets out to shorten the day and lengthen the night.
Comment: The calendar proposed is neatly regular. In effect it divides the year into twelve thirty-day months plus the two solstices and the two equinoxes, the four additional days being added to the months preceding them, giving those months thirty-one days each. The year begins, as in the old Jewish calendar, at the spring equinox. The regularity of the pattern doubtless commended it, and suggested conformity to the divine order of nature. Behind the schema lies genuine scientific observation. From his standpoint in the northern hemisphere the writer notes that the sun rises on the eastern horizon at different points in the year, and that the point of its rising correlates with the length of day and night (which he measures on an eighteen-point scale). The point furthest south is the winter solstice, that furthest north the summer solstice. He divides the distance between these into six gates. Note also his attempt to establish the relative brightness of the sun and the full moon, and the implication that the moon reflects the light of the sun. See further MAJ GEN A.y, D.6.
The sun returns to the east and enters the sixth gate and it rises from it and sets in it for thirty days. (16) And when the thirty days are completed the day has decreased by exactly one part; the day amounts to eleven parts and the night to seven parts.
(17) Then the sun departs by the sixth gate in the west and travels to the east to rise in the fifth gate for thirty days; and it sets in the west again in the fifth gate. (18) And on the thirtieth day the day has decreased by two parts, the day amounting to ten parts and the night to eight parts. (19) And the sun rises from the fifth gate (in the east) and sets in the fifth gate in the west.
Then the sun rises from the fourth gate in the east for thirty-one days, to act as a sign, and it sets (in the fourth gate) in the west. (20) On the thirty-first day the day equals the night and they are the same, the night amounting to nine parts and the day to nine parts. (21) And the sun rises from this (fourth) gate (in the east) and sets (in the fourth gate) in the west.
Then the sun returns to the east and rises from the third gate for thirty days, and it sets in the west in the third gate. (22) During this period the night increases over the day: the nights grow longer and the days grow shorter until the thirtieth day when the night amounts exactly to ten parts and the day to eight parts. (23) And the sun rises from this third gate (in the east) and sets in the third gate in the west.
6. Book of Mysteries, 2. 62^72: Incantation for Depriving an Enemy of Sleep
If you wish to deprive your enemy of sleep, take the head of a black dog that has been blind from birth and take a strip of lead from a water-pipe and write upon it (the names of) these angels (listed earlier), and say thus:
Then the sun returns to the east and rises for thirty days in the second gate in the east, and likewise it sets in the second gate in the west of heaven. (24) And on the thirtieth day the night amounts to eleven parts and the day to seven parts. (25) And the sun rises from the second gate (in the east), and sets in the second gate in the west.
/ hand over to you, angels of anxiety who stand upon the fourth step, the life, soul and spirit ofN son ofN, so that you may imprison him with chains of iron and hind him with bars of "bronze. Do not grant sleep to his eyelids, nor slumber, nor drowsiness. Let him weep and cry like a woman in travail and do not permit anyone to release him [from this spell].
Then the sun returns to the east and rises from the first gate for thirty-one days and sets in the west in the first gate. (26) On the thirty-first day the night has increased to become twice as long as the day, the night amounting to exactly twelve parts and the day to six parts.
Write thus and put [the lead strip] in the mouth of the dog's head. Put wax on its mouth and seal it with a ring which has a lion (engraved) upon it. Then go and conceal it behind his house, or in the place where he goes out and in.
(27) The sun has (thus) completed (all) the stages of its journey, and it now retraces its path along the stages of its journey.
The sun rises from the (first) gate (in the east) for thirty days, and sets in the west opposite it. (28) And on the thirtieth day the night has decreased in length by one part, the night amounting to eleven parts and the day to seven parts.
If you wish to release him, bring up (the dog's head) from the place where it is concealed, remove its seal, withdraw the text and throw it into a fire. At once he will fall asleep. Do this with humility and you will be successful.
(29) And the sun returns and enters the second gate in the east for thirty days, rising and setting (in the second gate). (30) And on the thirtieth day the night has decreased in length, the night amounting to ten parts and the day to eight parts. (31) And during this period the sun rises from the second gate (in the east) and sets (in the second gate) in the west.
Comment: This is a piece of voodoo of a type widely practised throughout the ancient world. Apart from the reference to the angels, it is devoid of religious content and is totally immoral. This kind of black magic was universally condemned in antiquity by religious and civil authorities. On the Book of Mysteries see MAJ GEN D.II.
Then the sun returns to the east and rises in the third gate for thirty-one days and it sets (in the third gate) in the west of heaven.
(32) And on the thirty-first day the night has decreased and amounts to nine parts and the day to nine parts, night and day being equal. And the year amounts to exactly 364 days.
7. 4Qi#6: Fragments of an Astrological Physiognomy
Frag, i: (2:5)... and his thighs are long and slender, and his toes are (6) slender and long. He is of the second column. (7) His spirit has six (parts) in the House of Light and three in the House of (8) Darkness. And this is the sign in which he was born: (9) the foot of the Bull. He will be poor. And his animal is the bull.
(33) And the length of the day and the night, and the shortness of the day and the night, are determined by the path of the sun, (34) because its path becomes longer day after day, and shorter night after night. (35) And this is the law for the path of the sun, and it returns and rises as often as sixty times (in each gate). This greater luminary is called the sun for all eternity. (36) And that which thus rises is the greater luminary, and it is so named in accordance with its appearance, as the Lord commanded. (37) And thus it rises and sets, and it does not decrease (in brightness), nor does it rest, but travels day and night in its chariot. And its light is seven times as bright as the (light of the full) moon, but in size the two are equal.
(3)... (2) and his head... [his eyes] are (3) frightening. His teeth are irregular (?). His fingers (4) are fat, and thighs are fat and covered with [h]air...(5) His toes are fat and short. His spirit has [e]ight (parts) in the House of [Darkness] and one in the House of Light...
Frag. 2: (i)... regular. His ey[es] are between black and grey (?) (in colour). His beard (2) is spfarse] and curly. The sound of his voice is gentle. His teeth (3) are sharp and regular. He is neither (too) tall (4) nor (too) short, but is as he should be (?). His fingers are slender (5) and long. His thighs are smooth, and the soles of his feet are
Note: v. 13, 'to act as a sign'—Four of the months have thirty-one and
not thirty days. The extra day is a sign of the two solstices and the two equinoxes.
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(6)[...and his toes] are regular. His spirit has eight parts [in the House of Light {of the second Column} and o[ne] in [the House of Darkness. And this is] the sign in which he was born: (9)... his animal is...
humble the arrogant.
13. May your mercies be showered upon righteous proselytes; and grant us a rich reward, together with those who do your good pleasure. Blessed are you, O Lord, trust of the righteous.
14. Show mercy, O Lord our God, in your great mercies, to Israel your people and to Jerusalem your city; to Zion, the dwelling-place of your glory; to your temple and your habitation; and to the kingship of the house of David, your righteous Messiah. Blessed are you, O Lord, God of David, who build Jerusalem.
Note: The words in braces {} should probably be omitted.
Comment: Fragmentary though it is, it is still possible to see that this text was attempting to deduce from a man's physical characteristics the nature of his spirit, and, presumably, on this basis to decide whether or not he could join the community. Everyone is measured on a nine-point scale, so no one can be evenly balanced between good and evil. The person's spirit was determined by the configuration of the heavens at the time of his birth—the classic claim of astrology. The links between this text and the Instruction on the Two Spirits (ANTH 0.4) are clear. 4Qi86 seems to represent a deterministic reading of that text. Everyone's character is foreordained. What is needed is some scientific way of distinguishing the Sons of Light from the Sons of Darkness. On the Astrological Physiognomy see MAf GEN D.I2.
15. Hear, O Lord our God, the voice of our prayer, and be merciful to us; for you are a gracious and merciful God. Blessed are you, O Lord, who hear prayer.
16. Be pleased, O Lord our God, to dwell in Zion; and may your servants serve you in Jerusalem. Blessed are you, O Lord, whom we worship in awe.
17. We praise you, O Lord our God, and the God of our fathers, on account of all the goodness, grace, and mercies which you have granted us, and have done to us and to our fathers before us. And if we say our feet are slipping, your grace, Lord, succours us. Blessed are you, O Lord, the All-good; you are to be praised.
18. Bring peace upon Israel, your people, upon your city and upon your inheritance; and bless all of us together. Blessed are you, O Lord, who make peace.
E. Hymns and Prayers
Comment: This is known as the Palestinian recension of the Eighteen Benedictions or 'Amidah. The blessings in italics remain relatively unchanged in the various recensions. The Palestinian recension is probably closer to the first-century text than is the standard version found in modern prayerbooks. The sense that the temple has been destroyed is less strong in it than in the other versions. It may be implied by Benediction 14, but not necessarily. Benediction 12, the famous 'Blessing of the Heretics' (Birkat ha-Minim), was according to the Talmud (b. Ber. 28b-2ga), composed in the rabbinic school at Yavneh at the end of the first century CE. It was probably directed particularly, though not exclusively, at Jewish Christians, and is the grounds for patristic complaints that Jews curse the Christians in their prayers (Just. Dial. 16; Epiph. Pan. 29:9; Jerome, Comm. in ha. 5:18-19; 49:7; 52:4). For a similar liturgical cursing of outsiders see ANTH 1.3. On the Amidah see MAf GEN £.5.
1. The Eighteen Benedictions ('Amidah)
1. Blessed are you, O Lord, God of our Fathers, God of Abraham, God of Isaac and God of Jacob, great mighty and fearful God, most high God who created heaven and earth, our shield and the shield of our Fathers, our trust in every generation. Blessed are you, O Lord, shield of Abraham.
2. You are mighty, humbling the proud; strong, and judging the violent; you live for ever and raise the dead; you make the wind blow and bring down the dew; you provide for the living and make the dead alive; in an instant you make our salvation to spring forth. Blessed are you, O Lord, who make the dead alive.
3. You are holy and your Name is awesome, and beside you there is no God. Blessed are you, O Lord, the holy God.
4. Grant us, O our Father, the knowledge [which comes] from you, and the understanding and discernment [which come] from your Torah. Blessed are you, O Lord, who grant knowledge.
5. Lead us back, O Lord, to you and we shall repent. Renew our days as of old. Blessed are you, O Lord, who delight in repentance.
6. Forgive us, O our Father, for we have sinned against you. Blot out and remove our evil deeds from before your eyes. For your mercies are numerous. Blessed are you, O Lord, who are ready to forgive.
2. Community Rule (iQS), 9:26—10:16: A Calendar of the Times of Prayer
(9:26) He shall bless him [with the offering] of the lips (10:1) at the times which God has ordained: at the beginning of the dominion of light, and at its turning, when it retires to its appointed place; at the beginning of the (2) watches of darkness when he unlocks its storehouse and spreads it over the earth, and at its turning, when it retires before the light; when the heavenly lights (3) shine out from the abode of holiness, and when they retire to the dwelling of glory; at the commencement of the seasons on the days of the new moon, as well as at their turnings, when (4) one hands over to the other (when the seasons are renewed it is a great day for the Holy of Holies, and a s[ure] sign that the everlasting mercies will be opened at the beginning of the seasons for all time to come): (5) At the beginning of the months at their appointed times, and on the holy days established as a memorial at their appointed times, (6) I will bless him with the offering of the lips according to the precept engraved for ever; at the beginning of the years and at the turning of their seasons, when the statute (7) prescribed for them is fulfilled, on the day that he has decreed the one (should hand over) to the other, the season of (grain) harvest to the summer,
7. Look on our misery, champion our cause and redeem us for your Name's sake. Blessed are you, O Lord, the redeemer of Israel.
8. Heal us, O Lord our God, from the pain of our hearts; remove from us sorrow and sighing, and raise up healing for our wounds.
Blessed are you, O Lord, who heal the sick of your people Israel.
9. Bless this year for us, O Lord our God, and make all its produce prosper. Bring swiftly the year of our final redemption; give dew and rain to the land; satisfy the world from the treasuries of your goodness; and bless the work of our hands. Blessed are you, O Lord, who bless the years.
10. Proclaim our liberation with the great trumpet and raise a banner to gather together our dispersed. Blessed are you, O Lord, who gather the dispersed of your people Israel.
11. Restore our judges as in former times and our counsellors as in the beginning; and reign over us, yourself alone. Blessed are you, O Lord, who love justice.
12. For apostates let there be no hope; and may the arrogant kingdom be swiftly uprooted, in our days. May the Nazarenes and the heretics perish quickly; may they be erased from the Book of Life; and not be inscribed with the righteous. Blessed are you, O Lord, who
POST-BIBLICAL JEWISH LITERATURE 822
the season of sowing to the season of new shoots;
And the Priests shall bless all (2) the men of the lot of God who walk
(at) the appointed times of the years, namely their heptads, (8) and at the beginning of their heptads, the appointed times
perfectly in all his ways, saying: May he bless you with all (3) good, and preserve you from all evil! (4) May he enlighten your heart with life-giving wisdom, and grant you eternal knowledge! May he lift up his merciful face towards you for everlasting peace!
ofliberty. As long as I live the engraved precept shall be on my tongue as the fruit of praise and the portion of my lips.
(9) I will sing with knowledge and all my music shall be to the glory
of God. I will strike up my lyre in tune with his holy decree, and I will lift up the pipe of my lips to his right measure. (10) With the coming of day and night I will enter the Covenant of
And the Levites shall curse all the men of (5) the lot of Belial; they
shall answer and say:
Cursed are you on account of all your wicked, guilty deeds! May God inflict on you (6) torture at the hands of the avengers! May he visit you with destruction at the hand of those who exact (7)
God, and when evening and morning depart I will recite his precepts. I will place in them (n) my bounds without backsliding.
retribution! May you be cursed without mercy in keeping with the darkness of
I will approve his judgement concerning my sins, and my transgressions shall be before my eyes as an engraved precept. To God I will say, 'My Righteousness',
your deeds! May you be damned (8) in the gloom of everlasting fire! May God show you no mercy when you call on him, Nor pardon you by blotting out your sins! (9) May he lift up his angry face to exact vengeance from you! And may those who hold faithfully to the fathers not greet you with
(12) and to the Most High, 'Foundation of my Goodness', 'Fountain of Knowledge' and 'Source of Holiness', 'Summit of Glory" and 'Almighty Eternal Majesty". I will accept that which (13) he teaches me, and will delight in his judgement of me.
words of peace! (10) And after the blessing and the cursing, all those entering the
Covenant shall say, 'Amen, Amen!'
Before I move my hands and feet I will bless his Name. Before I go out or in, (14) or sit or rise, or while lying on my bed I
(n) And the Priests and the Levites shall continue, saying:
will extol him. I will bless him with the offering of the utterance of my lips in the ranks, (15) and before I raise my hands to enjoy the pleasant produce of the
Cursed be the man who enters this covenant while walking in the idols of his heart, (12) and who sets up before himself the stumblingblock of his sin so that he may backslide! (13) When he hears the words of this covenant he blesses himself in his heart and says, 'Peace is with me, (14) even though I walk in the stubbornness of my heart' (Deut 29:18-19). His spirit shall perish from thirst, though surrounded by abundant water, and shall receive no (15) respite. God's wrath and his zeal for his precepts shall consume him in everlasting destruction. All (16) the curses of the covenant shall cling to him and God will single him out for evil. He shall be cut off from the midst of all the Sons of Light, and because he has backslidden
earth. At the onset of fear and dread, and in the abode of distress and desolation (16) I will bless him. When he does wonders I will give thanks; on his power I will meditate, and on his mercies I will lean all day long.
Comment: The hymn was sung by the Maskil, the spiritual leader of the Qumran community, to remind him of his duties. The times of prayer that it stipulates include not only the statutory sabbaths and festivals of the Torah, but many others: the four days that mark the transitions between the seasons of the year (see ANTH 0.5), morning and evening, before sitting down or standing up, when entering and leaving a house, before eating food and in times of sudden distress or danger. It is clear from the surviving scrolls and from early rabbinic literature that benedictions were composed specifically for these occasions. Thus the idea of a life of prayer—a life of constant dialogue with God—was born. See further MAJ
(17) from God on account of his idols and the stumbling-block of his sin, his lot shall be cast among those accursed for ever. (18) And all those entering the covenant shall answer and say after them, 'Amen, Amen!'
(19) Thus shall they do, year by year, for as long as the dominion of Belial endures.
Comment: The festival of the renewal of the Covenant probably took place at Qumran on Shabu'ot (Pentecost), appropriately, since Shabu'ot was the feast of the giving of the Torah at Sinai. (Shabu'ot falls in the third month of the year and, according to the Bible, the Israelites first camped at Sinai in the third month.) However, the Qumran ceremony is deeply sectarian: it involves a rededication to the group's own distinctive vision of the Covenant. The Priestly Blessing (Num 6:24—6), the most solemn benediction of the liturgy, is adapted to create a blessing for those within the fold (the Qumran community), and a curse for those outside it (the rest of Israel). The marking of the boundaries is emphatic. Belial is the name given in the scrolls to the evil spirit who, under God's mysterious providence, controls the world in this present age. He is the implacable spiritual enemy of the community. See further MAJ GEN E.6, F.2.
GEN E.6, F.2.
3. Community Rule (iQS), 1:18-2:19: Ceremony for the Renewal of the Covenant
(1:18) On entering the Covenant, the Priests (19) and Levites shall bless the God of salvation and all his true acts; and all (20) those entering the Covenant shall say after them, 'Amen, Amen!'
(21) Then the Priests shall recite the favours of God (manifested) in his mighty deeds, (22) and shall declare all his merciful favours towards Israel, and the Levites shall recount (23) the iniquities of the Children of Israel, all their guilty rebellions and the sins (that they have committed) during the dominion of (24) Belial. [And arjl those entering the Covenant shall make confession after them and say:
We have strayed, (25) we have refbelled], we have sinned and acted wickedly, we and our fathers before us, by walking (2 6) [contrary to the precepts] of truth. But [God is] righteous, [who has executed] his judgement upon us and upon our fathers. (II i) And he has bestowed the mercies of his grace upon us from everlasting to everlasting.
4. The Thanksgiving Hymns (iQHa), 10:20-30: A Hymn of Confidence in Divine Protection
(20) I thank you, O Lord that you have placed my soul in the bundle of the living,
823 POST-BIBLICAL JEWISH LITERATURE
(21) and that you protect me from all the snares of the pit.
in unison and exclaim with awe: 'Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts; the whole earth is full of his glory' (I sa 6:3). The Ofannim and the Holy Creatures with great tumult raise themselves up towards the Seraphim; over against them they offer praise and say: 'Blessed be the glory of the Lord from his dwelling place' (Ezek 3:12).
For violent men sought after my life when I held fast (22) to your covenant. They, a council of futility and a congregation of Belial, do not know that it is through you that I stand firm, (23) and that by your acts of lovingkindness you save me, because I walk with your help.
To the blessed God they offer sweet melodies; to the King, the living and everlasting God, they utter hymns and declare their praises; for he alone performs mighty acts, and makes new things. He is the Lord of battles; he sows charitable deeds, causes salvation to spring forth, creates healing remedies, and is revered in praises. He is the Lord of wonders, who in his goodness renews the work of creation each day continually, as it is written: 'Give thanks to him who made great lights, for his kindness endures for ever' (Ps 136:7). Cause a new light to shine upon Zion, and may we all be worthy to enjoy its brightness. Blessed are you, O Lord, Creator of the heavenly luminaries.
It is with your permission that they assail (24) my life, so that you may be glorified when you judge the wicked, and manifest your might through me before the sons of (25) men; for it is by your lovingkindness that I stand firm.
I said, Mighty men have camped against me, surrounding me with all (26) their weapons of war. They have shot arrows against which there is no cure, and the blades of (their) spears are like fire devouring the trees. (27) Like the roar of mighty waters is the clamour of their shouting, like a river that bursts its banks and destroys many;
Comment: This is the first of the two benedictions that precede the morning recitation of the Shema proper (Deut 6:4—9; 11^13—21; Num 15:37—41). It includes (paras. 3—4) a Qedushah—a prayer describing the liturgy of the angels. A similar Qedushah is inserted into the Amidah after the third benediction. The text given here is taken from a modern, standard Ashkenazi prayerbook, and probably reflects an early medieval rewording of the prayer influenced by the ideas of the Jewish Hekalot mystics. However, that both the Yoser benediction and the insertion into it of a Qedushah are very ancient is suggested by a passage in the early Christian text known as the Apostolic Constitutions, which preserves many old synagogue prayers only superficially Christianized (see Ap. Con. 8:12). And there is an obvious thematic link: the heavenly luminaries, whose creation is praised in the Yoser 'or, are seen as heavenly beings praising God (cf. Job 38:7). See further MAJ GEN £.5, 8.
(28) nothingness and futility break out in torrents)?), when their
waves rise up. Though my heart melted like water, my soul held fast to your
Covenant. (29) The net which they spread for me snares their own foot; and they themselves have fallen into the traps which they hid to
catch me. 'But my foot stands firm upon level ground; (30) (even) from their assembly I will bless your Name' (cf. Ps
26:12).
Comment: The intimate tone makes it uncertain whether this hymn was intended for public or private use. Even if sung publicly it establishes a close personal relationship to God. The sense of real persecution and danger has led some to suggest that this particular hymn may have been composed by the Teacher of Righteousness, the founder of the Dead Sea sect. On the Thanksgiving Hymns see MAJ GEN 5.7.
6. 2 Apocalypse ofBaruch, 10:5-19: Lament over Zion
5. The Benediction 'Creator of Light' (Yosefor)
(10:5) I, Baruch, returned and sat before the gates of the temple and made this lament over Zion and said:
Blessed are you, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who form light and create darkness, who make peace and create all things. In mercy You give light to the earth and to those who dwell in it, and in your goodness you renew the work of creation each day continually. How numerous are your works, O Lord! In wisdom you have made them all: the earth is full of your possessions. O King, alone exalted from aforetime, praised, glorified, and extolled from days of old, O eternal God, in your abundant mercies have mercy upon us, Lord of our strength, Rock of our refuge, Shield of our salvation, Refuge of ours!
(6) Happy is the man who was never born, or the child who has died at birth. (7) But woe to us who are alive, for we have seen the sorrows of Zion, and the fate of Jerusalem. (8) I will summon the sirens from the sea— and you, Liliths, come from the desert, and you demons and jackals from the forests, awake and gird yourselves for mourning. Take up with me the funeral dirges, and make lamentation with me. (9) You, farmers, do not sow again. You, earth, why do you yield your crops at harvest? Keep to yourself your pleasant produce. (10) And you, vine, why do you still give your wine? For you will never again be offered in Zion, nor will your first fruits again be offered. (n) You, heavens, withhold your dew, and do not open the storehouses of the rain. You, sun, withhold the radiance of your rays,
The blessed God, whose knowledge is great, prepared and made the sun's rays: he formed a good which brings glory to his name. He set the heavenly luminaries round about his strength. The chief of his hosts are holy beings who exalt the Almighty, and continually declare the glory of his holiness. Be blessed, O Lord our God, for the excellence of your handiwork, and for the bright luminaries which you have made that they should glorify you.
Qedushah: Be blessed, O our Rock, Our King, Creator of ministering spirits, whose ministers stand one and all in the heights of the universe and proclaim aloud with awe in unison the words of the living God and eternal King. They are all beloved, all pure, all mighty, and they all in dread and awe perform the will of their Master; they all open their mouths in holiness and purity, with song and psalm, while they bless, praise, glorify, and ascribe power, holiness and sovereignty to the Name of God, the great, mighty, dreaded King, holy is He; and they take upon themselves the yoke of the kingdom of heaven one from another, and give sanction one to another to sanctify their Creator. In serenity of spirit, with pure speech and holy melody, they all respond
(12) and you, moon, hide the brightness of your light; for why should daylight rise again when the light of Zion is darkened?
(13) You, bridegrooms, do not enter the bridal chamber, and let not the virgins crown themselves with garlands. You, married women, pray not for children,
POST-BIBLICAL JEWISH LITERATURE 824
(14) for the barren shall greatly rejoice; those without sons shall be glad, but those who have sons shall be in anguish.
property and damages it, he shall replace it (7) in full. (8) And if he is unable to replace it, he shall be fined for sixty days.
Whoever bears malice against a fellow-member without good cause shall be fined for six months/one year; (9) and likewise, whoever takes revenge in any matter whatsoever.
(15) For why should they bear children in pain, only to bury them with tears? (16) Or why, again, should men have sons, or why should their offspring any longer be given a name, when this mother [Jerusalem] is desolate, and her sons are led away into captivity? (17) Speak no more of beauty, talk no more of finery.
Whoever speaks foolishly three months. Whoever interrupts a fellow-member while he is speaking: (10) ten days.
Whoever lies down and sleeps during a session of the Congregation: thirty days. And likewise, for whoever goes out during a session of the Congregation (n) without permission. And he who dozes off up to three times at a single session shall be fined for ten days. And if they stand up (12) and he (then) goes out, he shall be fined for thirty days.
(18) And you, priests, take the keys of the sanctuary, And throw them up to the heights of heaven. Return them to the Lord and say, 'Protect your House yourself, for we have been found to be false stewards!' (19) You, virgins, who weave fine linen and silk with the gold of Ophir, take the lot in haste and throw them into the fire, that it may carry them up to him who made them, that the flame may send them to him who created them, lest the enemy seize them!
Comment: This is the beginning of the Penal Code of the Qumran community, as found in the Cave i version of the Community Rule. Four forms of punishment are indicated: (i) death, if the restoration of the lacuna is correct; (2) permanent expulsion from the community; (3) exclusion from the 'pure meal of the Congregation', i.e. the communal meal; and (4) fining, which seems to involve being put on short commons and deprived of a quarter of one's food allowance. The rules listed here are not rules of Torah: they are specific rules of the Qumran community, breaches of its communal order (serekh), and they are tried in the community's own lawcourt. On the Community Rule see MAJ GEN F.2.
Note: A Lilith (v. 8) is a female demon (masc. Lili), which particularly attacked pregnant women and newborn infants.
Comment: Using the persona of Baruch, the prophet Jeremiah's secretary who witnessed the destruction of the temple in 586 BCE (Jer 36, 45), the poet here mourns the destruction of the temple by the Romans in 70 CE. He manages skilfully to avoid too obvious dependence on the biblical book of Lamentations. Calling on heaven and earth to share in one's grief is a poetic commonplace, but here it hints at the deeper theological idea that the world is sustained by the service of the temple. See further MAJ GEN c.6, E.g.
2. The Damascus Rule (CD), 13: 7-14 + 14:12-16: The Rule for the Guardian and the Rule for Charity
(13:7) This is the Rule for the Guardian of the Camp.
He shall instruct the congregation in the works of (8) God. He shall impart to them understanding of his marvellous miracles, and shall recount to them all the events that are about to take place, together with their interpretations. (9) He shall love them as a father loves his children, and shall watch over them in all their distress like a shepherd his sheep. (10) He shall loosen all the fetters that bind them, so that there may be none that are oppressed or broken in his community.
F. The Rules of Religious Associations
1. Community Rule (iQS), 6:24—7:12: The Penal Code of the Qumran Community
(6:24) These are the laws by which they shall judge at a community court in accordance with the facts.
(n) He shall examine whoever joins his community with regard to his deeds, understanding, ability, strength, and possessions, (12) and shall inscribe him in his proper place according to his portion in the lot of li[ght].
If anyone is found among them who has lied (25) deliberately in matters of property, he shall be excluded from the pure meal of the Congregation for one year and shall be fined a quarter of his food.
No member of the camp shall have the authority (13) to admit anyone into the community without the permission of the Guardian of the Camp.
Whoever answers (26) a fellow-member obstinately, or speaks to him short-temperedly, rebelling against the authority of his colleague by disobeying the order of a fellow-member ranked before him, (27) has taken the law into his own hands. He shall be fined [and excluded from the pure meal] for one year.
(14) None of those who have entered into God's covenant shall give or receive anything from the Sons of the Dawn (15) other than from hand to hand.
If any man swears an oath by the [Most] Venerable Name [he shall be put to death]. (7:1) But if he has blasphemed, either because he has been overcome by distress, or for any other such reason, or while he is reading a scroll or reciting a benediction, he shall be excluded
No man shall form any association for buying and selling without informing (16) the Guardian of the Camp....
(14:12) This is the Rule for the Congregation by which they shall provide for all their needs.
(2) and shall return to the Council of the community no more.
The earnings of at least (13) two days out of every month shall be placed in the hands of the Guardian and the Judges, (14) and from it they shall give to the [fathejrless, and from it they shall support the poor and the needy, the elder who (15) is [feeb]le, the afflicted, the captive taken by a foreign people, the virgin (16) who has no next of kin, and the youfth for] whom no one cares—all the communal services.
If he has spoken in anger against one of the priests inscribed in the scroll, he shall be fined for one year (3) and shall be excluded for his own good from the pure meal of the Congregation. But if he spoke unwittingly, he shall be fined for six months.
Whoever lies knowingly, (4) shall be fined for six months. Whoever deliberately insults a fellow-member without good cause shall be fined for one year (5) and shall be excluded.
Note: At 13:14 read 'Sons of the Dawn' (bene hassahar] rather than 'Sons of the Pit' (bene hassahat). The Sons of the Dawn, who are addressed with words of exhortation by the Maskil in 4(329$, cannot be total outsiders, but rather a group linked in some way to the
Whoever deliberately deceives a fellow-member or acts deceitfully towards him shall be fined for six months.
If (6) he acts without due care towards a fellow-member, he shall be fined for three months. If he acts negligently towards community
825 POST-BIBLICAL JEWISH LITERATURE
Damascus Covenanters and the Qumran community. They might be people sympathetic to the movement or in process of joining it but not yet full members, or it is possible that the title designates the Damascus Covenanters themselves and that 'those who have entered into the God's Covenant' here denotes the Qumran community.
cenobitical way of life. During the week they live as hermits, scattered in their isolated cells, but on sabbath they come together in a central communal building, to eat, to listen to improving discourses, and to sing hymns and psalms. See further MAJ GEN A.3, F.4.
Comment: The Guardian (Heb. mebaqqer) has a role in teaching, in assessing the suitability of new members, and in controlling the relationships between the Congregation and the outside world. His office is not unlike that of a bishop in the later Christian church. Unlike the community in the
4. Mishnah Demai, 2:2—3 + Tosefta Demai, 2:2, n, 12: The Duties of an Associate (haber)
(m. Dem. 2:2) He who undertakes to be reliable (ne'eman) must give tithe from what he eats and from what he sells and buys, and he may not be a guest of an outsider ('am ha-'ares). Rabbi Judah says: Even he who is the guest of an outsider may still be deemed reliable. They said to him: If he is not reliable in what concerns himself, how can he be reliable in what concerns others?
Community Rule (ANTH F.I) the members ofthe Congregation here retain their earnings for their own use. However, they are required to pay a portion of them into a communal fund to help those unable to support themselves. From a social point of view, the mutual support provided by the religious associations must have been one of their most attractive features. See further MAJ GEN B.IO, F.3.
(m. Dem. 2:3) He who undertakes to be an Associate (haber) may not sell to an outsider (foodstuffs that are) wet or dry, or buy from him (foodstuffs that are) wet; and he may not be the guest of an outsider, nor may he receive him as a guest in his own clothes.
3. Philo, De Vita Contemplativa, 21—25 + 3°~3I: The Contemplative Order ofthe Therapeutae
(t. Dem. 2:2) He who takes upon himself four obligations is accepted as an Associate: not to give heave-offering or tithes to an outsider; not to prepare his pure food in the house of an outsider; and to eat even ordinary food in purity...
(21) These kind of people (who withdraw from ordinary life) exist in many places in the inhabited world, for it is fitting that Greece and the non-Greek lands should alike share in perfect goodness, but they are numerous in Egypt in each ofthe so-called nomes and especially around Alexandria. (22) The best of them travel from all quarters to a certain most suitable spot as if they are going to their fatherland. It lies beyond the Mareotic Lake on a rather low-lying hill, well situated both because of its security and its temperate climate. (23) The security is provided by the farms and the villages round about, and the pleasantness ofthe air by the continuous breezes given off from the lake, which flows into the sea, and from the nearby ocean, the sea breezes being light and the lake breezes heavy, the two combining to produce a most healthy climate.
(t. Dem. 2:11) He is accepted first with regard to 'wings' (cleanness of hands) and after that with regard to pure food. If he takes upon himself only the obligation concerning 'wings' he is accepted; but if he takes upon himself only the obligation concerning pure food, but not concerning 'wings', he is not considered reliable even concerning pure food.
(t. Dem. 2:12) How long is it before a man is accepted? The School of Shammai say: For liquids, thirty days; for clothing, twelve months. The School of Hillel say: For either, thirty days.
Comment: The concern here for fully tithing produce and for preserving all foodstuffs in a condition of ritual purity is obvious. It is also clear that there were degrees of affiliation to the association, though what these were, and the stages of acceptance into full membership, are now hard to untangle. The social implications of submitting to this regime were profound. The fully committed haber would have found it impossible to eat with non-members (who were called famme ha'ares, lit. peoples ofthe land). He would also have found it difficult to be in physical contact with a non-member (who could convey ritual impurity to his clothes, from which it could be transferred to food), or to trade with him. The 'ammei ha'ares were not Gentiles but fellow Jews. The intensification of religious norms within these associations, and the other religious fellowships of late Second-Temple Judaism, must have been deeply divisive. See further MAJ GEN B.II, F.5.
(24) The houses of this community are very basic and provide protection only against the two most immediate dangers, the heat of the sun and the cold of the air. They are neither close together like houses in towns, since living at close quarters would be troublesome and unpleasant to people earnestly seeking solitude, nor are they placed far apart, because they welcome fellowship, and so that they can come to each other's aid if they are attacked by robbers.
(25) In each house there is a sacred room which is called a sanctuary or solitude (Gk. monasterion], and closeted alone in this they perform the mysteries of the sanctified life. They take nothing into it, neither drink nor food nor any thing else necessary for the needs ofthe body, but only laws and oracles delivered by prophets, and hymns and any other writings by which knowledge and piety are increased and brought to perfection
(30) For six days each of them seeks wisdom by himself, sitting alone in the solitudes mentioned earlier, never passing through the outer door of the house or even looking at it from afar. But every seventh day they come together as for a general assembly and sit in order according to their age with becoming gravity, keeping their hands inside their robes, the right hand between the breast and the chin and the left stretched out along their sides. (31) Then the eldest of them, and the most versed in their doctrines, comes forward and with steadfast look and steady voice delivers a well-reasoned and prudent discourse.
5. 'Abot de Rabbi Nathan, A.6: Eliezer Goes to the School of Yohanan ben Zakkai
What were the beginnings of Rabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus? He was 22 years old and had still not studied Torah. Once he said: T am going to study Torah with Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai.' His father Hyrcanus said to him: 'You shall not taste a bite of food till you have ploughed an entire furrow.' He rose early in the morning, ploughed an entire furrow and went off. (Some say: That day was sabbath eve and he dined at his father-in-law's.) But others say: He tasted nothing for six hours before sabbath started till six hours after it ended. As he walked along the road he saw a stone; he picked it up and put it in his mouth. (Some say: It was cattle dung.) He went and spent the night in a hostel. Then he went and sat before Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai in Jerusalem—until his bad breath became noticeable.
Comment: There is curiously little in Philo's description ofthe Therapeutae to identify them as a distinctively Jewish group, and in fact he notes that they conform to a pattern of withdrawal from the world that was practised by both Greeks and non-Greeks. In terms of later Christian monasticism the Therapeutae combine features of both the eremitical and the
POST-BIBLICAL JEWISH LITERATURE 826
Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai asked him: 'Eliezer, my son, have you eaten anything today?' Silence. Again he asked him, and again silence. Rabban Yohanan sent forthe proprietors of the hostel and asked them: 'Did Eliezer have anything to eat at your place?' They replied: 'Master, we thought that he was eating with you.' He said to them: And I thought that he was eating with you! You and I, between us, left Rabbi Eliezer to perish!' Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai said to Rabbi Eliezer: 'Just as the bad breath came forth from your mouth, so shall your fame in Torah spread abroad.'
(75) he bade me sit; he gave to me the royal crown, and he himself quitted the throne. I beheld the whole world round about; things beneath the earth and above the skies. At my feet a multitude of stars
(80) fell down, and I counted all their number. They paraded past me like a troop of soldiers. Then in terror I woke from my dream.
Comment: Moses is here telling his father-in-law Jethro about a dream that he has had, which relates to his future receiving of the law on Mount Sinai, an event which lay beyond the scope of Ezekiel's narrative. Ezekiel, like many early Jewish commentators, seems to have held that Moses not merely ascended the mountain, but went up into heaven itself. The noble figure on the throne is God, pictured as the Ancient of Days as in Dan 7 (cf ANTH 0.3). God enthrones Moses, appointing him his viceregent over the world, and Moses receives the homage of the hosts of heaven. On Ezekiel the Tragedian see MAJ GEN G.I.