Part 41
affairs. Over against sayings commending careful planning as the key to successful undertakings (e.g. 15:22; 20:18; 21:5), w. i, 9, observe its limitations along the lines: 'Man proposes, but God disposes'. Only plans which coincide with God's purposes will succeed (v. 3; cf. 19:21). The prevailing of God's purposes is also the theme of v. 33. The reference is to the casting of the sacred lot (cf. i Sam 10:20—1) perhaps in the settlement of legal disputes (cf. 18:18). The saying asserts that though men cast the lot—and however much a matter of chance the procedure may appear—it is God who makes the decision (lit. judgement).
(17:1—28) Quarrelling and strife. A modest meal with peace and harmony round the table is better than a sumptuous spread with resentments and rivalries smouldering away and breaking out into open quarrels (v. i; cf. 15:17). 'Feasting with strife' is literally 'sacrifices of strife'. The allusion is perhaps to the 'peace offering', giving added force to the saying. The first line of v. 19 observes the disruptive effect of the quarrelsome. The meaning of the second line is unclear. It is perhaps an unrelated comment on the self-destructiveness of arrogance. Drawing on the imagery of a dam springing a leak, v. 14 advises to stop a quarrel before it gets out of control. McKane (1970: 505) suggests legal disputes are particularly in view. These should be dealt with before they go to court.
v. 2 observes the defective evaluation people make of themselves. They are unable to penetrate their deepest motives and have a capacity for self-deception. God alone can properly evaluate and judge ('weigh') a person's character and conduct (cf. 21:2; 15:11). The word translated 'weigh', however, could also mean 'fix to a standard' (cf. NEB). In that case the point of the saying would be the poor standards by which men evaluate themselves. The meaning of v. 4 is obscured by the ambiguity of the expression 'for its/his purpose' (lit. answer, response). The expression might be better rendered 'with its counterpart'. The saying asserts a divinely created order in which actions and their consequences have been made to correspond. The day of trouble is the appropriate counterpart to the wicked person. Alternatively, it could mean that even the punishment of the wicked is part of the divine plan. v. 6 implies that atonement for sin is not a matter of sacrifice but of'loyalty and faithfulness' towards God (cf. Hos 6:6). In the second line 'avoids evil' could refer either to doing evil (cf. 8:13) or to suffering harm. The king. w. 10—15 (except v. n) form another small group of sayings dealing with the king. The word translated 'inspired decisions' (v. 10) is elsewhere used only in the bad sense of 'divination, soothsaying'. Here it points to the uncanny perceptiveness underlying the king's legal pronouncements—as though they were divine oracles (cf. 2 Sam 14:17, 20). The first line of v. 12 might better be translated 'Kings detest wrongdoing' (NIV), the reference being to wickedness by the king's subjects, which, left unchecked, will undermine the stability of his throne (cf. 25:4-5). w. 14-15 contrast the king's displeasure with his favour. They may have originally been sayings advising royal officials and courtiers of the hazards and rewards of employment in the king's service. The hazards are illustrated by the stories of Joseph (Gen 39-50), Daniel (Dan 1-6), and Esther (cf. also i Kings 2).
The prudent servant. Despite his lowly status, a household servant who serves his master well will disinherit a worthless child who brings disgrace (v. 2)—a happy acknowledgement that ability counts for more than privilege (cf. 27:18; see 2 Sam 16:1—4). w2I> 25> are further observations on the grief caused by foolish offspring (cf. 10:1).
God tests the heart, v. 3 is a companion saying to 16:2. As an assayer tests silver or gold, God 'tests' the heart to determine its genuineness and purity.
Bribes, v. 8 is one of several proverbs that remark the benefits of giving a bribe. It smooths the path to social advancement (18:16), wins friends and influences people (19:6), and extricates the giver from difficult situations (21:14). Such sayings read strangely against the condemnation of bribery in 15:27. A distinction is sometimes drawn between a bribe and a gift to explain the difference. However, while both terms are used in these sayings, no clear distinction is drawn between them. They are equated in 21:14, an(^ me word translated 'gift' there is translated 'bribe' in 15:27. The sayings simply observe how things are and do not necessarily recommend or condone the practice. In v. 23 the 'wicked' is a corrupt judge. 'Concealed' is literally 'from the bosom', i.e. the fold in a garment at the breast, from where money could be slipped surreptitiously. The corruption of justice is also the theme of w. 15, 26. To justify the wicked and condemn the righteous means to pronounce the guilty innocent and the innocent guilty.
Friendship. The second line of v. 9 may refer to spreading tales (lit. repeats a matter) about friends behind their backs or continually harping on to them about their shortcomings (cf. NEB). Friendship thrives on forgiveness. In v. 17 'friend' is probably equated rather than contrasted with 'brother'. It is in times of adversity that friendship and kinship are displayed.
Pleasant speech. In w. 21, 23, 'persuasiveness' is literally 'learning'. The wise teacher speaks in a pleasant and judicious manner, which enhances the appropriation of his teaching by his pupils. In so doing, he will also enhance his reputation for perceptiveness. The sweetness and health-giving properties of pleasant words (v. 24) evoke a contrast particularly with the seductive words of loose women (cf. 5:3-4).
Rebels, v. n is probably a warning of the consequences of plotting sedition against the king rather than of rebellion against God. The 'cruel messenger' is a reference either to the king's executioner or to death (cf. 16:14).
Evil and slanderous speech. The sayings in w. 27-30 give particular emphasis to slanderous speech. On the 'scoundrel' (v. 27) see 6:12—14. He 'digs up evil' (lit.) and spreads his slanders with devastating effect, v. 28 observes the strife and divisions caused by slanderers and gossips (cf. 6:14; 26:20). The wink and compressed lips (v. 30) may signify slander by insinuation (cf. 6:13) or that the facial expression betrays a malicious intent.
The fool. A few sayings centre on the inability of the fool to learn wisdom. The fool is intellectually deficient and unable to benefit from instruction (v. 16). He also lacks the concentration of mind and purpose demanded (v. 24), while even the rod makes not the slightest impression on him (v. 10).
Restraint in speech, v. 27 observes the restraint in speech and in temper of the wise. The 'cool in spirit' is the opposite of the
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and cheated his way to success, the poor person who has maintained his integrity is better off (cf. 16:8). While the second line of v. 22 makes a similar contrast between the poor and the liar, the meaning of the first line and its connection with it are uncertain. Wealth attracts friends while poverty repels them (v. 4; cf. 14:20). Friendship with the poor is too demanding. While their relatives may have little choice but to support them, their friends and neighbours will do all they can to avoid them (v. ya). The text of v. yh is obscure and may form the remains of a separate saying (cf. NEB, following the LXX). Over against this matter of fact observation, v. 17 commends generosity to the poor. To be kind to the poor puts God into debt and he will pay his debts in full (cf. 14:31; 22:9). Zeal without knowledge. In v. 2 'desire' connotes vitality and drive. The saying complements those that counsel careful planning (e.g. 15:22; 21:5). Zealous and impulsive activity carried out without careful forethought and a clear objective will achieve nothing.
'hot-tempered' in 15:18. Since silence is a mark of wisdom, a fool who remains silent can conceal his folly and enjoy the esteem afforded to the wise (v. 28)—a lesson, however, that the fool seems incapable of learning (cf 12:23; I5:2)- (18:1-24) The meaning of v. i is unclear. As rendered by the NRSV, it appears to be a comment on the contempt that goes hand in hand with a misanthropic isolation (lit. one separated) from society.
The law court. Partiality in judgement is condemned in v. 5. The Hebrew idiom is 'to raise the face'. This probably reflects the custom of the ruler raising the face of a prostrate subject as a sign of his favour (cf. Mai 1:8). v. 17 also seems to be concerned with the legal process. It cautions against reaching a premature verdict on the basis of the eloquence with which the case against a defendant is presented. Only when the defendant has submitted this case to careful cross-examination can a fair and balanced judgement be reached. To use the lot to settle cases the legal processes could not resolve was to submit them to divine arbitration (v. 18; cf. 16:33).
Anger, w. n, 19, return to the topic of anger (cf. 14:17). The text of v. 19 is difficult, but the general sense seems to be that to bale the violent-tempered out of the consequences of their actions will be counter-productive and will only encourage them.
Rich and poor. v. n describes the security and protection provided by wealth from the point of view of the rich and need not imply that it is illusory (cf. 10:15). Th£ juxtaposition of v. n with v. 10, however, underlines that the protection afforded by wealth is not absolute. It is relative to the vulnerability of the poor (cf. 11:28). In v. 28 the deferential words of the poor as they ask for charity are contrasted with the harsh reply of the rich, who have become hardened to their incessant appeals. This is expressed simply as a fact of life.
The king. v. 12 repeats the thought of 16:14-15 with a change ofimagery.
Wives and children, v. 13 adds 'ruin' to the grief caused by a foolish child (cf. v. 26; 10:1). The second line may be tongue in cheek or from the heart. The following verse (14) is evidently placed here to contrast the nagging wife with the good wife (cf. 12:4; 18:22). The point of the saying seems to be that marriage is an uncertain affair. Whereas house and wealth inherited from parents are known quantities, a newly wed wife is not. Only time will tell whether she is a good or bad wife, and therefore whether she is from the Lord (cf. 18:22). The necessity to 'discipline' children is emphasized in v. 18. Discipline includes both 'instruction' (cf. w. 20, 27) and the 'chastisement' ofthe rod (cf. 13:24). The second line of the verse means that discipline will save the child from following the paths of folly and wickedness that lead to death.
Quarrelling. The Hebrew text of v. 19 is quite obscure. The thought seems to be that the closer the relationship (ally is lit. brother), the greater the alienation a quarrel causes and the more difficult reconciliation becomes.
Words. The power of the tongue is summed up in v. 21. It may deal in death and destruction or in life and healing. The point of the second line is perhaps that those who love to talk must bear the consequences of their words for better or worse. Alternatively, the thought may be that the words of those who respect the power of the tongue and cultivate wise speech bear fruit. The satisfaction to be derived from productive and beneficial speech is stated in v. 20. v. 4 is better translated: 'the words of a man's mouth are deep waters, a flowing brook, a fountain of wisdom'—a wise man is implied. The metaphors express the profundity of his words, and the abundance and inexhaustibility of the refreshment and blessing they bring. Contrasting with the productive use of the tongue, a small group of sayings deal with destructive uses of it. Through his malicious and slanderous words, the fool creates disturbance and dissension around him and sows the seed of his own ruin
Laziness. A humorous description of a lazy person is given in v. 24. It reflects an incapacity to take in hand even the simplest of projects and carry it through to a successful end (cf. v. 15; 6:6-11).
(20:1-30) Drunkenness. Excessive drinking turns a person into a mocker and a brawler (v. i; cf. 23: 29-35). It befuddles the senses and excites belligerence. The last phrase may mean to drink to excess is not wise or that it makes a person act unwisely.
(w. 6-7). The last phrase of v. 7 could also be translated 'a snare to his life', v. 8 comments on the fact that it is a weakness of human nature to find pleasure in listening to gossip. Already 17:4 has implied that listening to slander and gossip is as bad as spreading it. v. 2 remarks the eagerness of fools to air their ignorance. Disdainful of the opinion of others, they take every opportunity to express their own. Much the same thought underlies v. 13.
Laziness, v. 4 shows again the inevitable step from laziness to want (cf. 12:27; I3:4)- Perhaps citing the wet and the cold of autumn ('in season') as his excuse for not ploughing (cf. 26:13), the farmer foolishly expects a harvest for which he has been too lazy to work. v. 13 encapsulates the instruction in 6:6—11 (cf. 19:15; 24:30—4).
The purpose ofthe heart. The point of v. 5 is evidently that the deepest thoughts and intentions of the heart can be fathomed through the patient probing of the wise and discerning. Alternatively, it could mean that the wise man's
(19:1—29) Rich andpoor. v. i is almost identical with 28:6, but there the poor are contrasted with the rich (some emend the verse accordingly, cf. NEB). Compared to the fool who has lied
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Sacrifices. The priority of righteousness and justice over sacrifices (v. 3; cf. 15:8) is a common prophetic theme (see PROV 15:8; cf. Isa 1:11—17; Jer 7^21—6; Hos 6:6; Am 5:21—7; Mic 6:6-8), and is illustrated by Saul (i Sam 15). The 'evil intent' compounding the offensiveness of the sacrifices in v. 27 is best known to the wicked.
skills of articulation and clarification are required before a profound plan can be carried into effect (McKane 1970: 536-7). Loyalty. When put to the test, loyalty and faithfulness (cf 3:3) become scarce commodities (v. 6; cf. 19:22; 25:19; Job 6:14-23). The king. Drawing on the same imagery, w. 8, 26, remark the king's exercise of justice. The wise king will have the discernment to see through the schemes concocted by miscreants to cloak their evil and pull the wool over his eyes, to separate truth from falsehood, and his punishment will be 'crushing', v. 28 recalls 16:12 (cf. 25:4-5). Here, however, the reference could be to God's loyalty and faithfulness' as expressed in his covenant with the Davidic house (cf. 2 Sam 7:15; Ps 89:33-4).
Pride, v. 4 is a difficult text. The connection between the first and second lines is obscure. 'Lamp' follows the LXX (Heb. 'ploughing'). The general sense seems to be the sinfulness of pride (cf. 6:16—17; I^:5)> complementing such sayings as 16:18 and 18:12, which underline its folly (but cf. McKane 1970: 558-9)- Wealth. Wealth obtained fraudulently is both 'fleeting' and lethal (v. 6)—in contrast with Wisdom's wealth, which is 'enduring' (8:18) and life-enhancing (3:16-18). 'Snare of death' follows the LXX. v. 20 contrasts the thrift ofthe wise with the profligacy ofthe fool, of which the extravagant selfindulgence remarked in v. 17 may serve as a case in point.
Purity of heart, v. 9 reinforces the deficiencies of human evaluation of character and conduct when set beside God's weighing ofthe heart (see PROV 16:2). Against this, v. 27 seems to imply that conscience is an inner, divine illumination ofthe deepest motives ofthe heart, so that people need not be selfdeceived (but cf. NEB), v. ii makes the quite separate point that the character ofthe adult is already revealed in the conduct ofthe child.
The righteous and the wicked, v. 12 is obscure, but probably means that God takes note of the house of the wicked and brings it to ruin. 'The Righteous One' occurs as a divine title in Job 34:17. If 'ransom' is taken literally, v. 18 would seem to mean that the punishment ofthe wicked discharges the liability ofthe righteous to punishment. This seems an improbable thought. The point ofthe saying 'remains an enigma' (Murphy 1998: 160).
Eyes and ears. The point of v. 12 may be either that the wisdom learned through experience is reliable, since it was God who created the eyes and the ears, or that they should be used to learn wisdom, since that was what they were created for.
Contentious wives, v. 19 suggests that the roof of the house (cf. v. 9; 25:4) is still too close for comfort! The point both sayings make is that any kind of discomfort and privation is preferable to the comforts of home where there is domestic strife (cf. 19:13; 27:15-16).
A good bargain, v. 14 gives a humorous picture ofthe buyer who complains he is being offered inferior goods to get a reduction in the price, and then boasts about how clever he was.
Wisdom v. strength. The superiority of wisdom over strength is the subject ofthe anecdote in v. 22 (cf. 24:5-6, also 16:32). The saying reinforces the advice on waging war in 20:18. The wisdom ofthe strategy implemented and the tactics employed secures the victory.
Going surety, v. 16 (cf. 27:13) is perhaps an ironic warning that the guarantor need expect no mercy from the creditor if the debtor defaults. Alternatively, it may be advising the creditor to take security from the guarantor when he is underwriting the debts of a foreigner, since they are a high risk. Garments were commonly given as security for loans (cf. Ex 22:25-7; Deut 24:10-13; Am 2:8). Acquiring wealth, v. 17 returns to the theme of ill-gotten gain (see PROV 10:2). It is not clear whether v. 21 has in view seizing the property before the proper time through fraudulent or violent means (cf. 19:26; 28:24) or illustrates the principle 'easy come, easy go' (cf. 13:11; 27:24).
False witnesses, v. 28 is a further saying on the topic of false witnesses (cf. 12:17). The meaning ofthe second line is obscure. The Hebrew is literally 'a man who hears will speak for ever'. The English versions go different ways in wresting sense out of this as a contrast to the first line.
(22:1-16) A good reputation. In v. i the NRSV rightly supplies the word 'good' from the context. Behind the verse lies the thought that a name is an expression ofthe inner character and worth of its bearer (cf. Gen 32:28) and that it survives his or her death (cf. 10:7).
Rash vows. v. 2 5 is a case in point ofthe folly of rash speaking (cf. 29:20). Failure to fulfil a vow was a serious matter (cf. Num 30:2; Deut 23:21—3), while fulfilling a rash vow could be costly (cf. Judg 11:30-40).
Rich and poor. v. 2 makes the observation that rich and poor are to be found side by side and that they are equally the creatures of God (cf. 29:13). No moral is drawn. Similarly, v. 7 simply notes that the poor end up as slaves of the rich because of their inability to repay their debts, v. 9 returns to the theme of showing generosity to the poor (cf. 14:31). The Hebrew of v. 16 is cryptic and its meaning elusive (cf. McKane 1970: 571-2). Parental discipline, v. 6 emphasizes the importance of parental instruction in the home (cf. 19:18). The Hebrew simply reads 'according to his way'. This could mean the training must be tailored to the individual child, but the NRSV is doubtless correct in interpreting it as the way in which the
The rod. v. 30 provides the justification for the counsel of Proverbs not to spare the rod (cf. 13:24; 22:15; 23:I3~J4)-
(21:1-32) God disposes, v. i, 30-1, are further sayings on God's sovereign control of human affairs. God controls the actions and decisions ofthe king to achieve his own purposes (v. i; cf. 16:1, 9)—whether as his willing (Ps 78:70) or his unwitting servant (cf. Jer 25:9). The 'streams' are irrigation channels, which can be directed to where they are needed. The best-laid human plans and intentions that do not conform to God's purposes will come to nothing (v. 30; cf. Ps 33:10-11).
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wealth the chief goal in life is to pursue a mirage: no sooner here than gone. Amen-em-ope likewise advises: 'Toil not after riches ... They have made for themselves wings like geese, And have flown into the heaven.' w. 6-8, 'the stingy' is literally 'one with an evil eye' (cf. 28:22), as contrasted with the 'generous' ('one with a good eye', 22:9). While the miser affects to be a generous host ('eat and drink') his hospitality is insincere. When his guests see through him they will 'vomit' with disgust and rue every friendly word wasted on him. The expression rendered 'like a hair in the throat' is uncertain. An alternative rendering is 'like one who is inwardly reckoning' (RSV).
child ought to go. v. 15 again reinforces the value of the rod in educating children (cf. 3:24).
Laziness. The lazy person's inventiveness in making excuses for doing nothing is quite remarkable (v. 13; cf. 26:13).
The seductress, v. 14 resumes a central theme of the first section of the book. 'Mouth' recalls the seductive speech of the loose woman (cf. 5:3), but in conjunction with 'pit' it may also imply the entrance to the underworld (cf. 1:12; 2:18-19;
5:5. 27)- Sayings of the Wise (22:17-24:22)
This section is primarily in the form of a series of short parental instructions (cf. 23:15, 22; 24:13, 21). It has affinities with the Egyptian Instruction of Amen-em-ope (see examples below) and is widely held to be dependent on it, with its 'thirty sayings' (22:20) modelled on the 'thirty chapters' of Amen-emope. However, the parallels extend only as far as 23:11 and the nature and extent of the dependence is a matter of debate. In the course of its adaptation the material has been made to serve the wider educational goals of Proverbs, including inculcation of trust in the Lord (22:19). (22:17-29) w. 17-21 are an introduction. The heading has been extracted from the Hebrew 'hear the words of the wise', generally assumed to have been incorporated into v. 17 by mistake for 'hear my words' (LXX). Amen-em-ope begins with a similar appeal for attentiveness: 'Give thy ears, hear what is said, Give thy heart to understand them.' There is also a striking parallel between v. 21 and the statement of the purpose of Amen-em-ope: 'to know how to return an answer to him who said it, and to direct a report to one who has sent him', w. 22—3 concern the oppression of the poor. They warn against using the legal system ('at the gate') as an instrument for the exploitation and oppression of the poor (cf. Isa 10:1-2; Am 5:12). God is their protector and will take up their cause (cf. Ex 22:22—4). w24~5> concerning hotheads Amen-em-ope gives the same advice: 'Do not associate to thyself the heated man, Nor visit him for conversation'. It also contrasts the heated man (cf. 15:18) with the cool or silent man (cf. 17:27) in language reminiscent of Ps i: the one will flourish like a 'tree growing in a garden' while the other will be cut down and used as firewood. The 'ways' of hotheads are strewn with snares and are ultimately the way of death.
w. lo-n warn against the appropriation of the land of the defenceless through the removal of the boundary stones (cf. 15:25; 22:28). Where there is no human kinsman to defend their rights (cf. Lev 25:25; Ruth 4), God himself will become their redeemer (cf. 22:23). Amen-em-ope likewise warns: 'Do not carry off the landmark at the boundaries of the arable land... Be not greedy after a cubit of land, Nor encroach upon the boundaries of the widow.' w. 13-14, yet again the value of the rod in the disciplining of children is affirmed (cf. 13:24; 20:30; 22:15). That the child 'will not die' could mean that it will not suffer irreparable harm. However, the parallelism with 'Sheol' suggests it means that the rod will save the child from following the paths that lead to death and direct him along the path of life (cf. 13:14; 15:24). w. 19—21, the child is warned to avoid the company of drunkards and gluttons. Excessive eating and drinking are marks of indiscipline and sure routes to inertia and ultimately to poverty.
w. 26—8, once again warning is given against the seductress. She is portrayed both as a huntress who traps her victims (cf. 7:22-3) and as a robber who lies in wait for them (cf. 7:12). The depth and narrowness of the 'pit' ensures her victims will be well and truly caught (cf. Jer 38:6—13). The pit probably also represents the gateway to Sheol
(cf. 2:18-19; 5:5> 27> 22:14). w29~35 giye a portrait of the drunkard comparable in its vividness to the portrait of the seductress in chs. 1—9. 'Sparkles' (v. 31) is literally 'gives its eye'. The 'eye' and 'smoothness' (cf. Song 7:9) of wine has the same seductive power to bewitch and captivate as the glances and smooth words of the seductress (cf. 6:24-5). m both cases the reality belies the promise of pleasure and enjoyment ('at the last', v. 32; 'in the end', 5:4). w. 29, 33—5, describe the degenerative effects—both physical and mental—on its victims.
w. 26—7 warn that penury beckons the imprudent guarantor. See PROV 6:1-6; 20:16. v. 29, the term rendered 'skilful' means a scribe in Ps 45:1 and Ezra 7:6. The saying advises that the scribe who carries out his duties efficiently and judiciously may expect the highest promotion in the king's service. Amen-em-ope similarly observes: 'As for the scribe who is experienced in his office, He will find himself worthy to be a courtier.'
(24:1-22) w. 3-4 echo the building of the house by the woman Wisdom in 9:1. While the primary meaning of the saying is that wisdom is the key to the prosperity of the family, it might also imply that it is the key to healthy and harmonious family relationships, w. 5-6 compare wisdom and strength. See PROV 21:22; cf. also 20:18. v. 7 observes an occasion when the silence of fools is indicative of their character (cf. 17:28). At assemblies to debate the affairs of the community the fool is out of his depth, with nothing of value to contribute. So he keeps silent.
(23:1—35) w. 1—3 give some further advice abouttable manners to aspiring royal employees. To 'put a knife to your throat' is a forceful expression for 'curb your appetite'. The description of the royal fare as 'deceptive food' (lit. bread of lies) may imply that an ulterior motive lies behind the king's hospitality or may simply mean that it can prove a courtier's undoing. The king will take note of the glutton and assume he is just as uncouth in carrying out his duties, w. 4-5, to make accruing
w. ii—12 speak of divine scrutiny. The situation envisaged in v. ii is not altogether clear (cf. McKane 1970: 400—2). The reference may be to prisoners who have been wrongfully condemned to death. Every effort should be made to
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secure their release. Feigning ignorance of their plight will be exposed as callous indifference under the scrutiny of the one 'who weighs the heart' and judges accordingly (cf 16:2; 21:2). If v. 10 belongs with w. 11-12—as presupposed by the NRSV—then neither would the claim to be powerless to intervene bear examination. However, it is more likely that this is a separate saying counselling perseverance in adversity, w. 13-14, the eating of honey is commended for its sweetness and health-giving properties and then becomes an analogy for the pleasure and benefits of wisdom (cf. 16:24; contrast 5:3). w. 15—16, this instruction recalls 1:8—19. Violence against the righteous is self-destructive. While the righteous may fall down any number of times under the onslaughts of the wicked, they will always recover. The wicked will not (cf. w. 19—20). w. 17—18 warn against gloating when misfortune befalls an enemy. This is as displeasing to God as their enmity and may provoke God to divert his anger from the enemy to the one who gloats, w. 21—2, the final saying counsels respect for God and king. In 2ib the NRSV follows the LXX. The Hebrew text reads 'do not associate with those who change', where 'to change' may have the sense of advocating change. It may therefore be a warning not to take part in conspiracies against the king. The LXX contains a further five verses mainly on the wrath of the king.
concerning the context of individual sayings raised in connection with 10:1—22:16 arises here also, though topical or thematic groupings are now more evident, especially in chs. 25-6. (25:1-28) w. 2-7 form a short series of sayings centred on the king (cf. 16:9-15). While God is appropriately surrounded in mysteries no one can fathom, the king must take steps to investigate all that goes on in his kingdom (v. 2; cf. 2
Sam 14:20). v. 3 points to the profundity of the king's mind and so to the unpredictability of his decisions—which enhance his power and authority. The next saying (w. 4—5) reiterates the point of 16:12 through a comparison between refining silver and rooting out the wicked. Further advice is given to royal officials in w. 6-712 (cf. 23:1-3). On state occasions, the best strategy is that they take their place with the lower ranks, for then they may receive a public acknowledgement of their worth to the king if they are asked to join the higher ranks (cf. Lk 14:7—11). v. 15 probably has in view royal counsellors. Gentle but persistent persuasion will break down even the hardest resistance to their advice.
w. 7/7-8 warn against impetuous litigation. It is not clear whether w. 9—10 also refer to litigation or to pursuing a quarrel in public through slanderous accusations and breaches of confidence. This will earn the culprit a bad reputation as one who is disloyal and untrustworthy. The wise course is to keep a quarrel private and to settle it in private. A word 'fitly spoken'—i.e. well expressed and well timed—is a product of great artistry, beauty, and value (v. n; cf. 15:23). The artistic design envisaged is unclear. In v. 12 a similar comparison is made with the marriage between a wise rebuke and a listening ear. An 'earring' is perhaps meant, v. 16, even healthy things (cf. 24:13) in excess can become harmful. The application of the imagery in v. 27 is obscure. The NRSV assumes a slight emendation of the Hebrew text, which makes little sense as it stands ('searching out their honour is honour'). Too much honour can also be too much of a good thing, v. 17, a neighbour's hospitality should not be abused. The Instruction ofAni likewise counsels, 'Do not go freely to your neighbour's house, but enter it only when you are invited.'
Further Sayings of the Wise (24:23-34)
This short collection evidently forms an appendix to 22:17— 24:22, though in the LXX the sayings of Agur in 30:1—14 come between w. 22 and 23.
Judges and witnesses, w. 23-5, 28, warn against the corruption of justice through the partiality of the judges (cf. 18:5; 28:21) or the false testimony of witnesses. The expression 'without cause' (v. 28) could mean 'without necessity' (mischievously) or 'without grounds' (falsely). Either way it amounts to perjury (v. 28/7). v. 29 may be an independent saying on taking revenge (cf. 20:22) or may uncover the motive for the perjury, v. 27 advises the young farmer to ensure that he is financially secure before he begins to build a house and raise a family. The advice is widely applicable. w. 30—4 form an example story (cf. 7:6—23) reinforcing the lesson drawn from the industry of the ant in 6:10-11. They also provide a good example of how instruction may be received through the eye as well as the ear ('saw... considered... received instruction', v. 32).
The significance of the 'coals of fire' in v. 22 is unclear. It may reflect an Egyptian ritual practice in which a brazier of burning charcoal was held on the head as a sign of shame and remorse. In any event the point of the saying is probably that by meeting hostility with kindness (v. 21) the enemy will have a change of heart and be reconciled (cf. 16:7) and not that it will heap punishment upon them. Cf. Amen-em-ope: 'Fill his belly with bread of yours, so that he shall be satisfied and ashamed' (cf. Rom 12:20-1). v. 25 reflects on the refreshment and revitalization that comes with the receipt of good news (cf. 15:30; Gen 45:25—8. In 13:12 the 'healing' brought about by a faithful messenger (cf. v. 13) is contrasted with trouble caused by a bad messenger.
The Second 'Solomonic' Collection (2y.i-2Cj-.27)
According to the heading in 25:1, these chapters form a further collection of Solomonic proverbs, transmitted and edited by royal scribes (if that is what the rather vague 'copied by the men' implies) during the reign of Hezekiah. As with the first collection in 10:1-22:16, differences in style and subject-matter suggest it may have been compiled from two originally separate collections: chs. 25—7 and chs. 28—9. The first part is characterized by its many similes—often drawing comparisons with nature—and its 'earthy' tone. Antithetic parallelism is rare. The second part contains a high proportion of antithetical sayings and is predominantly moral and religious in tone after the manner of chs. 10—15. Th£ question
(26:1-28) The first twelve verses (except v. 2) form a series of sayings on the 'fool', w. i, 8, probably have in view the promotion of the fool to a position of public responsibility in the community. This is a gross distortion of what is right and proper (v. i) and utterly absurd (v. 8), for fools are neither
PROVERBS 420
'can be trusted') as compared to the deceitful kisses of a Judas. The second line of v. 9 is difficult: literally, 'the sweetness of his friend from the counsel of the soul', which may mean that the counsel of a friend sweetens the soul. The NRSV follows the LXX, making it a reflection along the lines of 15:13. v. 10 is another difficult verse, seeming to contain three sayings. The second is at odds with 17:17. The sense may be 'don't pester them with your problems' (cf. 25:17). The NEB omits the line. The loud and untimely greeting in v. 14 could be a mark of inconsiderateness, but it is more probably of insincerity—akin to the profuse kisses of v. 6. v. 17 observes the necessity and value of social interaction with friends and adversaries alike to sharpen the mind and shape the character (lit. face).
worthy of such honour nor capable of discharging their duties responsibly, w. 4—5 point to the dilemma of how best to respond to a fool. To speak up runs the risk of descending to his level (v. 4), while to keep silent means their conceit will go unchecked (v. 5). It is a test of wisdom to know whether silence or reprimand is the lesser of two evils in the circumstances. To send a message with a fool is counter-productive (v. 6). Instead of receiving the help of their legs, it is like cutting off one's own legs and will have harmful consequences. While the text of v. 10 is difficult, it too appears to warn of the dangers of employing a fool, comparing the damage the fool will do to that of an archer firing arrows indiscriminately. Both w. 7 and 9 make the point that the fool is incapable of the effective use of proverbs. The proverb will invariably be misapplied or mistimed, and fall limp' to the ground. The imagery of v. 9 is less clear. The rendering of the NRSV implies that the fool's proverb wreaks havoc and causes injury. Alternatively, the point may be that the proverb makes not the slightest impact—any more than a drunkard feels a thorn piercing his hand (cf. RSV).
v. 15 repeats the thought of 19:13/7. With most modern versions, the translation of v. 16 in the NRSV is an attempt to wrest sense out of a difficult Hebrew text—which is probably meaningless as it stands—on the assumption that it is connected with the preceding verse. Such a wife is as uncontrollable as a gust of wind or oil grasped in the hand. As construed by the NRSV, the point of v. 19 seems to be that knowledge of one's character comes through observing the character of others. The Hebrew is enigmatic, however, and could equally mean that the heart reflects the character or that self-knowledge comes through self-examination. The image in v. 20 is of Sheol as a monster with a voracious appetite for human victims (cf. 1:12; 30:16). Human desires and ambition are just as insatiable. It may also be implied they are just as ruthless. Just as the value of silver or gold is tested in the crucible, so the worth of a person's character is tested by their reputation (v. 21; cf. v. 2). The instruction in w. 23—7 commends the pastoral life as providing the best and most enduring kind of wealth. Whereas riches are fickle and fleeting (cf. 23:4—5), flocks are assets which do not dwindle but are renewed each spring at the lambing season, and they will provide for all the household needs. According to Van Leeuwen
The law made provision for the pronouncing of curses, particularly in cases where the guilty might escape detection (Deut 27:15—26). v. 2 adds that a malicious curse targeting an innocent victim will fly harmlessly past.
w. 13-16 centre on lazy people, sketching with humour their attachment to their beds, the preposterous excuses they make for doing nothing, and their inability to finish what they started—while all the time deluding themselves that they are wiser than any number of intelligent people. The 'meddler' in v. 17 is probably not a well-intending peacemaker but the quarreller of v. 21. To 'meddle' is literally 'become excited'. This kind of person thrives on strife and enjoys pouring fuel on quarrels—whether those of their own making or by interfering in the quarrels of others, v. 20 observes the role of talebearing in fuelling and perpetuating a quarrel (cf. v. 22). In v. 23 'smooth lips' follows the reading of the LXX, referring to flattery (cf. 28; 29:5). The Hebrew reads 'burning lips', perhaps meaning warm protestations of friendship. Either way it is speech that lacks honesty and cloaks malice. Thus, w. 24-6 warn against the kind of enemy (lit. one who hates) who conceals his malice behind a veneer of friendly words. 'Seven abominations' may look back to 6:16—19, but more likely it means that the enemy harbours any number of malicious thoughts and intentions. Sooner or later, however, the duplicity and treachery will be publicly exposed.
(1988: 137), the instruction is 'addressed to the king (and his court) as "shepherd" of his people'.
(28:1—28) v. i takes up the theme of the confidence of the righteous to walk securely through life with unfaltering step in contrast with the fearfulness of the wicked, who are weighed down by a guilty conscience and dread of the inevitable punishment (cf. w. 10, 18). In v. 14 the contrast may be between those who 'fear' the Lord and the impious or wicked
(cf. RSV), though a different Hebrew word for 'fear' is used. The NEB renders 'scrupulous in conduct', which may imply fear of sin and its consequences. The theme of w. 12, 28, is the consequences for good or ill within the body politic when either the righteous or the wicked hold the reins of power (cf. 11:10-11). The verb translated 'go into hiding' in v. 12 is literally 'are sought out', which probably means 'are hunted down', providing the reason why they hide themselves
(27:1-27) v. i is directed against an arrogant confidence in one's ability to control the future, and so reinforces the theme of the limitations of human planning (cf. 16:9; 19:21). Amencm-opc expresses a similar thought: 'Man knoweth not what the morrow will be, The events of the morrow are in the hands of God.' Jealousy is more overwhelming and destructive than anger (v. 4; cf. 6:34—5). Th£ image is of floodwaters sweeping all before it (lit. a flood of anger; cf. Isa 28:2).
(v. 28).
The Hebrew text of v. 2 is obscure, especially the second line. As translated by the NRSV it compares the political instability of the land during times of rebellion—with its succession of rulers and different factions vying for power— and its stability under a good and capable ruler. The NEB follows the LXX in making it a saying about quarrelling. In
In w. 5-6 a frank and sharp word of censure, however hurtful at the time, is contrasted with a misguided love which turns a blind eye to the faults of others (cf. 10:10; 28:23), an(^ with hypocritical expressions of affection, however profuse. 'Well meant' might be better rendered 'trustworthy' (cf. NIV,
421 PROVERBS
not always just: God alone is the unfailing source of justice. 'Flatters' (v. 5) is literally 'makes smooth'. The flatterer's words are in the same debased currency of deceit and duplicity as the words of the seductress (cf. 2:16; 5:3; 26:23, 2&)-
v. 3 'ruler' rests on a slight emendation of the Hebrew for 'a poor person', which makes better sense, v. 15 makes the same point with different imagery, while v. 16 observes that rulers who abuse their power in this way will be as short-lived as they are short-sighted. Poverty with integrity is preferable to riches with perversity (v. 6; cf. 15:16; 16:8; 22:1; see also 19:1). The rich may be inflated by a sense of their own importance, but a poor person with intelligence will see through their pretension (v. n).
To enter into litigation with a fool is not worth the trouble (v. 9). A fool is incapable of calm and reasoned debate and it is not likely that the matter will be satisfactorily resolved (cf. 26:4-5). vZ3 is a variant on 22:2. The first line ofv. 18 affirms that without prophecy (lit. (prophetic) vision) social anarchy prevails, and the second line pronounces blessing on those who obey the law of God. Divine revelation through prophecy and law is essential to the harmony and well-being of society and of individuals within it. McKane (1970: 640-1) suggests the saying proposes obedience to the law as the solution to the indiscipline resulting from the cessation of the age of prophecy, v. 24 deals with the failure of a person to step forward as a witness when publicly adjured (lit. hears the curse, as in Lev 5:1) because they are an accomplice of the thief and will only implicate themselves. In this way they bring the 'curse' on their own heads.
The charging of interest (v. 8) on loans to fellow Israelites was condemned in the law (cf. Ex 22:25; Lev 25:36—7). 'Exorbitant interest' is literally 'interest and increase', the former indicating interest deducted from the loan and the latter interest added to the loan. The saying asserts that the wealth thereby amassed will pass to a kind person, who will share it among those from whom it was taken. w. 20, 22, are directed against those who 'hasten to be rich'. The 'miser' is literally 'one with an evil eye' (v. 22; cf. 23:6). The phrase probably implies not only their greed and selfishness but also their lack of moral scruples in their pursuit of wealth. It is the 'faithful' (v. 20) who will be blessed with wealth, while they will be punished (cf. also v. 25). In v. 9 'law' probably refers to the divine law rather than the teaching of wisdom (cf. v. 4). God will turn a deaf ear to the prayers of those who turn a deaf ear to him (cf. 15:8, 29). The person who confesses and repents of their sins will receive divine mercy and forgiveness (v. 13). The verse is unique in Proverbs. (29:1-27) When the wicked are in power, the people groan under an intolerable burden as injustice and violence flourish unchecked (w. 2, 16). But righteousness will in the end prevail (cf. 11:10—n; 28:12, 28). v. 6 is a further reflection on the confidence of the righteous in contrast with the snares the wicked weave for themselves through their evil activities. In a similar vein, v. 25 contrasts the snare of 'fear of others'—which breeds anxiety and may also breed wrongdoing—with the security to be found in trusting God (cf. 3:5-8). To 'know the rights of the poor' (v. 7) means to actively promote justice for the poor. The wicked care nothing about their rights. The 'men of blood' (v. 10) recalls the robbers and murderers of 1:8-19. Th£ 'blameless' may be their innocent victims (cf. 1:11) but more probably those who oppose them and seek to bring them to justice. The English versions go different ways in making appropriate sense of the second line (lit. and the upright seek his life). The Hebrew implies an antithesis, so that here, unusually, to 'seek his life' may mean to 'seek to preserve his life' or to 'seek his well-being'.
The Sayings ofAgur (30:1-33 J
This collection is ascribed to an otherwise unknown sage. In the heading, the word 'oracle' translates Hebrew massa'. While this could describe the sayings as a prophetic type 'revelation' (cf. Hab 1:1) it is more likely that it designates the tribe or place of Massa in northern Arabia (Gen 25:14) to which Agur belonged (RSV). In that case, Proverbs has preserved the sayings of a non-Israelite sage (cf. also 31:1). It is possible that Agur's sayings do not extend beyond v. 14. These verses are separate from w. 15—33 in me LXX—w. 1—14 following 24:22 and w. 15—33 following 24:34. Opinion is divided on whether they end before v. 14 (at w. 4, 6, or 9).
v. ib in the Hebrew is very cryptic and obscure. However, the rendering of the NRSV is preferable to the RSV ('The man says to Ithiel, to Ithiel and Ucal'—presumably his sons or disciples). In w. 2-3 Agur confesses his lack of knowledge of God and his lack of wisdom. While 'holy ones' could refer to the divine council (cf. Ps 89:5—7), it is better taken as a reference to God himself, the Holy One (cf. 9:10). Agur's words may be in part ironic, directed against the wise who professed a deep understanding of God and his ways (cf. Eccl 8:17). The rhetorical questions in v. 4, like those in Job 38—41, emphasize the inscrutability of God's ways. To ascend and descend to and from the heavens is a biblical and ancient Near-Eastern motif for the arrogant attempt to attain knowledge of eternal truth and become like the gods (cf. Perdue 1994:117—19). The ironic challenge at the end ofv. 4 is to produce such a person. God alone has the power and wisdom to rule his creation and is enveloped in mystery which human wisdom is unable to fathom. While it is not clear whether w. 5—6 originally belonged with the preceding verses, they give reassurance that God has made himself known through his 'word'. This may refer to the canonical Scriptures. The term rendered 'proves true' is used of refining metals (Ps 12:6) and means that God's word is unalloyed or that it has stood the test. The warning not to add to or subtract from it echoes Deut 4:2; 12:32 (cf Rev 22:18-19). m me f°rm of a prayer (unique in Proverbs), w. 7—9 counsel contentment with God's provision of the basic
Justice is the key to the stability of the king's throne and of his kingdom (w. 4,14). The king whose main preoccupation is to build up and enhance the splendour of his kingdom through crippling taxation sows the seeds of its dissolution
(cf. i Sam 8:11-18; i Kings 12). The king who listens to lies will be quickly surrounded by corrupt officials (v. 12)—and his throne will be equally undermined (cf. 16:12; 25:5). The first line ofv. 26 may refer to currying royal 'favours' (lit. face) or to seeking an audience for a legal decision. In the latter case, the second line either reaffirms that God's decisions underlie those of the king (cf. 16:10; 21:10) or reflects that kings are
PROVERBS 422
their own voice heard in defence of their legal rights: the poor and needy and the destitute (w. 8—9).
necessities of life. Wealth can lead to self-sufficiency and the denial of God, while poverty is just as likely to lead to stealing and the profanation of God's name. w. 15—16 contain two related sayings on unsatisfied desires. The first (150) is a comment on human greed. That might also be the point of the second saying or it may be a comment on the barren womb. Like the desire of Sheol for human victims (cf. 1:12), the earth for water, and the fire for fuel, the desire of barren women for children is never satisfied. It is not clear what the 'way' of the eagle, the snake, and the ship on the high seas have in common with one another, and even less clear what the 'way' of a man with a woman has in common with them
The Good Wife (31:10-31)
These verses are in the form of an acrostic poem, in which each one begins with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. As characterized in the poem, the good wife is an industrious housewife; a shrewd businesswoman; an enterprising trader; a generous benefactor (v. 20); and a wise teacher
(v. 26). Her husband has complete confidence in her, since he knows that his wealth and his reputation are safe in her hands (w. 11-12; cf. 23). The key to her industry, acumen, kindness, and wisdom is that she 'fears the LORD' (v. 30). Like Wisdom herself, such a wife is a priceless treasure who is worthy of praise (w. 10, 28—31; cf. 3:13—18).
(w. 18-19). That human sexuality is mysterious and marvellous may dilute the point, w. 21—3 describe as earth-shattering events four inversions of the social order. The point could be that people who experience a dramatic change in fortune become unbearable or that social upheaval threatens cosmic order. The general theme of w. 24—8 is 'small but wise'. Ants are commended for foresight (cf. 6:6—8); badgers for ingenuity; locusts for discipline; and the lizard for adeptness at getting into places. Wisdom and not strength is the key to success
In view of the emphasis given to the dangers of loose women in chs. 1-9, it would be fitting for the book to end by directing the attention of prospective bridegrooms to the ideal wife. Certainly, to have such a wife would be a gift from God
(18:22)! It is probable, however, that the passage does not merely sum up the ideal wife but also the ideals of wisdom. The good wife may be a final personification of Wisdom, completing the portrait of the woman Wisdom as housebuilder in 9:1-6: 'In chapter 31 Wisdom is a faithful wife and skilled mistress of her household, finally settled down with her own' (McCreesh 1985: 46).
(cf. 16:32). w. 29—31 evidently compare the majestic bearing of a king in procession with the proud gait of the lion, the strut of the rooster and the he-goat. The second animal is literally 'one girt of loins', i.e. 'the strutter', usually taken with the LXX as referring to the cock, though other animals such as the warhorse have been proposed. The Hebrew text of the last line (v. 31/7) is obscure.
The Words of Lemuel (31:1-9)
Camp, C. V. (1985), Wisdom and the Feminine in the Book of Proverbs
In this passage the queen-mother instructs her son on his duty to administer justice. King Lemuel is otherwise unknown. As in 30:1, 'oracle' translates Hebrew massif and may designate a tribe or region in northern Arabia. This gains some added support by the presence of Aramaic words in the text (e.g. fear, 'son', for Heb. ben). Although the role of the queen-mother is unusual, the vocational intent of the passage brings it particularly close to Egyptian instruction, especially those concerned with the training of future monarchs (e.g. the Instruction of Merikare).
(Sheffield: JSOT). McCreesh, T. P. (1985), 'Wisdom as Wife: Proverbs 31:10-31', RB 92:
25-46. McKane, W (1970), Proverbs: A New Approach, OTL (London: SCM). Martin, J. (1995), Proverbs, OTG (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press). Murphy, R. E. (1998), Proverbs, WBC (Nashville: Thomas Nelson). Perdue, L. G. (1994), Wisdom and Creation: The Theology of the Wisdom
Literature (Nashville: Abingdon). von Rad, G. (1972), Wisdom in Israel (London: SCM). German original,
1970. Skehan, P. W. (1972), Studies in Israelite Poetry and Wisdom, CBQMS i
Appealing to his filial respect as a son for his mother and his birth as an answer to prayer (v. 2; cf. i Sam 1:11), the queenmother warns her son against sexual promiscuity and drunkenness (w. 3—5). One will sap the strength and the other will anaesthetize the mind, rendering the king physically and morally incapable of administering justice. While the wretched seek oblivion in alcohol (w. 6—7), a king cannot afford to become oblivious to their wretchedness. Rather he must speak on behalf of the 'dumb', i.e. those unable to make
(Washington: Catholic Biblical Association). Van Leeuwen, R. C. (1988), Context and Meaning in Proverbs 25—27,
SBLDS 96 (Atlanta: Scholars Press). Westermann, C. (1995), -Roots of Wisdom: The Oldest Proverbs of Israel
and Other Peoples (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. German original, 1990). Wilson, F. M. (1987), 'Sacred and Profane? The Yahwistic Redaction of
Proverbs Reconsidered', in K. G. Hoglund (ed.), The Listening Heart, JSOTSup 58 (Sheffield: JSOT), 313-33.
2o. Ecclesiastes STUART WEEKS
Conventionally translated 'vanity', the literal sense of this term is probably 'a breath of wind', but it is more often used metaphorically, to suggest transience, uselessness, or deceptiveness. No single implication seems to suit all its occurrences in this book, where it is closely associated with another expression: refut ruah (1:14, 2:11, 17, 26; 4:4, 6; 6:9; cf. the similar rafyon ruah in 1:17; 4:16). A comparable phrase in Hos 12:1 suggests that this latter means 'pursuing the wind', and it is probably used here to evoke the sense of frustration inherent in attempts to achieve the impossible (cf. Fox 1989).
A. Author and Date. Most of this book takes the form of a monologue, spoken by a character called '(the) Qoheleth' ('the Teacher'): its author has adopted the common ancient habit of setting philosophical discussion within speeches, and he probably comments on his own character's words in 12:9— 10. We know little about this author, but the book's language does include a number of Aramaic terms and loanwords from Persian, and has certain characteristics which are more common in post-biblical Hebrew than in the Bible. Despite some attempts to explain these as dialectal, it is widely agreed that they point to a late date of composition. Since the work seems to have been known by Ben Sira, a date between about the fifth and second centuries BCE seems probable, and it is most likely to have been composed in the latter part of this period. The lack of an ancient Septuagint version may be telling in this respect: the Greek 'Ecclesiastes' is probably the work of Aquila or his followers. The Greek title reflects an early attempt to translate 'Qoheleth': the original meaning of this name or title is uncertain, although it may be connected with ideas of 'summoning' or 'gathering'.
'All is Vanity' (1:1-11)
(1:1) Qoheleth is described as a Davidic king, and this is picked up in 1:12, which claims that he ruled Israel from Jerusalem: if the term 'Israel' here is meant to include the northern kingdom, then, since the only descendants of David to rule it were Solomon and the far-from-wise Rehoboam, a claim to Solomonic authorship is apparently intended, though never stated outright. However, sometimes Judah is referred to as 'Israel'.
B. Content. Qoheleth's ideas are notoriously confusing and contradictory, but some continuity is visible across the book. Qoheleth views the world as changeless, with humans unable to comprehend its workings or to make any lasting impact upon it; within their society, moreover, injustice is rampant and the future unpredictable. All this is attributed to God's deliberate design, but leads Qoheleth to ask just what humans should do to get the best from life in such a world. His answer, after reflection on his own experiences, is that humans should simply enjoy what they have: they are in no position to seek more, and greater comprehension is a source only of unhappiness.
(1:2) The motto, 'vanity of vanities', appears again in 12:8, at the end of the teaching, while the key term 'vanity' (hebd) recurs frequently as a comment on situations described in the book. (1:3-11) The rhetorical question in v. 3 picks up the claim that all is hebd, and the poem that follows portrays a world which is impervious to human effort. While human generations each pass into oblivion, nature continues regardless, and itself reaches no fruition or consummation. Without change, there is no novelty, and without effect, no satisfaction. Qoheleth describes a world without progress or culmination, where everything has been done before, but, unremembered, will be done again. This is not an assertion that the world follows cycles or patterns: although the sun, rather comically, hurries panting back to its starting place, the other phenomena are not cyclical, merely ceaseless, v. 8 suggests the inadequacy of human speech and senses for any comprehension of this endlessness: 'All words are exhausted: a person will never manage to speak [of it], an eye will never see enough, and an ear will never be filled as it listens' (my tr.). Qoheleth rejects not only any actual human progress in innovation and understanding, but the very possibility of such progress.
Set against all this, though, is an attempt to justify God, and to affirm the reality of divine judgement. This sits uncomfortably beside the book's other assertions, leading many scholars to suspect either that the book has undergone secondary editing by a more orthodox writer, or that the views of others are being quoted. Either is possible, but it is no less likely that this disharmony is original, and it is explicable in two ways. First, several ancient works show a strong interest in inconsistency as a phenomenon: the demotic instruction on Papyrus Insinger, most famously, juxtaposes contradictory 'truths' to argue, like Qoheleth, that divine power is supreme and unknowable. Secondly, Qoheleth's monologue is presented as the conclusions of a wise man reflecting on his experience, but the book seems suspicious of such claims to wisdom: self-contradiction is, therefore, embedded at its deepest level, and the work's aims may include a critical, ironic look at the limitations and contradictions of wisdom represented by Qoheleth and his speech.
Memoir (1:12-2:26)
This fictional memoir describes Qoheleth's own, futile quest for understanding, which leads him to conclude that humans can do no more than enjoy what they have been given. The
In his commentary upon the world and his own observations, Qoheleth resorts frequently to a single word, hebd.
ECCLESIASTES 424
(2:22—6) As the section nears its conclusion, Qoheleth echoes the question originally asked in 1:3, adding emphasis by the observation that humans suffer for their work. Now he offers an answer of sorts: all that he has found rewarding is pleasure in work, and he proposes that mortals can do no better than to eat, drink, and enjoy what they do. At this point, though, he attempts to explore a theological justification for his carpe diem conclusion: the ability to enjoy life, or perhaps the ability to know that one should enjoy life, is a divine dispensation granted only to those who please God; those who do not are condemned to toil on their behalf. That implies, though, a social analysis with which Qoheleth later shows himself to be uncomfortable: those who are suffering and working on behalf of others are the sinners, and those who enjoy themselves, while others work for them, are the righteous.
generalities of the introductory section now give way to a style more characteristic of the book as a whole, in which Qoheleth takes claims of personal experience as the context or basis for his assertions. He begins by associating himself with the famously wise and wealthy Solomon, which allows him to claim that he had the power and resources necessary for the subsequent experiments. We hear no more of this royal status after the device has served its purpose, but the equally implausible claim in 1:14, that Qoheleth has seen 'all the deeds that are done under the sun', is echoed several times in the book.
(1:12—18) The section begins with a pair of units, in each of which Qoheleth presents his credentials for undertaking a specific enquiry, then summarizes the result of that enquiry before finishing with a short aphorism. In the first he sets out to observe all that is done in the world, using his wisdom, and concludes that all is hebel and refut ruah. The unit finishes with an aphorism which again denies any human ability to affect the world. In the Egyptian Instruction of Ani, which includes a debate about the efficacy of education, the principal character asserts that a crooked stick can be straightened: any direct reference to that text here is unlikely, but it does emphasize Qoheleth's distance from more optimistic ideas of human effectiveness. The second line of the aphorism seems so patently obvious that some scholars have suggested emendation, but it does sum up Qoheleth's enquiry: he searches out all deeds, but finds nothing to measure. The unit w. 16—18 follows the same pattern as w. 12—15, but Qoheleth's enquiry is now into wisdom itself, which was the tool he used in the first enquiry, and into its opposites. His conclusion is again pessimistic: wisdom and knowledge merely enhance vexation and sorrow.
'Everything Suitable for its Time' (3:1-15)
After his foray into kingship, Qoheleth now returns to the ideas of 1:3-11, but retains the interest in divine action found at the end of the last section. A poem in w. 2-8 illustrates the claim of v. i, that every action or event will come to pass, and v. ii further explains that God has made each 'suitable for its time'. Although the poem is often taken as a celebration of this fact, with each and every action given its own appropriate hour, the context suggests that, for Qoheleth, it is more a source of resignation. In w. 14—15, the point originally made in 1:9-10 is picked up: what has happened will happen again, and there can be no innovation. Now, though, this situation is explicitly attributed to divine action, with God creating and maintaining a sealed system, in which nothing has a beginning or an end, but everything has its day. It is against this background that Qoheleth repeats his now familiar question: 'what gain have the workers from their toil?' God has given humans business to do, and a sense of past and future, but they lack any ability to comprehend the divine activity. Again, then, the best that they can do is to enjoy life, and the ability to do so is made available to all by God. Upon the world itself, though, they can make no impact: its unchangeability is a deliberate device that ensures that humans will stand in awe of God (1:14).
(2:1—11) After this presentation of results, the section moves on to a more detailed memoir. Disappointed by wisdom, Qoheleth decides to sample pleasure, and tells himself to have a good time. Ever the intellectual, though, he finds laughter irrational and pleasure useless, and puzzles over how to become drunk while staying wise, and over how to become foolish. He does succeed, though, in building an establishment geared to beauty and sensual pleasure, becoming great and retaining his wisdom while indulging himself unstintingly. This brings him to a crucial observation: his efforts are rewarded by the irrational pleasure that he gains from them, even though, on consideration, they seem still to be hebel, and a chasing after wind.
Wickedness and Oppression (3:16-4:3)
Such a perception of the world raises an obvious problem: despite the divine jurisdiction, wickedness seems to triumph over justice and righteousness. Qoheleth tackles the problem of theodicy with reference to the ideas that he has put forward already, and declares his belief in some ultimate judgement on the basis that, since there is a divinely appointed time for everything, there must be a time for divine judgement. The Hebrew of 3:18 is very obscure, and the text may be corrupt; the gist of 3:18—21 seems to be, though, that God permits humans no understanding of their eventual fate that would allow them to distinguish themselves from animals. Their inability to comprehend, or to foresee the future, leads, again, to the conclusion that the best they can do is to enjoy their work. Qoheleth seems to be claiming, then, that there are grounds for believing in some sort of judgement after death, but that this is deliberately hidden by God, who prevents human comprehension of the world. The argument is
(2:12-21) As in 1:17, Qoheleth now turns to wisdom, madness, and folly. His initial conclusion seems conventional, and is in line with ideas found elsewhere (e.g. Prov 4:18—19). It immediately becomes clear, though, that the saying in v. 14 has a double edge: the ability of the wise to see where they are going does not affect their route; they are going the same way as the fools, and are merely more aware of it. Both the wise and the foolish, Qoheleth realizes, are doomed to oblivion, and this realization causes him to hate life, exemplifying the conclusion in v. 18. With the wisdom to look forward, Qoheleth also realizes that all he has worked for will be left in the hands of another, who may be wise or foolish, and who will have done no work for it. This leads him, retrospectively, to hate his own efforts.
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followed, in 4:1-3, by a more emotional reaction to the seemingly perverted nature of the world, as Qoheleth declares it better to be dead or unborn than to have to experience the horror of oppression. He emphasizes the lack of any comforter for the oppressed, and the passage as a whole seems to react against the preceding argument: the obscurity of the divine purpose is all very well, but offers little solace to the oppressed, who are in no position to enjoy themselves.
a straightforward comparison, probably suggesting that a fool's voice is as much a product of too much speech as dreams are of too many cares. The syntax and meaning of the latter, though, are very obscure, v. 6 mentions a 'messenger', and the reference is probably to an angel. The particularly literal Septuagint rendering, though, has 'God', and this is likely to be the original reading (cf. Fox 1989). (5:8-9) This passage is notoriously difficult, and no very satisfactory interpretation has yet been proposed. The first verse probably explains oppression either in terms of the protection offered to each level of officials by their superiors, or else as a result of the demands made by such a vast bureaucracy. Just conceivably, though, it is suggesting that one should not be too concerned by such oppression, as God is in a higher position than the officials (Ogden 1987). The sense and relevance of the second verse are all but impenetrable; it might possibly be an ironic comment on the hierarchical system, which gives every field a ruler. Some scholars take these comments to have been inspired by experience of a particular historical bureaucracy, perhaps that of Ptolemaic Egypt.
'All their Toil' (4:4-12)
The loneliness of the oppressed provides a transition to Qoheleth's next, rather different topic. He begins with the observation that competition is the sole motive for work and skill, a fact which is hebd and a chasing after wind. He then presents, in v. 5, an aphorism suggesting that laziness is the vice and the downfall of fools, leading them to eat themselves instead of their produce; folding of the hands is elsewhere associated with sloth (cf Prov 6:10; 24:33), and the saying may be a conventional one. A second aphorism, in v. 6, is set against this, suggesting that rest is better than toil, and establishes the first of the two themes in this section: a condemnation of pointless greed. The second theme, that co-operation is better than competition, sits alongside this in w. 7—8, and is further elaborated in w. 9—12. The discussion finishes with a further saying, about the strength of a plaited cord, which resembles an ancient proverb found in the Epic ofGilgamesh.
The Problems and Inadequacies of Wealth (5:10-6:12)
(5:10—20) w. 10—12 make three concise points about financial greed: those who love money never have enough; financial commitments grow in proportion to resources; too much wealth, without compensating work, makes for indigestion, w. 13-17 point out the potential ephemerality of wealth: those who have refused to spend it may yet lose it, making all they have been and done pointless. In w. 18-20 Qoheleth reiterates his earlier conclusion about the importance of enjoyment. God gives not only wealth, but the capacity for its enjoyment, which enables humans to focus on pleasure. (6:1-9) wI~6 elaborate on the theme, highlighting the case of those to whom God gives wealth and its trappings, without the capacity for enjoyment; they may live long and have much, but it is someone else who will ultimately enjoy their riches. They themselves are worse off than the stillborn child, which at least finds rest. w. 7—9 close the discussion, but the place and meaning of v. 8 are unclear. The verse may be simply parenthetical (cf. Fox 1989), but it is possible to take it as a continuation of the point in v. 7, ifncpcs there means something more than physical appetite. Qoheleth would then be arguing that humans are left unsatisfied because there are important questions to be answered: what is the point of wisdom, and what reason is there for the poor to find a role in life? It seems more likely that v. 9 condemns the desire to go beyond what one already sees, than that it is a further affirmation of death over life (cf. Whybray 1989), and in the section as a whole, then, Qoheleth acknowledges the human desire to answer questions that go beyond the obvious, but sees it as hebd.
Wise Youth, Foolish King (4:13-16)
The meaning and relevance of this next section are quite obscure, and there have been many attempts to identify a particular historical situation to which it might refer. The principal problems are a certain ambiguity in the syntax, and the possibility that the 'second' youth of v. 15 is simply the same youth as in v. 13. It seems probable that Qoheleth is again setting one idea off against another: a wise youth is better than a foolish king, whatever his background, but that youth will be followed by another and ultimately forgotten. Gordis (1968) interprets the term that NRSV paraphrases as 'whom he led' in a temporal sense, so that v. 16 places the fragment of succession illustrated here in a much broader context: these characters were preceded by a whole host of others, and will be forgotten by those who follow. In any case, Qoheleth seems to be drawing out an implication of 1:11, that what seems true and important at a particular moment will only be swallowed up in the forgetfulness and repetition of time.