Part 34
vindicate a wronged member of the family. The go'd also redeemed property (Ruth 4:4—6; Jer 32:6—7; cf Lev 25:25) that had been sold because of economic distress, recovered stolen property (Num 5:8), bought back a family member reduced to slavery (Lev 25:28), and married a childless widow to perpetuate the dead husband's name. Job's use of this term indicates that he has given up on justice and begins to hope for revenge. The idea that a redeemer could call God to account for his actions may derive from Mesopotamian religion, where one's patron deity intercedes on behalf of a person in distress, but Job seems to attribute more power to the figure of the redeemer than intercession implies. Job's cry of assurance recalls a Ugaritic text in the Baal cycle: 'And I know that Aleyan Baal is alive', a confession of the god's revivification according to an agricultural calendar. What does Job imply? Three possibilities present themselves: (i) a heavenly figure, like the witness (16:18-21), will champion Job's cause after his death; (2) a heavenly figure will enable him to arise from the dead, or as a disembodied shade Job will witness his vindication; and (3) w. 25-60 refer to vindication after Job's death, but what he most desires (w. 26/7-27) is mat this event occur prior to his demise. The threat to his existence has prompted speculation about heavenly intermediaries: an arbitrator (9:33), a witness (16:18), and a vindicator (19:25), but none of these will accomplish what he truly desires, as expressed in 13:16. Only seeing God and surviving that experience will satisfy Job. From this point on (19:25), Job will not refer to heavenly mediators; instead, he will press his case for an audience with God.
(20:1-29) Zophar's Confidence in the Moral Order This description of the fate of the wicked corresponds to normal expectations in the psalter and in the book of Proverbs. A similar optimism characterizes one of the oldest Egyptian instructions, Ptahhotep, which observes that wickedness never brings its goods into safe harbour. Zophar thinks of a principle established in the beginning of time, one that guaranteed justice in the world. The wicked flourished only momentarily, whereas good people enjoyed lasting prosperity, v. 6 may contain an allusion to the story of the tower of Babel in Gen 11:1—9. The idea that the wicked are obliterated like a dream also appears in Ps 73:20. The images that Zophar uses suggest the extent to which the formerly rich have fallen: like dung, unseen, begging from those who have nothing themselves, dust. The popular idea that wickedness had a pleasanttaste (cf. Prov 9:17) has left an impression on Zophar, but he thinks God changes the food into poison. This whole section, w. 12-19, resembles futility curses. The mistreatment of the poor was considered a serious offence throughout the ancient Near East, and legislation aimed at protecting marginalized citizens is widespread. The image of poison-induced vomiting and gastric illness continues in the concluding section of Zophar's speech, w. 20—9. Both heaven and earth turn against the wicked; their legacy is fire, darkness, and utter deprivation. This picture contrasts sharply with traditional understandings of the Lord or the land as the heritage of the faithful. Like Am 5:19, flight from one danger leads to yet another form of death (v. 24, where bronze bow functions as synecdoche for bow and arrow).
(22:1—30) Eliphaz Accuses Job of Great Wickedness Job's extreme sufferings, coupled with his intemperate language and untraditional views, convince Eliphaz that his friend is guilty of the most heinous offences imaginable. Therefore, Eliphaz calls them to mind, after first insisting that God who sits above the human scene cannot be affected by either good or evil. Eliphaz accuses Job of taking advantage of members of his family and of mistreating the naked, widows, and orphans, and (implicitly) of strengthening the hand of powerful oppressors, w. 12-20, Eliphaz mocks the wicked who imagine that God cannot see through the thick clouds, a motif that is also found in Psalms (Ps 10:11; 73:11; cf. Isa 29:15; Jer 23:23—4; Ezek 8:12). In v. 15 the Hebrew word folam (ancient) can be pointed differently to indicate concealment, which continues the thought of the previous verse. Like those who deceive themselves that God cannot see, will you also walk along hidden paths? In v. i8a Eliphaz concedes that God bestows good gifts on the wicked, but such an admission prompts him to reject their schemes as odious, and to cast his allegiance with the righteous who laugh at the perishing wicked, w. 21— 30, Eliphaz has not given up on his friend, whom he urges to
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view, or they represent his wish that they be punished. Contrasting images appear in v. 20, the womb symbolizing life and the worm symbolizing death.
make peace with God. The Mesopotamian parallel text, I Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom, recommends correct ritual and repentance as a means to restoration. Eliphaz's promising account of what will happen if Job repents comes close to what actually occurs in the Epilogue, v. 24 is laden with wordplays: the Hebrew word for treasure resembles the word for like the stones' and that for 'dust' recalls the word for Ophir. v. 27, neglecting to fulfil one's vows was considered a serious offence (cf Eccl 5:4 and the Canaanite Epic of Keret). v. 30, Eliphaz cannot know the irony in this statement, for he—the guilty one—will actually benefit from Job's intercessory prayer (42:8).
(24:21—5) Job returns to his indictment of God for empowering the wicked to oppress the widow; he accuses God of watching over such criminals (v. 23). In Job's mind, providence has turned lethal. Again he wishes that God would exact judgement against such criminals (v. 24). Job concludes with an open challenge to his friends: 'prove me wrong'.
(25:1-6) Bildad's Low Opinion of Humanity Several features of chs. 25-7 indicate disarray: the brevity of Bildad's third speech and the absence of Zophar's; the attribution of specific material to Job that expresses views elsewhere rejected by him but articulated by the friends; and the presence of introductory formulas for speeches different from all previous ones
(23:1-24:25) The Turmoil within Job's Soul Job may have abandoned belief in a moral order, but he cannot bring himself to give up on God completely. Somehow he still thinks that the judge of all the earth would act fairly if only Job could track him down. Mistakenly, Job believes God would not argue on the basis of power. At this point he still thinks in terms of a lawsuit, despite his earlier insistence that God makes a mockery of justice.
('Job again took up his discourse and said' (27:1; cf. 29:1) as opposed to 'Then Job answered'). In addition, the isolated nature of ch. 28 and the longer introductory formula in 29:1 suggest either an editorial hand or an effort to set apart this material for some unknown reason. It has been surmised that the author never actually completed the third cycle of speeches but merely provided provisional notes for future reference. Inasmuch as the narrator gives no clue that the friends have run out of anything to say, and nothing subsequent to this section suggests a conversion on Job's part at this stage, and arguments for an unfinished debate have little merit, the probable cause of the present disarray is textual transposition. In all likelihood, the insertion of 26:5—14 has brought about this dislocation, one accentuated by the addition of ch. 28. In 25:1-4 Bildad stresses God's governance of the heavens, keeping that domain safe in the face of revolt (cf. i Enoch 6—ii and Dan 10; cf. also Isa 14:12—21). In Bildad's opinion, God's purity dwarfs everything, from moon and stars to those born of woman, here called maggots and worms.
(23:8—9) In Ps 139:7—12 the psalmist takes comfort in the knowledge that one cannot wander beyond God's watchful eye. That soothing feeling is not shared by Job, who despairs of finding God anywhere. He mentions all four directions; in the Bible directions are indicated by picturing someone standing and facing the rising sun. Forward is east, backward is west; to the left is north, and to the right is south.
(23:10-17) v. 10, the understanding of suffering as a divine test was widespread; Job briefly recalls this explanation for his misery and expresses confidence that he will emerge from the smelting process as pure gold. He has no idea how accurate this assessment of things really is. Dread of God returns, along with a renewed wish to be hidden. Unlike the wicked, he knows that one cannot hide from God.
(26:1-27:23) Job's Integrity Compromised (?) The mixture of untraditional views and orthodox sentiment seems to compromise Job despite his protests otherwise. Did his closing responses to Bildad and Zophar so anger readers that they replaced them with palatable views? What could he have said that went beyond the stinging indictment of God in 24:1-12? Clearly, his anger has reached the boiling point here, and one would expect even harsher observations to follow.
(24:1—12) One can hardly imagine a more powerful indictment of God's ways than this brief section. Job begins by asking why Shaddai does not adhere to times of judgement; he proceeds by giving specific examples of dereliction in the office of judge. In a word, the offences strike at the very foundation of society, its concern for the well-being of those who were unable to fend for themselves. Crimes against widows, orphans, and the needy do not move God to action. These unfortunates are forced to eke out a living and to sleep without protection from the elements. Their clinging to a rock for shelter is Job's shattering blow against traditional belief that the Lord was a protective rock. Job portrays God as totally oblivious to such misery. Job does not stop here but goes on to describe the oppression of the poor and to finish with a rhetorical flourish (v. 12). The dying pray for help, but Eloah ignores the groaning.
(26:1-4) As usual, Job comments on his friends' failure; the remarks contain bitter sarcasm and are addressed to Bildad alone. Furthermore, the syntax permits one to take the negatives as references to Bildad: 'How you have helped, without strength!... How you have counselled, without wisdom!' Job even questions the divine source of such banalities, risking blasphemy.
(26:5-14) This hymn has mythical elements (the reference to Abaddon, a name for the underworld probably derived from the verb '-b-d, 'to perish'; the name Zaphon, the mountain of Baal in the north similar to Mt. Olympus in Greek mythology; the chaos-monster, here identified as Sea and Rahab—cf. Isa 27:1 for a reference to the fleeing serpent, Leviathan). A naked Sheol stands exposed before God, who proceeds to cover it with the cosmic mountain and the earth. One expects it to be 'the heavens' that God stretches out (cf. 9:8; Ps 104:2; Isa
(24:13-27) Whereas the author of Ps 104:20-3 rejoices over the orderly creation in which nocturnal animals restrict their movements to the dark hours, Job describes human villains who use the darkness of night to conceal their criminal acts from others. The futility of such clandestine behaviour is proclaimed in Prov 7:6—23.
(24:18—20) The sentiments expressed here do not accord with Job's attitude and must be a caricature of his friends'
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partly because of ignorance about ancient mining techniques and partly because of obscure language. Its central point can be captured in the expression, 'far from'. Whatever activity is described takes place in virtual isolation.
40:22). The language in v. 7 echoes the myth of creation in Gen 1:2 (tohu, 'formless'; beli-md, for nothing; bohu, 'waste', 'void'). The waters are envisioned as waterskins (v. 8), and the word for moon actually is pointed as 'throne', v. 14, an appropriate reminder that one can only comprehend a tiny portion of God's majesty concludes this hymn. Those who proclaim the remarkable story of a cosmogonic battle and an ordering of the universe have succeeded in describing the 'outskirts' of his way and have heard only a 'whisper'.
The phrase in v. 8, 'children of pride', used in 41:26 in association with Leviathan, stands as a parallel to sahal, which occurs elsewhere in 4:10 in parallelism with 'aryeh (lion). Its meaning in 4:10 is indisputable, for it represents one of five different words for lion. The reference in v. n to probing the sources of the rivers echoes Canaanite myth, which locates the abode of the god El 'at the sources of the two rivers, in the midst of the channels of the two seas'. Several phrases in this section suggest cosmic activity rivalling the achievements of deity: overturning mountains by their roots (9:5; cf. Hab 3:6), opening channels in rocks (Hab 3:9; Ps 74:15), and exposing hidden things to light (12:12; Dan 2:22).
(27:1-6) The new introductory formula in v. i uses the noun mesdld, usually translated 'proverb', 'likeness', 'analogy', and occasionally 'parable'. Job swears by God, whom he has rejected, that he will not give up his integrity. The oath in the name of the deity who has demonstrated total disregard for justice, in Job's view, corresponds to Job's relentless seeking to face God in a trial, although convinced that the divine Judge twists the truth. Such inconsistency grows out of the enormity of Job's suffering and his reluctance to abandon the sole possibility for vindication. Job therefore appears as a much more complex character than his friends. Contradictions are part and parcel of daily existence. Thus Job thinks that God afflicts him on every side and pursues him relentlessly, but Job also claims that he can find God nowhere.
(28:12-19) vI2 continues the thought of v. i by providing its contrast; it does this by means of a sophisticated wordplay between 'mine' (mdsd') and 'find' (mdsd'), while repeating the word 'place' (mdqdm). The Hebrew word for wisdom, hokmd, is a supernym indicating a quality of knowledge for which as many as nine nouns stand in parallel cola (bind as here seems to be the preferred parallel). 'Wisdom' is the general term; bind is the more specific one for intellectual discernment. Nothing in w. 12-28 resembles the personification of hokmd as depicted in Prov 8:22-31 and Sir 24:1-22, among other texts. Four different words for 'gold' and seven different gems give this text a distinctive character, 'suggesting a connoisseur's familiarity with rarities among rarities' (Newsom 1996: 531). The negative particle Id' introduces w. 15-17,19; in v. 18 it appears as the third word. The four different words for purchasing ('weighed out', 'given', 'be paid for', and 'valued') in w. 15-17 contrast with the understatement, 'no mention', in v. 18. The exceptional value placed on wisdom elevates it just as effectively as the author of Prov 8:22—31 does in quite a different way, by imagining her as pre-existent artisan or witness to the act of creation. (28:20-7) The opening verse repeats the question in v. 12, with one change (the verb 'come' replaces 'be found'). The personification of Abaddon and Death in v. 22 provides smooth transition to the emphatic 'God' in v. 23 ('He' is also in the emphatic position). According to Isa 43:13, YHWH laid claim to the ancient epithet, hff ('He', 'That One'). The personal pronoun in v. 23 may echo this tradition rooted in stories about divine self-manifestations that evoked an ecstatic shout, 'O He'. The emphasis shifts from spatial language (v. 24) to temporal expressions in w. 25-7 ('when'... 'when'... 'then'), resembling ancient Near-Eastern stories about creation (cf. also Prov 8:24—300). The poem claims that Elohim recognized wisdom during an act of creativity. Educational terms describe the deity's intellectual pursuit of wisdom: 'Then he saw it and declared it, he established it, and searched it out.' Observation led to articulation of the facts as perceived; the positing of a theory followed, with further probing of its accuracy or inaccuracy (cf. Eccl 7:23-5; Sir 6:27). The conclusion of this majestic poem is something of a let-down. One expects a profound statement; instead, a cliche brings readers back to earth. Wisdom is encountered in the mundane choices one makes, specifically in religious devotion. (Using this criterion for
(27:7—12) If spoken by Job, this section begins with irony and ends in insult (his friends blow wind; the noun hebel in v. 12, as well as the verb from the same root, h-b-l, means 'breath', hence lit. 'breathes a breath,' blows wind). Between these sharp barbs rest rhetorical questions that emphasize God's arbitrary power and complete indifference to sinners by God and to God by them. There, too, is a promise to instruct the friends more fully about God's actions.
(27:13-23) The opening verse, which repeats Zophar's conclusion in 20:29, signals the imitative quality of this unit. Job appears to say that he can make Zophar's speech more effectively than the Naamathite can. In the light of the reference to the death of children by a sword and the allusion to a whirlwind (w. 14, 20), this speech makes more sense when attributed to Zophar. v. 16, the parallelism of silver and clothing is striking, as one expects the pair 'silver' and 'gold', v. 19, the fleeting nature of wealth was a common topos in the ancient world; according to the Instruction of Amen-em-ope, it takes wings like geese and flies away (cf Prov 23:4—5); Hag 1:6 mentions wages placed in a bag with holes, w. 20-3, the recurring theme of a wind recalls the sharp attack on the friends for producing empty wind (v. 12, hebd and the verb hdbal, 'to become futile, ephemeral').
(28:1—28) Where Can Wisdom be Found? This exquisite poem functions as an intermezzo, an interlude that enables readers to pause long enough to weigh the arguments on both sides of the debate and to prepare for what follows. The poem consists of two parts, w. i—n and 12—27, with a concluding statement in v. 28. This chapter resembles the divine speech in ch. 38, particularly the cataloguing of facts lying beyond human ken and the use of rhetorical questions (Geller 1987). (28:1-11) The author of this section marvels at human achievement in searching for (prospecting) and extracting (mining) precious metals from remote depths. The exact meaning of v. 4 is more hidden than the gems being sought,
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contrasting particle, 'but now', and the fourth with 'surely'. He demonstrates his remarkable skill at insulting others (youth insult me, whose fathers are not even good enough to accompany my dogs; cowering in wadis, they bray like cattle). Such contempt for the poor contrasts with the attitude expressed in 29:12—17 and 31:16—23, although Job's description of their feeble attempts to survive in harsh economic conditions shows that he has internalized their needs. Job acknowledges the principle that religious people tend to identify those whom God has ostracized and to count them as their enemies too (v. n). In w. 16-19 J°b returns to his earlier suspicion that God personally attacks him. This unpleasant thought gives way to direct address of God for the first time since ch. 16. He imagines that God ignores his cries for help and tosses him about on the wind (w. 20-3). Job concludes this section with observations about his psychic distress. Together, chs. 29 and 30 effectively describe Job at the pinnacle of success and the nadir of his isolation from society. At one time the aged and nobles stood in awe of him; now children of a no-name mock him (cf. 30:8, 'senseless', lit. children of a fool, 'disreputable', lit. children of a no-name). In previous days he presided over the judicial assembly; now he calls jackals and ostriches his companions. Such ostracism is aptly symbolized in the words that conclude the chapter, 'a sound of weeping'.
wisdom, Job already possessed it and more, according to 1:1 and repeated citations of this fourfold description of his character.) Interpreters have expressed disdain for this formulation of things subsequent to the debate in chs. 3-27, which surely undercuts such simple answers to complex issues, and have insisted that any resolution at this juncture is premature. The unique appearance of the name Adonai in this verse is noteworthy; in Jewish tradition this name was pronounced instead of the sacred name, the Tetragrammaton YHWH. This special name for God was left unuttered out of profound respect.
(29:1—31:40) Job Challenges God In ch. 29 Job remembers an idyllic past, contrasts it with his miserable present in ch. 30, and pronounces an oath of innocence in ch. 31. Much of the material in this section comes from stock expressions in the ancient world, which explains its apparent lack of fit with Job's circumstances in some instances. Reaching historical conclusions about Job's precise role in the community on the basis of this material misconstrues its typical nature. Exaggeration belongs to autobiography; so do self-exoneration and considerable fabrication. Accordingly, Job understands himself in royal categories. (29:1-25) Job begins his nostalgic reminiscence on a level of intimacy, then moves outwards from this family scene to his role in society and its rewards. When contemplating his activity as champion of the downtrodden, Job returns once more to his most intimate thoughts (w. 18-20). The reference to autumn days in v. 4 (tr. as 'my prime' in NRSV) strikes Western readers as peculiar, but in the Near East the autumnal New Year signalled a time of regeneration after the drought of summer. The picture of divine care while Job and his entire family sat under his tent contrasts with the following image of an urban dweller (v. 7). The desert sheik was content with cream and oil; the city-dweller takes the leading role in judicial disputes at the gate. Job recalls that he silenced everyone (young and old, prince and nobles) because he embodied the values of the group as expressed in looking out for the interests of the weak. He overlooks none of them, for the list of persons receiving his help includes the usual categories—widows, orphans, poor, stranger—as well as the blind and lame. According to royal ideology, kings were charged with ensuring the well-being of these lowly members of society, and failure to abide by this rule was viewed as grounds for abdication of the throne in the Canaanite story of Aqhat. w. 18—20, the Hebrew of v. 18 reads 'sand', which makes sense in context and is not excluded by the earlier 'nest'. The mixture of metaphors in this brief reflection argues against reading 'phoenix', for Job thinks of a bird, sand, roots, dew, and a warrior's bow. These images may be placed alongside the more familiar prophetic scene of sitting peacefully under one's vine and fig tree. With the exception of the initial metaphor (dying in one's nest), all Job's images symbolize vitality; the final one, a fresh warrior's bow, has sexual overtones in the tale of Aqhat, where the goddess Anat covets the prince's bow and offers her love in exchange for it. w. 21-5, unlike Job's miserable comforters, he insists that he actually brought comfort to the needy.
(31:1—40) Job's final speech in the debate takes the form of a negative confession reinforced by an oath. Similar oaths of innocence are known from ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian liturgical texts. Although the context of Job's oaths is a lawsuit, the offences listed are not subject to legal remedy. Job uses two kinds of oath, the complete oath with the consequences specified, and an abbreviated oath that stops short of mentioning any punishment. Interpreters differ in estimating the exact number of oaths and, in a few instances, their specific nature. The latter point applies to the opening reference to looking on a virgin. On the basis of Canaanite mythology of the perpetual virgin goddess Anat, some scholars think Job denies having participated in idolatrous worship. To them, this offence seems more appropriate at the head of a list of wrongs, especially since lust and adultery are treated later (w. 9-12). The offence, lust (whatever its object, whether a foreign goddess or an ordinary virgin), marks this code of ethics as special, going as it does beyond the actual act to the prior intent as in Jesus' later formulation of the issue. The second and third oaths concern ethics generally—deceit and greed—while the fourth returns to sexual ethics (adultery). The oath in v. 7 refers to hands, feet, heart, and eyes, indicating that Job's total being is devoid of fault (Habel 1985: 433). The first stated punishment in v. 8 resembles a futility curse
('let me sow and another eat'); unlike the next one (v. 10), it does not conceive of the punishment as an appropriate 'fit' to the crime. The prescribed punishment for adultery would fall on Job's wife (others would turn her into a prostitute), but that harsh treatment accorded with the ancient understanding of a wife as the husband's property. The anomaly is that sexual ethics could simultaneously generate the exalted view in v. i and the reprehensible attitude of v. 10. The language describing adultery and its punishment is rich in double entendre, with 'door' representing the entrance to the womb and the paired verbs 'grind' and 'kneel', signifying the sex act.
(30:1—31) Job's description of his present circumstances comprises four sections, the first three beginning with a
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Thenextfour oaths consider thematterof social ethics (w. 13-15, slaves; w. 16—18, the poor; w. 19—20, the needy again; w. 21—3, the orphan again). Job acknowledges that social distinctions between masters and slaves are human contrivances, for God created both (cf Prov 22:2 and 29:13 for the same attitude with reference to rich and poor). In v. 22 the full form of the oath occurs for the third time; in this instance the punishment fits the crime; aggression leads to further aggression, the abusive fist to a broken and useless arm. The three oaths in w. 24—8 deal with various forms of idolatry (gold, wealth in general, worship of heavenly bodies) but lack a specific punishment. The gesture mentioned in v. 27, the mouth kissing the hand, may allude to a Babylonian expression for a gesture of obeisance in which the hand touches the nose. The modern 'blown kiss' involves a somewhat similar gesture. Two oaths in w. 31-3 concern the obligation of providing hospitality to strangers on a journey (cf. the stories about Abraham's hospitality to the divine messengers in Gen 18:1—15 an(^ its sequel about Lot in a similar role in 19:1—11, as well as the scandal involving the Benjaminites living in the town of Gibeah as told in Judg 19). The language ofv. 31 suggests homosexuality; Job denies that anyone in his tent ever abused strangers in such a manner. At this point Job utters an aside (w. 35—7) in which he expresses a wish to be heard and openly challenges Shaddai. He juxtaposes the thought of his own mark over against a non-existent indictment written by his adversary. The word for 'mark' is the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, a taw resembling an x. In Ezek 9:4, 6, it signified persons to be spared God's judgement. Job imagines that he would wear the indictment for all to see (cf. Hab 2:2 for a prophetic message being publicly displayed). The image of a prince with an indictment for a crown corresponds to Job's ambiguous situation itself. The final oath (w. 38-40) touches on his relationship with the land. The ancients viewed society and land reciprocally; crimes against one another affected the land adversely. Furthermore, respect for the land required proper treatment, including a practice of periodic release from cultivation. Job's oath seems to echo the story about unavenged blood crying out to God. The full form of the oath once again envisions an appropriate punishment, an unproductive field. The narrator enters for a brief moment to observe that Job's words have come to an end (cf. Ps 72:20); the verb tammu echoes the adjective describing his integrity, tarn.
book, and his disappearance without a trace after 37:24. He alone addresses Job by name, and he quotes liberally from the book, even anticipating the divine speeches. He prefers the divine name El, the short form of the personal pronoun T' ('am), and the word for knowledge (dla') missing elsewhere in the book. His vocabulary has more Aramaisms than used by other characters, and he seems determined to tie up loose ends in the arguments against Job. Interpreters generally view Elihu as an intruder, an attempt by a later Jewish author to provide a more orthodox answer to the issues being addressed in the book. Elihu's youth may signal the lateness of this section (Zuckermann 1991: 148, 153). The similarities between Elihu's ideas and certain Hellenistic texts has also confirmed the lateness of these chapters for some critics (Wahl 1993:182—87). Others insist that both style and content argue for the integrity of the unit and view its anomalous features as artistic skill. While some interpreters consider Elihu a buffoon, a self-destructing upstart, others see him as a bearer of remarkable insight into the nature of suffering and divine majesty.
(32:1—5) The narrator provides a glimpse into the minds of the three friends who have given up on Job, convinced that he was deluding himself (cf. Prov 12:15; 26:5,12,16; 38:11; 30:12). The phrase, 'innocent in his own eyes', means that in a legal sense Job saw himself as not guilty; from the friends' perspective, that assessment of things had no firm basis in fact. The narrator characterizes Elihu as angry, repeating the idea four times in as many verses (w. 2—5). An ideal among the sages was the control of the passions (lust, greed, anger, appetite), but the young Elihu remains very much in their grip. His anger flared at Job and his three friends—at Job because he justified himself and at the friends for their inability to answer him successfully. The narrator explains Elihu's belated remarks as required by ancient protocol: youth must wait for age to speak first. Would ancient readers have expected much from an angry young man? In v. 3 the Masoretes, guardians of the ancient manuscript tradition, inserted a rare change in the text; the original read 'declared God to be wrong'. Elihu's perception of their responses does not instil confidence in his reading of things.
(32:6—14) Not content with the introduction accorded him by the narrator, Elihu provides further justification for his remarks. He does so by juxtaposing two fundamental principles, the first, that age deserves precedence, and the second, that every person has direct access to the divine spirit. For him, the second principle took precedence over the first. He dutifully awaited his turn to speak but became convinced that age does not necessarily imply wisdom. Elihu's ambiguous remark about the breath of the Almighty seems to suggest special inspiration (v. 8, 'bestows understanding on them'). Similar ambiguity surrounds this concept elsewhere in the Bible (cf. Gen 2:7 where the breath of YHWH animates humankind and Isa 11:2, where it suggests special knowledge on the part of a chosen ruler). The author of Ps 119:99—100 expresses the rare notion that meditation on the Torah and obedience to it endows youth with more wisdom than their teachers and elders possess. In v. 13 Elihu hints that he already knows the development of the plot, for he attributes to the friends the idea that God will refute Job. Elihu's protestations
Elihu Attempts to Answer Job (32:1-37:24)
A youthful figure, previously unmentioned, comes forward and angrily rebukes all four of those engaged in debate. This individual is called Elihu, which means 'He is my God' (cf. Isa 41:4, T am He'); he alone is given an impressive Jewish pedigree (cf. Gen 22:21, there Buz is identified as a son of Nahor, Abraham's brother). The name of Elihu's father, Barachel, means 'El has blessed', a significant appellation in the light of the dispute within the prologue over whether or not Job would barak God. Elihu's long address, uninterrupted by responses from anyone, is divided into four parts by prose introductions at 32:1-6; 34:1; 35:1; and 36:1. The speeches appear intrusive for several reasons: Elihu's sudden appearance without previous mention, his Jewish ancestry, his distinctive style and language, his familiarity with the rest of the
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in turn prompts the sinner to confess and receive God's forgiveness. To conclude this remarkable account of a compassionate God who warns sinners and responds favourably to mediators, Elihu praises the divine generosity, insisting that God acts this way repeatedly so that mortals may experience light rather than the darkness of Sheol.
to originality do not dissuade interpreters from viewing his contribution to the argument as minimal.
(32:15—22) The final section of Elihu's self-introduction uses the image of a wineskin about to burst from the pressure of fermentation. The sages were aware of a sense of urgency in speaking; they even made clever jokes about the desire to spread gossip, insisting that the words would not explode within one's belly (Sir 19:10). Prophetic literature also recognizes the necessity to express oneself (Jer 20:9). Elihu's language provides a pun on the narrator's description of him as angry ('ap 'ant, 'a\sol'/wayyihar'ap, hard 'ap, 32:10,17, 2,3, 5). A twofold irony underlies w. 21—2, for Elihu will certainly show partiality to God and, from the perspective of the plot and its development, will cease to exist.
(33:31—3) Again Elihu resorts to a teacher's appeal for an attentive audience; while inviting Job to respond, he states that his sole intention is to justify Job. In v. 33 Elihu promises to convey wisdom to Job (his choice of the verb 'alap provides a pun on the earlier expression, 'one of a thousand' ('ehdd minni-'akp). (34:1-37) In some ways this chapter resembles the rhetorical conceit of the later Wisdom of Solomon, which also addresses an imaginary audience and offers philosophical reflection on God's just governance of the universe. In Elihu's case, only four persons are present, and he does not consider any of them wise. After a brief rhetorical appeal to the audience (w. 2-9), Elihu proceeds to defend God's justice on two counts, God's absolute sovereignty and respect for justice (w. 10—20). Then Elihu shows how God effectively punishes the wicked
(33:1-13) Elihu offers further rationale for daring to speak, addressing Job by name and citing him almost verbatim. By means of a teacher's summons to attention (v. i), Elihu shifts the focus from himself to Job momentarily, but quickly reverts to the earlier concentration on his own unique qualifications to refute Job and his friends. No chasm exists between Elihu's mind and words, for he is both upright and pure (v. 3, ydsdr suggests moral integrity; barur connotes the lack of any blemish). In v. 4 Elihu uses the ideas of God's spirit and Shaddai's breath in a general sense; as such, they do not reinforce his unique claim. They do, however, function to assure Job thathe faces an ordinary mortal in debate. Elihu's citation of Job's fourfold affirmation of innocence and fourfold charge against God (w. 9—11) is inexact but reliably summarizes what Job has said at some point (9:20—1; 27:4—6; 30:1—40; 33:24/7—270). To refute Job on all counts, Elihu voices a principle that will undergird everything he says: God is greater than any mortal
(w. 21-30), which makes Job's claim of innocence appear ridiculous (w. 31—3), as intelligent people will undoubtedly recognize (w. 34—7). Elihu does not shrink from allowing his imaginary audience to join him in addressing Job by name. (34:1-9) Elihu quotes a popular proverb (v. 3) reflecting his oral culture; the ear, not the eye, tests words. Ancient sages recognized the need to evaluate what was spoken in the same way one's palate discriminated between desirable and undesirable food. Three of the six occurrences of the noun mispat (just, right) in the larger section (w. 12, 17, 23), mark the significance of w. 4—6. Over against Job's charge that God has taken away his right, Elihu places the desired collective conclusion of his audience. They, not Job, have the responsibility of choosing mispat, here used in poetic parallelism with tdb ('good'). In w. 7—9 Elihu accuses Job of standing out above all others, but not in goodness (contrast 1:3). He drinks mockery like water (habitually), associates with sinners, and blasphemes, i.e. he denies the fundamental principle that the universe is moral. In Elihu's opinion, whoever delights in God receives an appropriate reward; Job's experience taught him otherwise.
(v. 12). Why then, Elihu asks, do you contend (ribdta) with God? Mere mortals, he thinks, cannot enter into a lawsuit with Eloah. (33:14-30) An indusio connects v. 14 with v. 29 (one, two/ twice, three times); between these numerical expressions Elihu's argument becomes expansive. He claims that God communicates by different means, sometimes through nocturnal visions and at other times through suffering. Both types of communication come as warnings to stem the natural emergence of pride. As a paragon of virtue, Job was particularly subject to this form of sin, for morally good people tend to recognize their superiority over the masses. Elihu admits that the recipients of divine warnings by night seldom perceive them for what they are (contrast Eliphaz's astute grasp of his divine visitor's message in 4:12—21). The stated purpose of these warnings is to prevent an early departure into the realm of the dead. Does Elihu envision death as crossing a river like the Greek notion of crossing the river Styx? The second type of warning results in emaciated bodies that elicit compassion from a mediating angel (melis). The term denotes an interpreter (cf Gen 42:23) and a mediator (Job 16:19 (MT 20)). In later Jewish literature the heavenly mediator becomes an intercessor for devout persons (i Enoch 9:3, 15:2 and the T. 12 Pair.). The idiom 'one of a thousand' indicates rarity. The mediator does not offer any information about the nature of the 'ransom' that covers the sins of the person being spared the Pit. In Elihu's extraordinary scenario, the intercessor declares the guilty person innocent, and this
(34:10-15) Elihu appeals to intelligent listeners, reminding them of God's sovereignty. Such a one has no reason to pervert justice, he argues; the unspoken contrast is the human judge whose greed renders him subject to a bribe and whose vulnerability before the powerful leaves him open to showing partiality, w. 14-15 allude to the ancient story of creation (Gen 2:7; 3:19).
(34:16—20) Appealing to his listeners again, this time in the singular to designate them individually, Elihu points out that God, who loves justice, chose to govern. It follows that God cannot pervert justice; the same person cannot be both saddiq and reset" (wicked). Does Elihu's understanding of God leave room for the traditional belief that the poor occupied a special place in God's affection?
(34:21—30) God's overthrow of the wicked is made possible by keen sight, according to Elihu, for God sees everything they
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its potency by Elihu's clever artifice. It has become obvious to Elihu that Job's talk lacks substance inasmuch as it consists of many words devoid of knowledge. Here Elihu anticipates YHWH's rebuke of Job in 38:2, which uses the same words. Has the later author of Elihu's speeches found a way to authenticate his own views?
do. Despite Job's claims to the contrary, God punishes the wicked and pays heed to the cries of the oppressed. Having accepted as a reality the orthodox belief about God's just governance of the world, Elihu concludes that divine silence does not make the deity culpable. (34:31^7) The meaning of this brief section is obscure. Does Elihu advise Job to repent in w. 31—2, or does he contrast Job's obdurate conduct with one who repents when confronted with guilt? In v. 33 the verb reject (ma'as) lacks an object; a similar phenomenon occurs in Job's actual response to God's second speech from the whirlwind (42:6). Elihu cannot know the conditions governing the Adversary's test of Job—unless he really is a later intruder—and his wish that Job be tested to the limit violates the stipulation that his life be spared. The accusation that Job speaks without knowledge anticipates YHWH's words in 38:2. Here the Lord appears to corroborate Elihu's harsh assessment of Job. (35:1-16) This entire chapter is structured around two of Job's objections: that in his case it has not paid to serve God and that God pays no attention to his cry for justice (w. 3, 14—15).
(36:1—37:24) Elihu's View of God The conclusion to Elihu's speeches slowly moves away from Job's flaws to concentrate more fully on God's character and majesty. Accordingly, citations of Job's troubling view recede into the background as Elihu reinforces his own authority to speak correctly about God (36:1—4). Returning to earlier themes, Elihu emphasizes God's power, justice, and salvific activity (36:5-15), but in the process Elihu interprets the mystery of disciplinary suffering as an occasion to warn Job (36:16—21). Beginning at 36:22, a decisive shift in the tenor of the speeches takes place, one that anticipates the divine disclosure in ch. 38. The similarities between the two discourses suggest that Elihu intentionally steals a major share of divine thunder. The speech opens with an expansive introduction (36:22—33) divided into three distinct sections by the exclamation 'see' (hen) in w. 22, 26, and 30. The topics of this unit (divine majesty, God's control over rain and lightning) mark a transition (37:1—5) to the theme of a thunderstorm (37:6—13). Elihu asks several rhetorical questions like those soon to be ascribed to YHWH (37:14-20) and ends with a flourish (36:1-4). Elihu's final self-presentation indicates that he understands exactly what the issue is from Job's perspective: divine justice or, more correctly, its absence. Elihu differs, however, on whether or not it exists. He intends to bring his knowledge to bear on this matter, hoping thereby to refute Job's denial of God's justice. For Elihu, God is innocent and Job is guilty. Moreover, Elihu boasts, my knowledge is both accurate and sound (tamim).
(35:1—8) In the previous chapter Elihu invited rational people to judge for themselves; now he asks the embittered Job to reconsider his complaints against God. At issue is the justice of God as manifested to Job. Elihu thinks any sensible person will conclude that God is just; Job, therefore, has lost his capacity to reason when he says, T am more just (innocent) than God' (my tr.). Job's verdict is based on the failure of God to deliver appropriate rewards for faithful service. Job reckons that he has been treated by God like one who has not rendered loyal obedience. In short, religion does not pay. Elihu answers this charge by emphasizing the divine self-sufficiency, an approach that Job's friends have already taken. In Elihu's view, neither virtue nor vice affects God whatever, for God dwells in the remote heavens. Human deeds, both good and bad, relate solely to other mortals (v. 8). This answer does not really address Job's complaint, for even a self-sufficient deity can reward goodness and punish evil for purely altruistic reasons. (35:9-16) How does Elihu's response to Job's other complaint fare? In this instance Elihu holds the citation from Job's speeches in abeyance until he has dealt generally with the problem it raises. Oppression among mortals compels the less fortunate to raise a cry to the heavens, but they do not cry out in prayer. That seems to be the meaning of w. 10-12. Instead of searching for their Maker and expressing gratitude for the gift of songs during the night (the Heb. word zcmirot can mean either 'strength' or 'songs') and acknowledging that the divine teacher instructs by means of animals and birds, they swell with pride. Here Elihu mocks Job's earlier observation that God teaches through animals and birds; in addition, Elihu implies that Job, like the unnamed evildoers, has surrendered to the powerful temptation of pride. The antecedent of the phrase, 'because of pride', is unclear; it can be either the verb 'cry out' or 'does not answer'. If the former, it explains their reluctance to pray; if the latter, it states the reason for God's disregard. Now Elihu has prepared the way for yet another onslaught against Job's character. Thus he cites Job again, this time indirectly and in general (w. 14—15). Job's firm conviction that God ignores his just cause has been robbed of
(36:5—15) The twofold use of the adjective 'mighty' (kabbtr), together with another word for strength (koah), in v. 5 demonstrates Elihu's theological starting-point. God is great! When sovereignty and intelligence join hands, as here, one has truly happened upon the best of all possible worlds. Elihu offers a subtle hint of another dimension, compassion, for he claims that God does not reject (ma'as...). This verb has no object and therefore it must be supplied by readers. Presumably, Elihu means that God has no predisposition to despise anyone, and by implication God's treatment of individuals is fully determined by human conduct. Pressing the point further by means of a proverbial saying (v. 6), Elihu affirms both sides of the principle of reward and retribution. God destroys the wicked and exacts justice for the afflicted. Among the sages the usual pair of contrasting groups was righteous/wicked, but here rasa' is matched with faniyytm (wicked/afflicted) as frequently in psalms of lament. The following verse brings the vocabulary more into line with customary sapiential speech, for it refers to these afflicted ones as righteous (saddiq). The origin of the notion that the saddiq and the poor were identical is difficult to trace, but it surfaced as early as the eighth century (cf Am 2:6), becoming normal in later psalms, and evolving into a theological axiom in some post-biblical literature. Indeed, the name of the earliest Christian movement, Ebionites (the poor), reflects this understanding of the lowly as God's special people. Elihu relates divine power to human
JOB 35° decisions; the arrogant wicked are overthrown by it, and the lowly afflicted are exalted. Against Job's claim that God looks away from the needy, Elihu boldly asserts the opposite (v. 7). Moreover, he interprets affliction as God's discipline aimed at restoring individuals. Their fate, he insists, lies in their own hands; if they heed divine instruction, they will be lifted up, but if they refuse to listen, they will perish. Here Elihu resorts to a play on words between the verbs for serving God and being destroyed ('dbad/'dbar). Elihu's virtual fixation with right thinking leads him to add 'without knowledge' (cf 35:16, the same words YHWH will use with reference to Job in 38:2). In w. 13-14 Elihu describes the punishment of people like Job who become angry because of divine affliction rather than imploring God's mercy. Such stubborn sinners die while young, ending up in the company of reprobates. The Hebrew word for male prostitutes associated with the temple occurs in v. 14. Despite biblical references to this practice in ancient Israel, its scope and nature remain obscure. Apparently, both men and women served as sacred prostitutes (qedesim), their earnings going into the temple treasury despite intense opposition in Deuteronomistic circles (Deut 23:17-18 (MT18-19); 2
but at least Elihu's understanding of divine activity has a moral dimension. That cannot be said for YHWH's speeches about the interrelationship between Creator and creature. The second rhetorical question also resembles a text from the book of Isaiah (40:12—14), which asks who has instructed the majestic Creator or taught him the path of justice. The implied answer to these rhetorical questions is 'no one'. Elihu's third question, like his second, underscores the absurdity—from his perspective—of Job's onslaught against the sovereign teacher. For him 'might' comes mightily close to representing 'right'.
(36:24—37:5) The proper response to God's grandeur, Elihu urges Job, is hymnic praise. To reinforce his point, Elihu extols the awesome power unleashed in thunder and lightning, with their accompanying rains that produce abundant food for all living creatures. Not every image in this description of heavenly fireworks is intelligible; for example, 'cd in v. 27 actually refers to a primordial underground stream, at least in ancient mythology (cf. Gen 2:5—6), and the phrase 'covers the roots of the sea' in v. 30 seems strange. Perhaps it suggests that bright flashes of light expose the roots. On the basis of similarities between this text and Ps 29, some interpreters emend the verb 'cover' to a noun with a possessive pronoun ('his throne'; cf. Ps 29:10, 'The LORD sits enthroned over the flood; the LORD sits enthroned as king for ever'). The last verse of ch. 36 presents greater difficulty; Gordis (1978: 424) revocalizes it to read: 'His thunderclap proclaims His presence; His mighty wrath, the storm'. In 37:1—5 the point of view shifts from God's electrifying display to the human response. The same shift takes place in Ps 29:9 ('all say, "Glory!"'). In v. 2 Elihu uses repetition to effect a breathtaking pause in the action ('Listen, listen') as he invites others to share his excitement. The point of view in w. 2-5 begins and ends on the human level but soars to the heavens in the interval. Elihu stands in awe of divine power, but he is not alone in failing to comprehend God's nipla'Stand gedolot ('wondrous' and 'great' deeds).
Kings 23:7). In v. 15 Elihu sums up his teaching about the positive use of discipline; by means of affliction, God opens the ear of the afflicted. An Egyptian proverb states that the teacher opened a student's ear by striking him on the back. It should be remembered that ancient educators made liberal use of corporal punishment. Curiously, Elihu uses the noun 'ani rather than musar, so prominent in Proverbs and Sirach; the verb 'and carries a harsher connotation than ydsar.
(36:16-21) Elihu begins this unit by harking back to God's initial kindness to Job; the three images picture a person at one with the world (wooed from distress, a wide space, a table filled with rich staple foods). Two of these words recur in w. 18-19 (s"* and 5»r» woe and distress). In other words, God has overcome Job's restrictive limitations and replaced them with wide streets and plenty of'fat', a delicacy in the ancient world. God's generosity contrasts with Job's niggardliness, his anger. Elihu seems to warn Job against being enticed by his distress to pointless fury and mocking. His near obsession with justice (din) will backfire, in Elihu's view. Ultimately, din and mispdt will overwhelm him. By this he probably means 'divine judgement'. The allusion to a great ransom (v. 18) echoes the remark by the mediating angel in 33:24, T have found a ransom'.
(37:6—13) Turning to a less noisy but nevertheless spectacular display of a different kind, Elihu points to the formation of ice and snow, inclement conditions that force animals to seek shelter. The image of thick clouds and lightning prompts him to discern a moral in all this movement. In his view, such phenomena convey divine intention, but one may choose among three possibilities: for correction, for his land, or for love. Although Andersen (1976: 266) emends land (eres) to acceptance (rasa), the broad focus in this section on people and animals speaks against emending the text. Elihu views such grandeur as aimed at disciplining wayward humans, nurturing all God's creatures, and as a general display of love. Here, too, Elihu's understanding of divine power is more comforting than YHWH's own interpretation of the same phenomena. Strikingly, Elihu makes minimal use of mythical images in this description. By way of contrast, YHWH will squeeze every ounce of mythic symbolism from the same activity. (37:14-24) The speech of Elihu ends where it began, but the rebuke of the four men has narrowed to one, providing a smooth transition to YHWH's rebuke of Job. Just as Elihu's earlier rhetorical questions and description of meteorological phenomena anticipate one type of YHWH's speeches, the
(36:22—37:24) The final section of Elihu's speech begins with a declaration of God's might and poses three rhetorical questions for Job's consideration (w. 22-3). Each of the questions functions to negate the answers: no one compares with God as teacher, or tells God what to do, or can accuse God of wrong. The idea of God as teacher (cf. 33:14—22; 34:32; 35:11) reached beyond the sages such as Elihu to prophetic figures as well. In Isa 30:20-1 the themes of YHWH as afflicter and teacher come together in the same way they do in Elihu's discourse. Moreover, both Isaiah and Elihu put forth these ideas as a response to concern that God is hiding. For the prophet, the moment a person starts to veer off course, YHWH speaks up and points out the way to be travelled. Elihu's assurance that the one who afflicts the sinner uses adversity to teach a moral lesson lacks the emotional depth of the related prophetic text,
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unresolved, for no answer would have sufficed, whether spoken by YHWH or anyone else. This ambivalence suggests that the dominant genre, disputation, served the poet well, for its strength lies in its ability to present alternative viewpoints.
kind of questions that make up w. 15-18 prefigure the other type of questions YHWH hurls at the beleaguered Job. These queries ('Do you know?', 'Can you?'), together with the sarcastic 'Teach us', may be understood over against the earlier concept of God as teacher. Elihu prepares Job to face a barrage of questions from the heavenly instructor whose knowledge is perfect (tarn, cf. Elihu's similar claim about his own knowledge in 36:4). Mocking Job's wish to confront God (v. 20) as an automatic death-wish, Elihu reminds Job that God is far brighter than the sun (cf. Sir 43:1—5), on which none can look without harm. One would think that such brilliance could not be hidden from humankind, but just as the sun has its own hours of concealment, so Shaddai sometimes resides outside human perception. God chooses when to be seen and moves from the north, the mythic abode of the gods (v. 22). Elihu's parting moralism poses a problem. The first colon is clear: 'Therefore mortals fear him'. The second colon reads literally: 'He does not look on any person of intelligence'. Andersen (1976: 268) emends the verb 'see' to a similar verb, 'fear' (ra 'd to yarl'), understands the negative lo' as fu ('surely'), and takes 'every intelligent person' as the subject (cf. the LXX). This attractive interpretation yields a sense equivalent to that in 28:28, and has Elihu concluding on a high note: 'Surely all wise of heart fear him.'
(38:1-40:5) The Divine Plan of the Universe YHWH's fesd (plan, counsel) includes the cosmos and the realm of wild animals. The initial speech focuses on these two topics, highlighting the argument with periodic questions directed at Job
('Who? Where? On what? Have you? Can you? Where?').
(38:1-3) v. i derives from the narrator, who has framed the discussion thus far and made important judgements about Job's character. That the name YHWH occurs here, as in the prose framework (1:1—2:13; 42:7~I7)> comes as something of a surprise, for it has been avoided in the poetic discourses except for the cliche in 12:9. This name, together with the information that YHWH speaks from a whirlwind (se'ara), reintroduces the additional problems posed by the interaction between the Adversary and YHWH. Does disinterested piety exist? Will anyone serve God gratuitously,_/br nothing? Furthermore, the destructive power of the whirlwind, its capacity to renew Job's gut-wrenching memory often dead children, does not bode well for him. Biblical theophanies usually bring solace along with the inevitable sense of awe; in this instance, form and content clash (Crenshaw 1992). Job has his wish, but not on his own conditions, w. 2—3 make this fact painfully clear; YHWH rejects Job's reasoning as senseless, an obfuscation of the divine plan. YHWH has no intention of capitulating before human charges of injustice; instead, he will expect far more intellectual rigour from the accuser. The initial question, 'Who is this?' has the tone of'How dare you?' Job has demanded that God tell him the specific wrongs he has committed (10:2; 13:23), promising an answer for each breach of trust (13:22). This stance quickly becomes meaningless in the type of universe described by the divine speeches. YHWH does not encourage Job to hold on to his conviction that a moral principle governs the world. In the light of this radically different world-view, the situation has suddenly reversed. Instead ofYHWH being obligated to answer Job (13:2), Job must now come up with an appropriate response to new revelations about the nature of the universe. The image, 'Gird up your loins like a man', probably refers to tucking the ends of one's robe into a belt to permit quick movement.
YHWH's Two Speeches and Job's Responses (38:1-42:6)
The dramatic climax to the book of Job finally arrives, after an interminable delay, at least from Job's perspective. In a sense, his eagerly awaited audience before the Creator contains no surprise, for he expected to encounter power; still, the divine speeches do not measure up to advanced billing. Instead of resolving the matter of Job's innocence, they completely ignore the problem that has exercised Job and his four detractors for so long. Nor do the divine speeches from the whirlwind throw any light on the suffering of innocent persons. YHWH's entire discourse ignores humankind, except in mocking questions addressed to Job. Instead, YHWH expresses exhilaration over meteorological phenomena and animals that dwell outside the ordinary habitat of humans, with one notable exception, the warhorse. Most importantly, YHWH reserves pride of place for two partly mythological creatures, Behemoth and Leviathan. The two speeches (38:1—39:30; 40:1—41:34 (MT 26)) begin with narrative introductions (38:1; 40:6), present direct challenges to Job (38:2—3; 40:7— 14), and examine specific themes already articulated in the rebuke of Job (the divine plan, 38:4-39:30; mispat, 40:15-41:34 (MT 26)). Each speech has two distinct parts. The first speech takes up cosmological and meteorological phenomena
(38:4—7) The creation of the earth is described as if it were a huge temple; YHWH designs and constructs the edifice, to the jubilation of interested onlookers (cf. Prov 8:22-31, where the emphasis falls on wisdom's presence and excited reaction). The allusion to heavenly singing echoes the liturgical dedication associated with the construction of an earthly temple. The dedication of YHWH's temple evoked singing from the morning stars and divine beings. The final phrase of 38:5, 'surely you know!', occurs elsewhere in the related sayings attributed to the foreign sage, Agur (Prov 30:1—14, specifically inv.4).
(38:4-38) and then discusses five pairs of animals (38:3939:30). The second speech is limited to two special creatures. After each divine speech, Job responds (40:3—5—following a specific invitation from YHWH to answer in 40:1-2—and 42:1-6). The content of the divine speeches resembles the exquisite poetry of Isa 40:12-31 and Ps 104. Readers react variously to the divine speeches; some consider them sublime irrelevance, others think they succeed in forcing a self-centred Job to take a less egocentric view of the universe, and still others discern an unpleasant fact beyond the playful)?) mockery: a world devoid of morality (Tsevat 1966: 73—106). Perhaps the poet chose the wisest course, to leave Job's problem
(38:8-11) Once earth has been established, YHWH sets about to contain the boisterous sea, which represented primeval chaos in ancient Near-Eastern myths. Acting as midwife, YHWH assists in its birth and cares for the newborn infant. At the same time he provided clothing for the sea (clouds and
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constellations affected what transpired on earth, even influencing rainfall. The identity of the constellations mentioned here is not certain; a case has been made for the following: Pleiades, Orion, Sirius, and Aldebaran (de Wilde 1981: 366—7). He notes that the last three in this list appear when Pleiades is 'bound,' i.e. hidden from sight.
darkness), YHWH determined its limits, here envisioned as doors imposed by divine command. The image is that of parental discipline, a prohibition aimed at the infant's wellbeing. Behind this language of bursting forth and containment lie numerous biblical and non-biblical stories about primordial chaos, but that hostile power is here circumscribed (cf. Ps 74:13—14; 89:10—13 (MT 9—14); Isa 51:9—10; Enuma Elish). The allusion to proud waves points beyond itself to an important topos in the second speech (see 40:10-14).
(38:34—8) The chapter concludes with questions about Job's ability to summon the rain and command lightning during a severe drought. YHWH asks Job if he possesses the requisite skill to handle containers holding precious water, skins and jugs. Although the Hebrew of v. 36 is difficult, it may refer to the ibis and the cock; ancient Egyptians thought the ibis announced the Nile's rising and the cock predicted the approach of rain. Divine sarcasm in v. 35 stands out above the constant ridicule of the rhetorical questions; YHWH imagines the ludicrous: lightning bolts address Job obediently, 'Here we are.'
(38:12-15) YHWH's description of dawn's power to renew creation each day echoes Job's earlier curse (3:9) and complaint about reversals of dawn and darkness (24:13—17). In YHWH's graphic image, a personified dawn takes hold of earth's corners like a bedsheet and shakes out the wicked like bedbugs. Their natural fondness for darkness becomes a self-fulfilling curse, light being denied them and their strength being checked (38:15). In YHWH's world, the wicked have a place just like the good, but dawn limits their destructiveness.
(38:39-39:30) Beginning in v. 39, YHWH calls Job's attention to wild animals: lion and raven, mountain goat and deer, wild ass and ox, ostrich and horse, hawk and vulture. Scenes from the ancient Near East depict kings hunting many of these wild creatures. Such royal sport contains an element of control; as lord of all creatures, the King of the Universe subjects wild animals to his wishes. Two irreconcilable symbolic gestures rest behind these descriptions; YHWH protects his kingdom from all threat posed by wild animals, and he rules over the animals' well-being. The rhetorical questions continue throughout these descriptions, with the exception of the reference to the ostrich, where one also finds God mentioned in the third person.
(38:16-21) Turning to the remote regions of the universe, YHWH asks Job about the extent of his progress in reaching the deep recesses, whether above or below. The prophet Amos mentions similar remote areas, along with hiding-places closer to home and a little more distant (Am 9:1-4, Sheol, the depths of the sea, heaven, caves on Mt. Carmel, exile). Whereas Amos emphasizes YHWH's ease in following and punishing anyone who might flee his wrath, the divine speech in Job 38:16—21 concentrates on Job's inability to make such a journey. Twice in this brief section YHWH mocks Job (w. 18, 21). YHWH reminds him that his life span is but a speck on the eons of time.
(38:39-41) For some unknown reason the lion is paired with the raven. The terror inspired by lions prompted the prophet Amos to speak of the divine calling to prophesy as an inescapable summons, just as the roar of a lion brings terror (Am 3:8). YHWH asks Job if he can provide food for hungry lions and ravens when they cry out. (39:1-4) In this section YHWH recalls an earlier stage, that of gestation and birth. He asks whether or not Job could watch over these intimate moments in the lives of mountain goats and deer.
(38:22-4) At this point, YHWH shifts from cosmology to meteorology. At least two, possibly three, of these items cause harm (hail, east wind, lightning (?)). The use of the Hebrew word 'or (light) instead of the usual word for lightning (but see 37:11), and the reference to snow, suggest that the speech alludes to two positive and two negative phenomena. Only in one instance does YHWH elaborate: hail is associated with warfare (cf. Ex 9:22—6; Josh 10:11). Late Jewish literature describes heavenly journeys during which angels disclose esoteric knowledge to favoured individuals (cf. i Enoch 41:4; 60:11—12 for a journey to heavenly storehouses).
(39:5-12) YHWH turns to discuss two wild animals with domesticated equivalents. The wild ass, or onager, lived in the steppe or in salt flats; its preference for living away from human presence gave rise to proverbial sayings (e.g. Tshmael is a wild ass of a man'). The strength of the wild ox, possibly the extinct aurochs, was an occasion for marvel. The questions regarding this animal approach the ludicrous: will it serve you, sleep in your crib, submit to your ropes, and plow a straight furrow? (39:13-18) Like the wild ass, which laughs at noisy cities (39:7), the ostrich laughs at the horse and its rider. YHWH claims to have withheld wisdom from the ostrich, with unfortunate consequences for its offspring. In perpetuating this misconception about ostriches, YHWH gives voice to popular lore at the time of the author. In this matter, as in all others, the author faced enormous difficulty the moment he decided to allow YHWH to become one participant among several in a debate.
(38:25-30) YHWH asks Job if he knows pertinent facts about the rain, dew, hoarfrost, and ice. According to the ancient Israelite cosmogony, the firmament was thought to resemble hard metal, hence the language of cutting channels for the rain and making openings through which lightning could pass. YHWH goes to some lengths to emphasize the divine prodigality where rain was involved (cf. Am 4:7-8). Twice YHWH states that rain fell where no human being lived, in the desert waste, w. 28—9 use images of begetting and birthing; rain and dew are referred to the male act of procreation, whereas ice and hoarfrost are associated with the womb. The formation of ice is further described as water hiding on a rock (cf. Sir 43:20, ice is viewed as a lake's breastplate).
(38:31-3) Unlike the rest of the sections dealing with meteorological phenomena, this one has nothing directly to say about water. Perhaps it was thought that the movements of
353 JOB
(39:I9~25) Th£ horse is the only domesticated animal in this list often, but what a majestic creature! YHWH can hardly contain the excitement over the warhorse. Completely devoid of fear, the mighty horse laughs as it charges into the heat of battle. The language of a 'warrior god' serves to characterize this horse (might, thunder, majesty, terror; so Habel 1985: 547). The horse's desire for battle rivals the drive for water or sex (Newsom 1996: 612).
in Prov 9:1). The description of this animal suggests either the hippopotamus or the water-buffalo. In Egyptian myth, the god Horus hunts Seth in the form of a hippopotamus (Keel 1978:138-9). Ugaritic myth mentions bull-like creatures, and the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh records an incident in which Gilgamesh and Enkidu slay a 'Bull of Heaven'. The comparison of Behemoth's zanab in v. 17 to a cedar derives from the role of bulls in fertility religion; the word zanab (tail) is a euphemism for penis. This powerful creature is called 'the first of the ways of God'; the same thing is said of Wisdom in Prov 8:22. With slight repointing of the Hebrew consonants in v. 19 b, it may be translated 'made to dominate its companions', in context preferable to 'its maker approaches it with his sword', for elsewhere the description of Behemoth has no suggestion of a struggle between gods and chaos. (41:1-34 (MT 40:25-41:26)) In contrast to Behemoth, an animal in repose, Leviathan stands before Job as a creature of violence. YHWH begins the description by posing rhetorical questions to Job that illustrate the absurdity of attempting to control this terrifying creature, visualized as part crocodile and part mythical monster (41:1-12) (MT 40:25-41:4). The images for hunting and fishing are not entirely clear, but the practice of controlling captured slaves by inserting a cord through the nose or cheek is mentioned in the Bible (e.g. 2 Kings 19:28; Isa 37:29). The idea of this powerful creature begging for mercy, or submitting to girls' play, or even providing meat for bartering tradesmen approaches the ridiculous. Even the gods dare not engage Leviathan in battle (41:9 (MT 41:1)). Although difficult, w. 10-12 (MT 2-4) may represent God's indication that none can withstand Leviathan, the creature's arrogant boast, and God's decision not to silence such boasting. Leviathan boasts only about his own domain, unlike Job. (41:13-24 (MT 41:5-16)) The description of Leviathan begins with its skin, resembling an impenetrable coat of mail, and moves from this general panoramic view to a close-up of the face, neck, and chest. Power and beauty combine to make this creature godlike; it has eyes like the dawn which emit a beam of light, and breathes fire like a dragon. The association of fire and smoke with the gods (cf. Ps 18:8 (MT 9)) is a common feature of ancient lore. (41:25-34 (MT 17-26)) Before this awesome creature the gods cower, especially when it surfaces so that its impenetrable shield becomes visible. Weapons of war bounce off like harmless straw (sword, spear, dart, javelin, arrows, iron and bronze clubs). Laughter links this powerful creature with the wild ass, ostrich, and warhorse, but Leviathan's ability to distance itself in raging water, disappearing in its white wake, makes it king over all the proud. In 40:11/7 YHWH challenged Job to 'look on all who are proud and abase them'; here Leviathan 'looks on all that are proud' (41:34
(39:26-30) The final pair of animals, hawk and vulture, watch from above as a grim scene unfolds on the battlefields below. From their perspective, corpses provide food for them and their young. This section reaches a conclusion by harking back to the provision of food for the raven and its offspring. Beginning with the description of the horse in battle, YHWH views the conflict of armies from the perspective of the horse and the vulture, rather than from war's effect on human history.
(40:1-5) YHWH demands that Job respond. The former critic acknowledges his lack of honour (social status) over against YHWH and gestures that he will be silent. The earlier boast that he will approach God like a prince gives way now to a numerical saying. The expected disputation has not materialized.
(40:6-42:6) The Mystery of Divine Governance The second divine speech resembles the earlier description of the warhorse, only with considerably more detail. YHWH boasts about two powerful creatures, Behemoth and Leviathan. Partly animal and partly a product of a mythical imagination, these two liminal beasts cavort on land and in water. YHWH's world makes room for such beasts, indeed he glories in their freedom and strength. Although a threat to any mortal who dared to challenge them, they, too, enjoy YHWH's protection.
(40:6-14) The narrator repeats the introduction from 38:1 and the command to Job from 38:3, while explicating the accusation of 38:2 (40:6-8). Finally, YHWH comes to the point of the debate as Job understands it. God is guilty, and Job is innocent. Instead of accepting this view of things, YHWH bristles at such impertinence. To silence Job, YHWH challenges him to perform specific tasks that fall to the deity. First, to manifest his splendour, then to overcome pride (ge 'eh), and vanquish the wicked. If Job can successfully perform these duties, YHWH will concede. Does the poet permit YHWH to indulge in a minor confession that even the Creator finds these tasks something of a challenge? By focusing on pride as the fundamental form of rebellion, YHWH shifts the issue from the realm of legality to that of inner attitude. The question is no longer guilt or innocence, whether Job's or YHWH's, but a correct assessment of one's place. In YHWH's view, Job's helplessness when confronted with something as basic as pride renders his charges against the Creator null and void. The divine judge, as it were, has issued a verdict. YHWH, the accused, is innocent.
(MT26)).
(42:1—6) The exact meaning of Job's response to YHWH's discourse is unclear, perhaps intentionally so. He certainly acknowledges YHWH's power, but that is not new. Job also quotes YHWH twice (42:30, 4) and responds to each citation; he concedes that he has spoken without understanding, but his second concession is capable of several interpretations. In fact, even his statement in v. 5 is ambiguous. Does he say