Part 12
(1995), Priests, Prophets, Diviners, Sages: A Socio-Historical Study of Religious Specialists in Ancient Israel (Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity Int.).
(ed.) (1997), Can a History of Israel Be Written? JSOTSup 245 = European Seminar in Historical Methodology, i (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press).
(2000), Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period: Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh (London: Routledge). Haran, M. (1962), 'Shilo and Jerusalem: The Origin of the Priestly
Tradition in the Pentateuch', JBI 81:14-24.
(1978), Temples and Temple-Service in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon). Hartley, J. E. (1992), Leviticus, WBC 4 (Dallas: Word Books). Hecht, R. (1979—80), 'Patterns of Exegesis in Philo's Interpretation of
(apart from 2 Chr 31:6)? How was the tithing to be carried out? If the entire herd or flock was run by each year, the breeding stock would gradually become decimated (literally). Would it just have been the new crop of calves, kids, and lambs each time? This makes sense, but no discussion is given. Why? Is it because this was only a theoretical law which was never put into practice? Giving the first-born of each breeding animal would equal roughly 10 per cent, so how did the tithe relate to the command about the first-born? The question of how these instructions of Leviticus related to the actual situation in Israel is brought forcefully to our attention in these verses. For a further comment on the situation, see LEV 1.4 above.
Leviticus', Studia Philonica, 6: 77—155. Heider, G. C. (1985), The Cult ofMolek: A Reassessment, JSOTSup 43
(Sheffield: JSOT). Houston, W. (1993), Purity and Monotheism: Clean and Unclean Ani-
mals in Biblical Law, JSOTSup 140 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press). Hiibner, U. (1989), 'Schweine, Schweineknochen und ein Speisever-
bot im Alien Israel', VT•)<)•. 225-36. Hurvitz, A. (1982), A Linguistic Study of the Relationship between the
Priestly Source and the Book of Ezekiel: A New Approach to an Old Problem, Cahiers de la Revue Biblique, 20 (Paris: Gabalda).
(1988), 'Dating the Priestly Source in Light of the Historical Study of Biblical Hebrew: A Century after Wellhausen', ZAW100 Suppl., 88-100. Janowski, B. and Wilhelm, G. (1993), 'Der Bock, der die Siinden
Andreasen, N.-E. A. (1972), The Old Testament Sabbath, SBL Disserta-
tion 7 (Missoula, Mont: Scholars Press). Blenkinsopp, J. (1996), 'An Assessment of the Alleged Pre-Exilic Date
hinaustragt: Zur Religionsgeschichte des Azazel-Ritus Lev 16,10.21 f, in Bernd Janowski, Klaus Koch, and Gernot Wilhelm (eds.), Religionsgeschichtliche Beziehungen zwischen Kleinasien, Nordsyrien und dem Alien Testament: Internationales Symposion Hamburg 17.—21. Mdrz 1990, OBO 129 (Fribourg: Universitatsverlag; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck 69. Jenson, P. P. (1992), Graded Holiness: A Key to the Priestly Conception
of the Priestly Material in the Pentateuch', ZAWioS: 495-518. Bloch-Smith, E. (1992), Judahite Burial Practices and Beliefs about the
Dead, JSOTSup 123; JSOT/ASOR MS, 7 (Sheffield: JSOT). Childs, B. S. (1979), Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture
(Philadelphia: Fortress). Cross, F. M. (1947), The Priestly Tabernacle', BA10: 45-68 (=BAR r.
of the World, JSOTSup 106 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press). Kellermann, D. (1977), ''dshdm', TDOT (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerd-
201-28). Damrosch, D. (1987), 'Leviticus', in R. Alter and F. Kermode (eds.),
The Literary Guide to the Bible (London: Collins), 66-77. Day, J. (1989), Molech: A God of Human Sacrifice in the Old Testament,
mans), i. 429—37. Kilian, R. (1963), LiteraAritische und formgeschichtliche Untersuchung
University of Cambridge Oriental Publications, 41 (Cambridge University Press). Douglas, M. (1966), Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of
des Heiligkeitsgesetzes, BBB 19 (Bonn: Peter Hanstein). Kirschner, R. (1982—3), 'Rabbinic and Philonic Exegesis of the Nadab
and Abihu Incident (Lev. 10:1-6)', JQR 73: 375-93. Kiuchi, N. (1987), The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature: Its
Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul).
(1993), The Forbidden Animals in Leviticus', JSOT 59: 3-23. Elliger, K. (1966), Leviticus, HAT 4 (Tubingen: Mohr [Siebeck]). Finkelstein, J. J. (1961), 'Amisaduqa's Edict and the Babylonian "Law
Meaning and Function, JSOTSup 56 (Sheffield: JSOT). Knierim, R. P. (1992), Text and Concept in Leviticus 1:1-9: A Case in
Exegetical Method, FAT 2 (Tubingen: MohrfSiebeck]). Knohl, I. (1987), 'The Priestly Torah Versus the Holiness School:
Codes" ', JCS 15: 91-104. Gennep, A. van (1960), The Rites of Passage (London: Routledge &
Sabbath and the Festivals', HUCA 58: 65-117.
Kegan Paul). Gerstenberger, E. S. (1993), Das dritte Buch Mose: Leviticus, ATD 6
(1995), The Sanctuary of Silence: The Priestly Torah and the Holiness School (Minneapolis: Fortress). Koch, K. (1959), Die Priesterschrift von Exodus 25 bis Leviticus 16: Eine
(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht); ET Leviticus: A Commentary, OTL, tr. Douglas W. Stott (London: SCM; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox, 1996). Gorman, F. H., Jr. (1990), The Ideology of Ritual: Space, Time and Status
uberlieferungsgeschichtliche und literarische Untersuchung, FRLANT 71 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht). Lemche, N. P. (1976), 'The Manumission of Slaves—the Fallow
in the Priestly Theology, JSOTSup 91 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press).
Year—the Sabbatical Year—the Jobel Year', VT26: 38-59.
N U M B E R S
Lemche, N. P. (1979), 'Andurarum and Misarum: Comments on the
Rendtorff R. (1963), Die Gesetze in der Priesterschrift: Eine gattungs-
Problem of Social Edicts and their Application in the Ancient Near East',JNES 38:11-22.
geschichtliche Untersuchung, 2nd edn. (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht).
(1985), Early Israel: Anthropological and Historical Studies on the Israelite Society before the Monarchy, VTSup 37 (Leiden: Brill).
(1982-95), Leviticus, BKAT 3 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag). Reventlow, H. G. (1961), Das Heiligkeitsgesetzformgeschichtlich unter-
(1991), The Canaanites and Their Land: The Tradition of the Canaanites, JSOTSup no (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press).
sucht, WMANT (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag). Schiissler Fiorenza, E. (ed.) (199412), with the assistance of S. Mat-
(1993), The Old Testament—a Hellenistic Book', 5/077:163-93. Levine, B. A. (1974), In the Presence of the Lord: A Study of Cult and Some
thews, Searching the Scriptures, i. A Feminist Introduction (London:
Cultic Terms in Ancient Israel, SJLA 5 (Leiden: Brill). Lewy, H. (1958), The Biblical Institution of D"rdr in the Light of
SCM).
(1994!?), with the assistance of A. Brock and S. Matthews, Searching the Scriptures ii. A Feminist Commentary (London: SCM). Schmidt, B. B. (1994), Israel's Beneficent Dead: Ancestor Cult and
Akkadian Documents', El y.2i*-jf. McCarthy, D. J. (1978), Treaty and Covenant, 2nd edn., AnBib 2iA
(Rome: Biblical Institute). Marx, A. (1989), 'Sacrifice pourles peches ou rites de passage? Quel-
Necromancy in Ancient Israelite Religion and Tradition, FAT n (Tubingen: Mohr[Siebeck]). Schwartz, B. J. (1991), The Prohibitions Concerning the "Eating" of
ques reflexions sur la fonction du, hattat', RB 96: 27-48.
(1994), Les Offrandes vegetales dans I'Ancien Testament: Du tribut d'hommage au repas eschatologique, VTSup 57 (Leiden: Brill). Milgrom, J. (1976), Cult and Conscience: The ASHAM and the Priestly
Blood in Leviticus 17', in G. A. Anderson and S. M. Olyan (eds.), Priesthood and Cult in Ancient Israel, JSOTSup 125 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press), 34-66. Shafer, B. E. (1976), 'Sabbath', IDBSup 760-2. Wegner, J. R. (1992), 'Leviticus', in C. A. Newsom and S. H. Ringe
Doctrine of Repentance (Leiden: Brill).
(1991), Leviticus 1—16, AB 3 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday). (1992), 'Priestly ("P") Source', ABD v. 454-61. Morgenstern, J. (1955), The Decalogue of the Holiness Code', HUCA
(eds.), The Women's Bible Commentary (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/ John Knox; London: SPCK), 36—44. Wenham, G. J. (1979), The Book of Leviticus, NICOT (Grand Rapids,
26:1-27. Newsom, C. A., and Ringe, S. H. (eds.) (1992), The Women's Bible
Mich.: Eerdmans). Whybray, R. N. (1987), The Making of the Pentateuch: A Methodological
Commentary (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox; London: SPCK). Noth, M. (1977), Leviticus: A Commentary, OTL, rev. trans. (London:
Study, JSOTSup 53 (Sheffield: JSOT). Wiseman, D. J. (1958), The Vassal-Treaties of Esarhaddon', Iraq 20,
SCM). Porter, J. R. (1976), Leviticus, Cambridge Bible Commentary on the
Parti. Wright, D. P. (1987), The Disposal of Impurity: Elimination Rites in the
New English Bible (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Rattray, S. (1987), 'Marriage Rules, Kinship Terms and Family Struc-
Bible and in Hittite and Mesopotamian Literature, SBL Dissertation, 101 (Atlanta: Scholars Press). Zevit, Z. (1982), 'Converging Lines of Evidence Bearing on the Date of
ture in the Bible', Society of Biblical Literature Abstracts and Seminar Papers, 26, ed. K. Richards (Atlanta: Scholars Press), 537-44.
P', ZAW 94: 481-511.
7. Numbers T E R E N C E E. F R E T H E I M
B. Source and Tradition. 1. The origin of Numbers is also complex. Most scholars consider the book to be a composite of sources (both oral and written) from various historical periods. The book itself speaks of sources, the Book of the Wars of the Lord (21:14) and popular songs (21:17-18, 27-30). The tradition most identifiable is the Priestly writing (in several redactions), with its interest in matters of worship and priesthood; it is most attested in chs. i-io; 26-36, and provides continuity with Ex 25-40 and Leviticus. Other sources, such as J and E (esp. in chs. 11—25), are more difficult
A. Character. 1. The book of Numbers, named for its census lists, is the most complex of the books of the Pentateuch. This can be seen in the variety of types of literature represented, e.g. lists, itineraries, various statutes, ritual and priestly prescriptions, poetic oracles, songs, wilderness stories, and even a well-known benediction (6:22-7). The interweaving of law and narrative characteristic of Exodus and Deuteronomy is most evident in Numbers; specific statutes again and again emerge from specific life situations, revealing a dynamic relationship of law and life.
to distinguish; it is common to speak simply of an older epic tradition. The association of blocks of texts with three primary locales (Sinai, 1:1-10:10; Kadesh, chs. 13-20; Moab, chs. 2236) could reflect a way in which traditions were gathered over time. Beyond this, editorial activity seems unusually common
2. Moreover, some of these texts border on the bizarre, with talking donkeys, curses from a non-Israelite diviner turned into blessings that have messianic implications, the earth swallowing up people, copper snakes that have healing powers, an almond-producing rod, an execution for picking up sticks on the sabbath, Miriam turning leprous, and repulsive instructions for discerning a wife's faithfulness. One is tempted to claim that these strange goings-on were constructed to match the incredible character of Israel's response to its God. To complicate these matters, God is often depicted in ways that challenge traditional understandings; at times it seems that God's identity is in the process of being shaped too.
(for detail, see Milgrom 1990: pp. xvii-xxi).
2. Also of scholarly import has been the study of individual traditions and their development, e.g. the Balaam cycle, the murmuring stories, the censuses, the wilderness encampment, the Transjordan conquest, the cities of refuge, land apportionment, and the priesthood. It is clear from such work that various Israelite interests from different times and places inform the present redaction. These traditions have in
in N U M B E R S
evident especially in the conflict among leaders, sin, and divine judgement. Integrated with these journey reports are miscellaneous statutes (chs. 15; 18; 19), focused on purification and leadership support, the need for which grows out of these experiences.
time (perhaps during and after the Exile) been brought together to form a unified composition, but the character of that unity has been difficult to discern.
C. Structure. 1. The structure of Numbers, often thought to be non-existent, is best seen from two angles, those of the census lists and the geography of a journey.
(c) The journey concludes in the plains of Moab (26:1— 36:13). This is an entirely positive stage. Conflicts are resolved through negotiation and compromise and land begins to be settled. Various statutes anticipate the future in the land; the community is to so order its life that this new dwelling-place of both God and people will not be polluted.
2. The Census Lists (for detail, see Olson 1985). The overarching structure of the book is laid out in terms of its two census lists (chs. i; 26). The first registers the generation that experienced the Exodus and the giving of the law at Sinai, which is prepared to move towards the land of promise. When faced with dangers, however, the people do not trust the promise; they experience God's judgement (14:32-3) and finally, in the wake of apostasy, die off in a plague (25:9). Even Moses and Aaron mistrust God and are prohibited from entering the land (20:12); only the faithful scouts, Caleb and Joshua, and the young (14:29) are allowed to do so. The oracles of Balaam (chs. 22-4) provide a hopeful sign of things to come, as God blesses the insiders through this outsider.
6. These three stages may also be characterized in terms of Israel's changing relationship with God, moving from fidelity to unfaithfulness and back to fidelity. But, through all these developments, God remains faithful and does not turn back from the ancestral promises to Israel (articulated most clearly by Balaam). Though Israel's journey involves judgement, that judgement is finally in the service of God's objectives of blessing and salvation.
7. Such a portrayal mirrors the situation of the implied (exilic) readers of the Pentateuch (for details, see the proposal in Fretheim 1996: 40—65). Israel's apostasy and experience of divine judgement lie in their recent past; signs of a hopeful future are articulated in both law and promise. The paradigm of old generation and new generation would be especially pertinent during the years of exile in a situation which could be seen to have parallels with that of the Israelites in the wilderness.
3. The second census (ch. 26) lists the members of the new generation (though no births are reported in Numbers). They are a sign of God's continuing faithfulness to ancestral promises and will enter the land. The following texts (chs. 27—36) raise issues focused on the future in the land. No deaths, no murmurings, and no rebellions against the leadership are in view, while various hopeful signs are presented. This new generation is the audience for Deuteronomy.
4. Generally speaking, the censuses include representatives from each of the twelve tribes. This inclusiveness may have functioned in the wake of various devastating events in Israel's history as an assurance that all tribes were included among the chosen (see Douglas 1993).
D. Leading Themes. 1. Certain themes provide compass points for negotiating the journey through Numbers: the wilderness book, the ancestral promises, the divine presence and guidance, divine revelation and human leadership, and holy people and holy priests.
5. The Geography of a Journey. The movement through Numbers can also be tracked in terms of three stages of a journey toward the fulfilment of the land promise, with all the problems encountered along the way in spite of careful preparations. The itinerary of 33:2—49 emphasizes the importance of the journey as such, apart from specific occasions. Laws are integrated into the story, providing for an ongoing ordering of the community as it encounters new situations. The positive opening and closing sections enclose a sharply negative picture.
2. A Wilderness Book. The entire book is set in the wilderness. Appropriately, Tn the Wilderness' is the Hebrew title for Numbers. This setting presents problems and possibilities for shaping a community identity for the newly redeemed people of God. As a long-oppressed community, Israel has a deeply ingrained identity as 'slave'. It does not have the resources to move quickly to a 'slaves no more' (Lev 26:13) mentality; God must be at work to enable them to 'walk erect' once again. The period of wandering is a necessary buffer between liberation and landedness for the sake of forming such an identity. Such a process does not unfold easily for Israel or for God; even the most meticulous preparations for the journey are not able to make things go right. It is possible to take the people out of Egypt, but it proves difficult to take Egypt out of the people. The familiar orderliness of Egypt seems preferable to the insecurities of life lived from one oasis to the next. In other words, the problem is not so much the law as an inability to rely on the God who has brought freedom and keeps promises.
(a) Numbers begins with the people still situated at Sinai, preparing to leave (1:1—10:10). That includes the organization of the camp and various statutes, especially regarding the sanctuary and its leadership. A somewhat idealistic picture emerges: a community ordered in all ways appropriate to God's dwelling in the centre of the camp, and the precise obedience to every divine command (e.g. 1:17—19, 54). The reader may wonder how anything could go wrong.
(b) In episodic fashion, Israel moves through the wilderness from Sinai to Transjordan (10:11—25:18). The disjunction with the opening (and closing) chapters is remarkable: obedience to God's command turns to rebellion; trust becomes mistrust; the holy is profaned; order becomes disorder; the future of the people of God is threatened. Continuities with the wilderness journey story in Ex 15:22—19:1 are seen in the gifts of quail and manna, the ongoing complaints, and military victory; but discontinuities are also sharply presented,
3. Israel's time in the wilderness is finally shaped by God's extraordinary patience and mercy, and the divine will to stay with Israel in this time of adolescence. No divine flick of the wrist is capable of straightening them out without compromising their freedom. If God wants a mature child, the possibility of defiance must be risked. But it soon becomes clear that the process of maturation will take longer than a single
NUMBERS 112
ents the presence of God (10:35—6). God's ongoing presence is the decisive factor in Israel's journey, but various texts witness also to the importance of human leadership; for example, the passage regarding Hobab's skills (10:29-32) is placed immediately before the ark text (10:33—6). God works in and through what is available, even characters such as Balaam, to move towards the divine objectives.
generation. God will not compromise in holding I srael to high standards.
4. Ancestral Promises. God is committed to the ancestral promises, especially of land. As Israel moves out from Sinai, the goal is the land God is 'giving' (10:29 and often). Conditions regarding the land promise are expressed (14:8), which affect the future of individuals—even an entire generation— but not finally Israel as such. Beyond that, the promises are spoken almost exclusively by Balaam. His oracles ironically gather the clearest references to the promises in Numbers; no Israelite, including Moses, has standing enough left to bring them to expression.
10. Divine Revelation and Human Leadership. Revelation is not confined to Sinai; it occurs throughout Israel's journey. Statutes and other divine words newly enjoin Israel all along the way. This was the case with Israel's wanderings before
Sinai as well (15:26; 18:23). God's word is not delivered in a once-and-for-all fashion; it is a dynamic reality, intersecting with life and all its contingencies. This is demonstrated in the very form of this material in the interweaving of law and narrative (for detail, see Fretheim 1991: 201-7).
5. The middle section (chs. 11-25) problematizes the movement toward fulfilment; the wilderness is a time of endangered promises. Again and again the people trust the deceptive securities of the past more than God's promised future (11:5; 21:5). Hence, they experience disasters of various kinds that threaten progress towards the goal, including plagues (11:33; J6:49), an abortive conquest (chs. 13—14), and snake infestation (21:6).
11. God's word is usually mediated through Moses, but not uniquely so. This becomes an issue during the journey. Challenges to Moses' (and Aaron's) leadership that began in the pre-Sinai wanderings are intensified in Numbers, and other leaders take up the argument. Related issues and disputes are pursued in various chapters (n; 12; 16; 17).
6. The final section (chs. 26-36), with the new generation in place, bespeaks confidence in the promises with the apportionment of lands (26:53—6) and the specification of boundaries (34:1-15). Initial settlements in Transjordan function as a 'down-payment' on the fulfilment of the promise (chs. 31-2). Moreover, various laws dealing with emerging issues constitute a hopeful sign in the midst of much failure and grief; a community will exist to obey them. In some sense, the ongoing promulgation of law is a witness that the promise of land will indeed be fulfilled.
12. The issue is voiced most sharply by Miriam and Aaron: has God spoken only through Moses (12:2)? The response is negative. God is not confined to only one way to speak to this community; indeed, if need be, God will go around the chosen ones to get a word through. God's spirit even rests upon the outsider Balaam who mediates remarkably clear words of God (24:2-4, 15-16). Nevertheless, Moses does have a special relationship with God and challenges to his role are not countenanced.
7. Divine Presence and Guidance. God, not Moses, has given birth to this people (11:12) and has chosen to stay with the family and to dwell in the heart of their camp (5:3). From this womb-like centre blessings flow out into the encircled community. This intense kind of presence is promised for Israel's future in the land as well (35:34). Even Balaam testifies to the presence of such a God among this people (23:21-2).
13. God communicates to and through Moses often in Numbers; indeed, 7:89 speaks of Moses' contact with God in an almost routinized way. In 12:8 God himself claims for Moses a unique face-to-face encounter. Moses actually 'beholds the form of the LORD' and lives to tell about it. One facet of this relationship is especially remarkable: the genuine interaction between them as they engage issues confronting the wandering community. Characteristic of their relationship in Exodus (chs. 3-6; 32-4, cf. GEN 18:22-33), it intensifies in Numbers (chs. n; 12; 14; 16; 21; cf. Ps 106:23).
8. Because of the intense presence of God in Israel's midst, and the recognition of God's holiness, the tabernacle was to be protected from casual contact. This concern is sharpened in view of the golden calf apostasy and the near annihilation of Israel (Ex 32:9—10). Precautions must be taken to prevent a recurrence for the sake of the integrity of the divine—human relationship. The tribe of Levi was consecrated for service at the tabernacle and made responsible for guarding this holy place (1:50—3). Sharp warnings about intrusion are issued (1:51—3; 3:10, 38); even Levites could die if furnishings were mishandled (4:17-20). Strikingly, encroachment is not a serious problem in the subsequent narratives, except as related to conflict over leadership (ch. 16). The more problematic issue is mistrust and rebellion with respect to God and God's chosen leaders. These forms of sinfulness in particular pervade chs. 11-25 and deeply affect the character of the journey and the shape of Israel's future. On God's wrath and judgement, see especially at NUM 1:53 and ch. 14.
14. This says something about both Moses and God. Moses' leadership credentials are considerable, including a capacity to tolerate threats to his authority (11:29) and to persevere with God (chs. n; 14; 16), calling forth the strong statement regarding his unique devotion (12:3). God also is remarkably open to such discourse, treats the relationship with integrity, and honours the insights that Moses offers. Indeed, God may shape a different future in view of the encounter (14:13-20; 16:20—2). But such divine openness to change will always be in the service of God's unchanging goals for Israel and the creation (Balaam's point in 23:19).
15. Some of the disputes are focused on Aaron (and his sons) and their priestly leadership (chs. 16; 17). Actual tests are carried out which substantiate their unique role with respect to the sanctuary in the eyes of God. Members of this family also take actions that have an intercessory function; they stand 'between the dead and the living' and a plague is averted (16:47—50; cf. 25:7—13). This correlates with their mediating role in various rituals (chs. 5; 15).
9. Israel's God not only dwells in the midst of Israel, but also goes before them. The accompanying presence of God is associated with the pillar of cloud/fire; 9:15-23 speaks of it in such a way that the itinerary is not predictable or routinized. This symbol is linked to the ark of the covenant, which repres-
113 N U M B E R S
16. Interest in the proper succession of leaders (Eleazar, 20:22—9; Joshua 27:12—23) demonstrates the crucial importance of good leaders for the stability of the community. Rebellion against God-chosen leaders is deeply subversive of God's intentions for the community and risks death short of the goal. But the leaders themselves are not exempt from strict standards (20:10—12). They may be held to a higher standard, because the impact of their mistakes has such a deep and pervasive effect on the community.
Familial Challenge to Moses' Leadership (12:1-16) The Spy Mission (13:1—14:45)
Statutes for Life in the Land (15:1—41) The Rebellions of Korah and others (16:1-50) Aaron's Blossoming Rod (17:1-13) Rights and Responsibilities of Priests and Levites (18:1—32) Ritual of the Red Heifer (19:1-22) The Disobedience of Moses and Aaron (20:1-29) Victory, Complaint, and Healing (21:1-35) The Story of Balaam (22:1—24:25) The Final Rebellion (25:1-18) The New Generation on the Plains ofMoab (26:1-36:13)
17. Holy People and Holy Priests. The call in Leviticus for the people to be holy (i.e. to live a life that exemplifies the holy people they are) is continued here (15:40). What constitutes a holy life, or that which is inimical to it, is continuous with the provisions of Leviticus in some ways. Various uncleannesses—whether moral or ritual in nature—are incompatible with holiness (chs. 5; 6). Yet, for Numbers, Israel's sins are focused on matters relating to leadership, mistrust of God and failure to believe in promises, and finally idolatry (ch. 25).
The Census of the New Generation (26:1-65) The Daughters of Zelophehad (27:1—11) From Moses to Joshua (27:12—23) Offerings for Life in the Land (28:1-29:40) Vows and their Limits (30:1-16) War Against the Midianites (31:1—54) Early Land Settlement Issues (32:1—42) The Wilderness Journey Remembered (33:1-49) Directions for the Conquest of Canaan (33:50-6) The Apportionment of the Land (34:1—29)
18. A case for more democratic forms of priestly leadership is pursued by Korah on the basis of the holiness of all the people (16:3). Moses' reply assumes gradations of holiness; even if all are holy, God chooses from among them certain persons to exercise priestly leadership, and this chosen status constitutes a holiness that sets them apart from other holy ones. The disaster experienced by Korah and his company (16:23—35) demonstrates their special status (16:40), as does the test with staffs (ch. 17).
Special Cities and Refinements in the Law (35:1—34) Once Again: the Daughters of Zelophehad (36:1-13)
19. Gradations of holiness are also evident within the members of the tribe of Levi. The Levites are set aside to care for the tabernacle, symbolized by their encampment between the tabernacle and the people. Among the Levites the family of Aaron is especially set aside for priestly duties (16:40; 17; 18:7n, 19). Indeed, a 'covenant of perpetual priesthood' is made with this family because of the mediatorial actions of Phinehas (25:10-13).
Israel Prepares to Leave Sinai (1:1-10:10)
This entire section comes from the Priestly tradition. The chronological report (1:1) situates the census one month after the completion of the tabernacle (Ex 40:17) and nineteen days before the departure from Sinai (10:11), where Israel had been for almost a year (Ex 19:1). The tabernacle stands in the centre of the camp. Encamped around it are members of the tribe of Levi. Encircling them are the various tribes of Israel, three in each direction. The tabernacle situated in the centre of the camp expresses a divine centring for the community generally. At the same time, while God dwells among the people and guides them through the wilderness (9:17), the nature of that guidance is divinely limited. Hence, while God leads them from one oasis to the next, the divine guidance is not all-controlling and human leadership is crucial (10:29-32). The divine presence does not issue in a situation where the people have no option but to obey; disobedience is a lively possibility. Indeed, warning signs punctuate the narrative (e.g. 1:53); they alert Israel to the care needed by the community with respect to the near presence of God in their midst and the importance this has for the shape of the journey.
20. The NT works with several themes from Numbers. It cites God's providing for Israel in the wilderness and lifts up Israel's infidelity as a warning for the people of God. These themes are carefully interwoven in i Cor 10:1-13, where many texts from Num 11-25 are referenced; it is carefully noted that these passages were 'written down to instruct us' (cf Jn 3:14; Heb 3:7-4:11; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 5-11; Rev 2:14-17).
E. Outline
Israel Prepares to Leave Sinai (1:1-10:10)
The First Census (1:1—54) The Encampment (2:1—34) The Levites (3:1-4:49) Purification of the Camp (5:1-6:21) The Aaronic Benediction (6:22—7) Final Preparations for Tabernacle Worship (7:1—8:26) The Passover at Sinai (9:1-14) Divine Guidance in the Wilderness (9:15-23) The Two Silver Trumpets (10:1—10) The Wilderness Journey (10:11—25:18)
(1:1—54) The First Census The early mention of the 'tent of meeting' (v. i) signals its importance for what precedes as well as what follows; it is synonymous with the tabernacle. How it is to be related to the tent of the epic tradition (Ex 33:7-11) is uncertain; the tabernacle may have assumed the role of the tent (see 7:89). The rare phrase, 'tabernacle of the covenant'
(1:50, 53; 10:11; Ex 38:21) extends the designation for its major sacred object, the 'ark of the covenant'; the language focuses on the God—Israel relationship and the divine speaking associated with that.
Departure from Sinai (10:11-28) Human and Divine Guidance (10:29-36) A Paradigm of Rebellion (11:1—3) Rebellion and Leadership (11:4—35)
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remains God and this divine move is not to be presumed upon without the endangerment of life.
This census list plays an important structural role in Numbers (see NUM c.2). God commands the census and also names one male from each tribe to assist (except Levi; two Joseph tribes keep the number at twelve, see Gen 48), 'the leaders of their ancestral tribes' (v. 16; cf. 2:3-31; 7:12-83; 10:14—28). To appear on this list was a continuing sign assuring each tribal group of their present identity and future place among God's chosen.
In v. 54 and throughout chs. 1-9, the Israelites are reported to have done exactly as God commanded. One wonders how anything could go wrong. Later failures cannot be blamed on faulty preparations.
(2:1—34) The Encampment With the tabernacle centred in the camp, and the Levites camped immediately around it (see NUM 3), God commands that the tribes be precisely ordered around the perimeter. They are to be ordered as companies ('hosts' or 'armies'), specifying military readiness. Three tribes are to be positioned at each side of the tabernacle, under their distinctive banners; each triad is named for the dominanttribe ofthe three (seen from the perspective of Israel's later history; cf. Gen 49), which is flanked by the other two tribes in each case—the camp of Judah (the most dominant) to the east, the side where the tabernacle opening was located, and Moses and the Aaronides were camped; Reuben to the south; Ephraim to the west; Dan to the north (the leaders ofthe tribes as in 1:5-15). This order ofthe tribes is the order forthe march, beginning with Judah. The tabernacle, set in the midst ofthe Levites (v. 17), is to move between the camps of Reuben and Ephraim. God's commands are again followed. This camp may have been modelled after an Egyptian pattern (see Milgrom 1990: 340). (3:1-4:49) The Levites This section describes two censuses of the tribe of Levi, its organization, and its responsibilities for transporting and guarding the tabernacle and its furnishings. The genealogical formula (3:1) links the generation of Moses and Aaron with those in Genesis (the last is 37:2; cf. Ex 6:14-25).
The census is to include the males of the old generation, 20 years and older. The purpose is conscription, to determine 'everyone able to go to war' (cf. 2 Sam 24:9); battles are expected (though there will be few to fight, see 21:1-3). Israel has good reason to be confident with these numbers (but they are not, 14:1—4). The results of the census (perhaps the same census as in Ex 38:26; cf. 12:37): 603,550 males; the second census yields 601,730 (26:51), though the tribal distribution changes somewhat. When women, children, and Levites are added, the total must have been about 2 million. The unrealistic number has not been resolved (for a survey, see Ashley 1993: 60-6); probably it was thought, if mistakenly, to be actually this large. Whether literal or symbolic, the number testifies to God's blessing and preserving this people, and keeping the divine promises. This generation will be unfaithful and, by divine decree (14:22-30), will die off in the wilderness. At the time of the new census, 'not one of them was left', except Joshua and Caleb (26:65).
The Levites, who do not bear arms and are not registered here (see 3:14), are given duties with respect to the tabernacle and its furnishings (detailed in NUM 4). They are charged to encamp around it, protect it from casual contact, maintain it, carry it during the journey, and pitch it at each stop. The 'outsider' (v. 51) refers to all who are not Levites, whether Israelite or alien (16:40). The sense of'come near' is 'encroach (see Milgrom 1990: 342—3). Violation of the tabernacle precincts means death, not as a court verdict, but as a penalty delivered on the spot by the levitical guards (see 18:7).
(3:1—13) occurs 'at the time when God spoke with Moses on Mount Sinai' (v. i). Since that time Aaron's sons, Nadab and Abihu, have died childless (Lev 10:1-2); this reference alerts the reader to dangers associated with handling holy things, and the tasks ofthe Kohathites in particular (4:15—20). Aaron's other sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, were ordained as priests by Moses (the 'he' of v. 3; cf. Lev 8:30) and served with their father throughout his lifetime.
This drastic action is in the interests of the community as a whole, so that it will not experience the wrath of God (v. 53). God's wrath in Numbers is impersonal in its basic sense; it 'goes forth' or 'comes upon' (16:46; 18:5). Wrath is not a legal penalty, or a divine decision, but inevitably issues from the deed as a matter of the moral order; it is an effect intrinsically related to, growing out of, the violation of the place of God's presence orthe divine-human relationship (see NUM 14). God is not conceived in deistic ways, however, and sees to the movement from deed to consequence, in sometimes sharp language (11:33). The effect may be death, often in Numbers because of plague (16:46-50; 31:16). It can be overcome by various means, from sacrificial ritual (8:19) to priestly intercession (16:47—50; 25:11).
A distinction is made within the tribe of Levi between the descendants of Aaron, who attend to priestly duties, and other Levites, who assist the priests, with responsibilities for 'service at the tabernacle' (cf. 1:50-3 for an earlier summary), w. 11—13 (restated in 8:16—18) recall the killing ofthe Egyptian firstborn and the sparing ofthe Israelite firstborn (see Ex 13:1— 2, 11-15), in remembrance of (or repayment for) which God had consecrated the latter to a life of religious service; the Levites serve as substitutes for them (and their livestock for Israel's firstborn livestock). While the Levites are responsible to the sons of Aaron, it is as representatives of all Israel. It may be that God himself takes the census ofthe Levites and reports the results to Moses (3:12,15—16).
Looming large over the exacting concern for the tabernacle are Israel's past infidelities, especially the golden calf debacle, where Israel violated its relationship with God and jeopardized its future (Ex 32:9—10). God graciously chose to dwell among them; but, given the people's propensity to apostasy, safeguards had to be instituted. These strict measures are not to protect God from the people or the people from God
(3:14—39) continues in narrative time and space from 2:34 and describes God's command of a census ofthe non-Aaronide Levites (total: 22,000), their encampment positions, and their specific responsibilities. The census of Levites was prohibited in 1:47—9 because they were non-military, served the tabernacle, included all from one month and older, and represented all Israel's firstborn (cf. 3:40-1). The levitical camp is
(though violation could mean violence, v. 53), but to preserve a proper relationship between God and people. Israel has been honoured by this incredible divine condescension, but God
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moral living among the laity (male and female), and the priests have responsibilities relating to both spheres. More generally, matters of purity are important in recognition of God's dwelling in the camp (5:3), but so also are matters of moral wrongdoing, which 'break faith with the Lord' (5:6). Several cases extend or modify statutes in Leviticus.
ordered in terms of Levi's sons (Gershon, Kohath, and Merari); their clans encamp on three sides of the tabernacle and have varying duties with respect to its transit. The Kohathites
(from whom Moses and Aaron are descended) are responsible for the most sacred objects (4:4; e.g. the ark), the Gershonites for the fabrics, and the Merarites for the supporting structures (responsibilities are detailed in 4:1—33). Aaron and his sons encamp on the pre-eminent, entrance (eastern) side of the tabernacle (v. 38). Aaron's son, Eleazar, is in charge of the leaders of the three clans (v. 32) and has general oversight of the tabernacle and certain special details (4:16); his brother Ithamar has oversight over the work of the Gershonites and the Merarites (4:28,33). Again, God's commands are followed
(5:1-4) Persons who are ritually (and communicably) unclean for various reasons are to be put outside the camp to live in tents or caves, without access to worship, so as not to contaminate the community or defile the tabernacle. This statute reinforces or extends those in Leviticus (see Lev 13:45-6; 15:31-3; 21:1-3, ")•
(5:5—10) extends Lev 6:1—7; the new focus is on wrongdoing (including a false oath) where the injured party dies without next of kin, in which case priests receive the appropriate restitution. The public confession of this deliberate sin against the neighbour (see Lev 5:5) is also newly integral to the ritual; note that the sin against the neighbour 'breaks faith with God', w. 9-10 note that priests are to receive their rightful dues.
(3:16,39,42,51).
(3:40—51) The firstborn system is detailed more fully here, where the firstborn of all Israel are numbered (22,273); each of the 273 persons over and above the 22,000 Levites is redeemed by five shekels apiece (paid apparently by the firstborn, v. 50, and given to the priests; cf. Lev 27:6). The figure of 22,273 seems too low in view of the census numbers in 2:32 (even assuming an equal number of female to male firstborn, this would entail an average of fourteen male children per family); no satisfactory explanation has been given. The redemption of the firstborn keeps the exodus action of God explicitly before the people as a reminder of their redeemed status. The recurring phrase T am the LORD' (common in Leviticus) is shorthand for the divine origin of the commands.
(5:11—31) has a complex history given the literary difficulties; yet at least some features (e.g. repetition) serve a purpose in the present redaction (for detail, Milgrom 1990: 350-4). Though often called a trial by ordeal, the coalescence of verdict and sanction, effected by God not the community, suggests rather an oath that is dramatized. The focus of this case-law is a wife, possibly pregnant, whose husband suspects ('is jealous of) her of adultery but has no evidence, whether she has actually committed adultery (w. 12—140) or is only suspected of doing so (14/7). In the former case, this text softens the penalty prescribed for an adulteress in Lev 20:10, probably because there was no evidence. In the latter case, a woman unjustly accused could be vindicated; so the jealous husband
(4:1—33) delineates God's commands regarding the second levitical census, taken to determine the number of those
(ages 30-50) who are to perform the actual duties; these ages differ somewhat from 8:24-6 and from other OT texts (e.g. Ezra 3:8), perhaps reflecting expanding community needs. Aaron and his sons are responsible for packing and unpacking the most holy things, with differently coloured cloths marking gradations of holiness (w. 5-15); only they are allowed to see and touch them. The responsibilities of the three levitical groups for certain sanctuary items, as noted above, are also divinely commanded in detail, so that each item is exactly accounted for (Kohathites, w. 1-20; Gershonites, w. 2i—8; Merarites, w. 29—33). A special emphasis is given regarding the work of the Kohathites (4:17—20), not because their status is higher, but because they handle the 'most holy things'. God graciously takes their greater risk into account and specifies precautionary procedures for their handling of these objects. To die for improper contact with the mostholy objects (w. 15,19-20) seems to have reference to direct, though mediated action by God (see NUM 1:53; Lev 10:1—2). This concern may be rooted in the golden calf apostasy, where the holiness of God was compromised.
(or the community) could not arbitrarily decide her fate.
In either case, the man brings his wife (who is 'under [his] authority', w. 19, 29) to the priest with a grain offering, though without the usual oil and frankincense (Lev 2:1—10), as was the case with sin offerings (Lev 5:11). Such offerings bring 'the [potential] iniquity to remembrance' before God. The procedure: the priest prepares a mixture of holy water (see Ex 30:17—21) and dust from the tabernacle floor, probably thought to have potency because of its contact with holy things, in an earthen vessel (which could be broken after use, Lev 11:33). Th£ priest is then to bring the woman 'before the LORD' (the altar), loosen her hair—a sign of (potential) uncleanness, Lev 13:45—and put the grain offering in her hands. The priest has her take an oath regarding the suspicions registered (w. 19—22): if she has been faithful, she will be immune from the water; if unfaithful, the water will cause her sexual organs to be affected adversely in some way (the effect is correlated with the crime) and she will be ostracized among the people (see Job 30:9) and precluded from having children (v. 28). If the woman is pregnant, the effect may be a miscarriage. The nature of the effect of the water upon the woman is considered a sign as to whether the woman has told the truth. The repeated 'Amen. Amen' ('so be it'), expresses her willingness to accept either result of the ritual (see Deut 27:15—26). Unlike her husband, she is given no other voice in the ritual.
(4:34—49) describes the implementation of God's commands; once again, they are obeyed to the letter (w. 46-8 summarizes the results). The encampment is now fully prepared for the journey through the wilderness.
(5:1—6:21) Purification of the Camp This section, probably added late in the redactional process, deals with matters needing attention for the journey. Why these particular issues are collected at this point and ordered in this way is uncertain; some links are evident (e.g. 'be unfaithful' in 5:6, 12; guilt offerings) and they deal both with matters of ritual purity and
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not know if this was considered an 'office', whether many took the vow, or how long a term was.
In 5:23-8 (v. 24 anticipates 26/7, as v. i6a does i8a), the priest writes the curses on a surface from which the ink could be washed off into the water the woman is to drink; the imbibed water is thought to contain the power of the curses (cf. Ex 32:20; Ezek 3:1-3). The priest takes the grain offering from her and burns a portion of it on the altar, after which she drinks the water (w. 25—6). If the woman has been unfaithful, she will experience distress (no time frame is specified), hence the phrase, 'waters of bitterness'. The potion actually has no bitter taste nor brings pain in itself, but this would be the effect if God adjudged the woman guilty (v. 21; cf. Zech 5:1—4; Jer 8:14; 9:15). (5:29-31) summarizes the essence of the two types of case for which this ordeal would be applied. The husband is freed from any responsibility for a false accusation (the need to express this is striking, and it opens the way to frivolous expressions of jealousy). If the woman is guilty, she bears the consequences (by divine agency).
The nazirite vow entailed separation from products of the vineyard (and other intoxicants), haircuts, and corpses; their return to secular life was signified by cutting the hair. As such, these persons were highly visible members of the community, signs to all of total dedication to God. They bore similarities to the Rechabites (2 Kings 10:15; Jer35)> conservative proponents of ancient Israelite traditions who rejected Canaanite culture, including viticulture and building houses.
Like the high priests, nazirites were not to come into contact with (even within sight of) a corpse, but unlike them, accidental contact required rites of purification (w. 6-12; cf. 5:2—3; 19:11—12, 19). Upon being purified, they were to 'sanctify the head [hair]', i.e. be reconsecrated (w. nc-12). w. 13-20 describe the ritual at the completion of their consecration; the range of offerings (cf. Lev 8) suggests the high status of the nazirite; returning to secular life was a major step. The ritual includes the shaving of the head and the burning of the hair (because it is considered holy), v. 21 summarizes the force of the previous verses. On possible links to Jesus, John the Baptist, and the early church, see Mt 2:23; Lk 1:15; Acts 18:18; 21:23—4;on nazirites in Second-Temple Judaism, see Milgrom (1990: 355-8).
One might claim that the ritual could not accurately determine the truth; but, as in the sacrificial system, it is God, before whom the woman is brought, who knows the truth of the situation and is believed to act in the ritual and to effect the proper result. Yet, one wonders if this procedure ever verified suspicions; perhaps the threat was sufficient to elicit confessions. It was only women who lived under such threat, and the ritual is degrading; that no comparable law existed for the male, or no concern is expressed that undisclosed male infidelity might contaminate the camp, is revealing of the patriarchy involved. The language of jealousy is also used in the marriage analogy for Israel's relationship with God, her husband (who is jealous, e.g. Ex 20:5; 34:14), and may have informed prophetic rhetoric (e.g. Isa 3:16—17; Ezek 23:31—4). Jesus' attitude towards women (Lk 7:36-50; Jn 4:1-30; 8:1-11) breaks open the one-sidedness of the Numbers ritual (see Olson 1996: 38-9).
(6:22^7) The Aaronic Benediction The placement of this benediction seems unusual; it may be another item that prepares the people for the journey through the wilderness. This is the blessing for the time of departure, and daily throughout their journey. Each line, with God as subject, is progressively longer (three, five, seven Hebrew words); besides the name YHWH, twelve Hebrew words signify the twelve tribes.
This benediction in some form was widely used in ancient Israel, especially at the conclusion of worship (see Lev 9:22; Deut 21:5; 2 Chr 30:27; Ps 67:1; 121:7-8; see its ironic use in Mai 1:8—10). Putting the name of God on the people may have been understood literally, given the inscription on two cigarette-sized silver plaques found near Jerusalem, dating from the seventh-sixth centuries BCE (for such parallels, see Milgrom 1990: 360—2). The blessing has been commonly used in post-biblical Jewish and Christian communities.
(6:1—21) provides for a temporary, voluntary nazirite vow (from nazir, meaning 'set apart'; the unpruned vine was also called a nazir, perhaps a symbol of Israel as consecrated to the Lord; the word for uncut hair is nezer). As with the other statutes in this section, the laity are the focus of concern; yet these statutes highlight priestly obligations relating thereto
One probably should not see a climactic arrangement in the clauses; so, for example, blessing would include peace. Perhaps the second verb in each case defines the first more specifically, but together the six verbs cover God's benevolent activity from various angles and state God's gracious will for the people.
(and may suggest priestly control over their activity). The text does not institute the nazirite vocation, but regulates a consecrated life in certain ways. Vows, always individual acts, were common in ancient Israel (see 30:1—16) and this vow was 'special' (v. 2).
Blessing has a wide-ranging meaning, touching every sphere of life. It testifies most basically to the work of God the Creator, both within the community of faith and without. No conditions are attached. It signifies any divine gift that serves the life, health, and well-being of individuals and communities. Keeping is a specific blessing to those with concerns for safety, focusing on God's protection from all forms of evil (Ps 121:7-8), pertinent for wilderness wandering.
Yet, the precise purpose for becoming a nazirite remains elusive. Generally, nazirites were male or female individuals who took a vow of consecration for a special vocation. Am 2:11-12 states that God raised up nazirites; the parallel with the prophets means they had a high calling (as does their parallel with the priests). That they generated opposition among the people, who made them drink wine and thereby prevented them from fulfilling their calling, suggests their importance. The stories of Samson and probably Samuel, lifelong nazirites (dedicated by their parents from the womb, cf. Jer 1:5), suggest that God called such persons to specific tasks (cf. Judg 5:2; Gen 49:26). Wenham (1981: 85) calls them 'the monks and nuns of ancient Israel', but we do
God's face/countenance (the same Hebrew word) is a common anthropomorphism (esp. in Psalms; see Balentine 1983). The shining face of God (contrast the hiding face) signifies God's benevolent disposition towards the other, here in gracious action, for which Israel can make no claims
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19:1—22; Lev 14:8—9) so they can perform this service without endangering themselves or the community. The Levites are then presented 'before the LORD' (v. 10) and before 'Aaron and his sons' (v. 13) in the presence of the people. The people lay their hands on them, symbolizing that the Levites have become their sacrifice, a 'living sacrifice' dedicated to the service of God in their stead (w. 10—n; cf. 3:40—51). The Levites in turn lay their hands on the head of the bulls, which are sacrificed to cleanse the sanctuary (the whole burnt offering, v. 8a) and to atone for sins they had committed (v. I2b). God claims that the choice of the Levites is rooted in the Exodus events (3:5-13), and that they are 'mine... unreservedly given to me from among the Israelites' (w. 14-16); God in turn gives them to the Aaronides for service at the tabernacle (see 3:9). This constitutes an act of atonement for the Israelites (for whom the Levites undertake the work) to prevent any plague resulting from too close a contact with the holy things. The section concludes with the typical reference to obedience and a summary of the Levites' cleansing (w. 20—2), followed by a reference to age requirements (w. 23-6; cf. 4:47) and a clarification that they are not priests, but assist the Aaronides in their responsibilities.
(Ps 67:1). The lifting up of the Lord's countenance signifies a favourable movement towards the other in the granting of peace, that is, wholeness and fullness of life. Putting God's name on the people (supremely by means of the word) emphasizes the divine source of all blessings.
(7:1-8:26) Final Preparations for Tabernacle Worship The chronological note at 7:1 indicates that what follows is a flashback (it continues through 10:10); it is one month earlier than the time of 1:1 and coincides with Ex 40 and the day Moses set up the tabernacle; yet it assumes Num 3-4 and the provisions made for carrying the tabernacle. This literary technique suspends the forward movement of the narrative and returns the reader to the occasion of the divine descent to dwell among the people and their grateful response.
(7:1-88) describes the consecration of the tabernacle in connection with which offerings were made by the leaders of the twelve tribes, w. 1—9 describe one gift: six wagons and twelve oxen to carry the tabernacle and its furnishings. The Merarites received two-thirds of the wagons and oxen because they carry the supporting structure; the Kohathites carry the most holy things by hand. 7:10 refers to the offerings presented in both w. 1—9 and 12—88. w. 11—83 specify other gifts: necessities for the public altar sacrifices and the priesthood—silver and gold vessels, animals, and flour mixed with oil and incense—to be offered at the altar whenever needed (not at one dedication occasion). The tribal leaders, in the order given in 2:3—31, each give the same offerings on the successive days of the celebration; they are listed out twelve times, and w. 84-8 provide a total. This striking repetition underlines the unity and equality of the tribal groups and the generosity of their support for the tabernacle.
(9:1—14) The Passover at Sinai This section continues the flashback begun at 7:1. w. 1—5 report a second celebration of the Passover in fulfilment of the 'perpetual ordinance' of Ex 12:24. This celebration also precedes the wilderness journey, and enhances this moment of departure in Israel's life.
A question is presented to Moses (and Aaron) as to whether those who had become unclean through touching a corpse
(see 5:1-4; 19:11-20) could celebrate Passover. Upon consulting the Lord (see 7:89), Moses is told that such unclean persons (and possible descendants) should not be denied Passover and are to keep it one month later, i.e. the fourteenth day of the second month. In view of v. 6 ('could not keep') this represents an adjustment in the law (see NUM D.IO). The (later?) addition of another case of persons away from the camp (v. 9) assumes the land settlement and is a still further adjustment of passover law. For stipulations regarding celebration, see Ex 12:10, 46. For reference to not breaking the bones of the passover lamb (9:12), see Jn 19:36.
(7:89) seems out of place, but it emphasizes that God's ongoing commitment to Israel (not only to dwell among them, but to speak to Moses) matches the people's obedient response regarding God's dwelling-place. The mercy seat is the cover of the ark of the covenant, upon which were fixed two cherubim, sphinx-like creatures, shaped to form a throne for the invisible God (i Sam 4:4; 2 Sam 6:2); in effect, the ark was God's footstool (2 Kings 19:15; i Chr 28:2; for description, see Ex 25:17—21). From this place, God will speak to Moses on a regular basis when he enters the tabernacle; this fulfils God's promise in Ex 25:22 and is reported in the narrative that follows (Num 11:16—30).
Supplemental instructions also adapt older regulations for those who are clean and at home (v. 13). Such a strict ordinance at this point reflects a concern that others might delay celebration until the second month. A permissive rubric in v. 14 is given for the aliens, non-Israelites who are residing permanently in the land (cf. Ex 12:19, 4^~9)- Being 'cut off from the people' is explained as bearing (the effects of) one's own sin, which is either banishment or execution, either judicially or at God's own hand. As in 5:31, the last seems likely (see Milgrom 1990: 405-8).
(8:1-4) specifies lighting directions for the seven tabernacle lamps (commanded by God in Ex 25:37, but not reported in Ex 37:17—24), with a reminder of how the lamps were constructed. Their seven branches and flowery design may have symbolized the tree of life (see i Kings 7:49 for the temple lampstands; cf. also Zech 4:1—14; Rev 11:4); the branched lampstand or menorah remains an important symbol of light in Judaism.
(9:15-23) Divine Guidance in the Wilderness This section begins (v. 15) with a flashback to Ex 40:34 and supplements Ex 40:36—8 regarding the relation between the cloud/fire and the stages of Israel's journey. It describes in advance an ongoing feature of that journey; the actual departure is not reported until 10:11. w. 17—23 anticipate the march, stressing Israel's obedience to the divine leading at every stage.
(8:5-26) (the setting is still as Ex 40; cf. Num 3:11-13); the Levites are consecrated 'to do service at the tent of meeting' (v. 15; cf. Lev 8; the priests are sanctified, while the Levites are purified), w. 5—19 state the divine command and rationale for the ceremony and w. 20—2 stress that it was obeyed. This entails participation in a purification rite (w. 5-7; cf. 6:9;
In Israel's pre-tabernacle journeying, God 'in' (not 'as') the pillar of cloud and fire led them through the wilderness (Ex
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13:21-2). Divine leading follows this Passover as it did the first. This was a single pillar, with the fire within the cloud (Ex 14:24; 40:38); references to the 'glory' of the Lord in the cloud (Ex 16:10) refer to the fire (Ex 24:17). Here this 'glory-cloud' is linked to the tabernacle (and the ark, 10:33-6); its rising and setting schedule the stages of Israel's journey. It is likely that the cloud would rest on the tabernacle and, while the tabernacle remained in the middle of the marching people, the cloud would proceed to the front of the procession (see v. 17; 14:14). The various timings of this cloud activity (v. 22) emphasize obedience and the need to follow a schedule ('charge') set by God, however irregular. At the same time, divine activity does not function apart from human agency (see 10:1-10, 29-32).
God and Moses/Aaron, and the judgement of God is invited into the picture again and again.
(10:11—28) Departure from Sinai The date in v. n is nineteen days after the census (1:1), which was eleven months after arrival at Sinai (Ex 19:1). The time of departure is set by divine command, signalled by the cloud (see 9:15-23). In w. 14-28 the marching order of the tribal units according to a threetribe standard (or regiment) follows the arrangement in Num 2. The positioning of the Levites, those who carry the tabernacle items (w. 17, 21), is not precisely symmetrical (see chs. 3—4). For the leaders see 1:5—15; 2:3—31; 7:12—83. The end of the first stage of the journey is anticipated in the reference to the settling of the cloud in the wilderness of Paran (v. 12; see 12:16), the setting up of the tabernacle framework (v. 21), and the reference to three days' journey (10:33).
(10:1-10) The Two Silver Trumpets God commands Moses to make two trumpets of hammered silver (about i ft. long with a wide bell). They are to be blown by priests on various occasions: summoning the congregation or its leaders (w. 3-4), breaking camp (w. 5-6, presumably all four sides according to the order in Num 2, so the LXX), engaging in battle (v. 9; see 31:6), and on days of rejoicing (see 2 Kings 11:14; Ezra 3:10), appointed festivals (see chs. 28-9), and monthly offerings (v. 10; see 28:11-15). In w9-IO» the language anticipates the land settlement. A distinction is made (v. 7) between an 'alarm', perhaps a series of short blasts, and a 'blow', one long blast.
(10:29—36) Human and Divine Guidance These verses formed part of the older epic tradition. Both v. 29 and the tradition are ambiguous as to whether Hobab or Reuel is Moses' father-in-law; in Ex 2:18 Reuel is, but in Judg 4:11 Hobab is so identified (and Jethro in Ex 3:1; 18:1). Perhaps 'father-in-law' refers to any relative by marriage. The Midianites are often mentioned positively (contrast chs. 25; 31); being a desert tribe, they would know the wilderness. Moses' invitation shows that the guidance of the cloud is not deemed sufficient. The marching community is in need of the 'eyes' of a human guide, even from outsiders such as Hobab (cf also Balaam; Jethro in Ex 18). Both divine and human activity are necessary for the people to find their way
A rationale for the blowing of trumpets is given in w. 9-10: to bring Israel's situation before God, who is thereby called to act on their behalf, either in battle (salvation from enemies) or in and through the offerings (forgiveness and well-being). The call of the trumpet is picked up in eschatological contexts
(so also the spies in ch. 13). Moses promises that Hobab's people will obtain the goodness the Israelites receive from God (see Judg 4:11).
The ark in association with the cloud (see 9:15—23) precedes the community here (v. 33). The second 'three days' journey' is probably a dittograph. Moses' directives to the Lord (w. 35-6), at the departure and arrival of the ark, are old poetic pieces. They portray the march as a liturgical procession. God was believed to be intensely present wherever the ark was (7:89; see Ps 68:1; 132:7-8). God, the Lord of Hosts ('the ten thousand thousands of Israel'), leads Israel in battle against its enemies (14:44; i Sam 4:1—7:2). That Moses would invite the Lord to become active on behalf of Israel demonstrates again the integration of human activity and divine.
(Zech 9:14; i Cor 15:51—2), exemplifying continuity across all generations of God's people. The blowing of the trumpets by the sons of Aaron complements the rising and the setting of the cloud. With the role of Hobab in 10:29-32, it becomes apparent that clear-sighted human leadership is integral to effective divine guidance.
The Wilderness Journey (10:11-25:18)
This middle section of Numbers describes Israel's journey from Sinai to the plains of Moab. The emphasis upon Israel's obedience to this point stands in sharp contrast to what follows. The beginnings of the march (10:11—36) signal no problems, but with 11:1 the carefully woven fabric comes apart at the seams. In spite of precise preparations, disloyalty now fills the scene and severely complicates the move towards the land. Warnings of divine judgement have been given (1:53; 3:4, 10; 4:15, 18-20; 8:19), but they go unheeded, with disastrous results.
(11:1-3) A Paradigm of Rebellion These verses provide a pattern in both form and content for several episodes that follow: murmuring; judgement; cry (of repentance); intercession; deliverance (on Exodus parallels, see above; for content see NUM 13:1-14:45). Place-names are at times etymologized for convenient recall of the story.
The peoples' complaints of unidentified misfortunes are not specifically directed to God, but God hears them. The divine anger is provoked and 'the fire of the LORD', perhaps lightning (see Ex 9:23-4; 2 Kings 1:9), consumes outlying areas of the camp (a threat to its integrity). The people direct their response to Moses, who intercedes on their behalf, and the storm stops. The place was called Taberah ('Burning'), referring to both divine anger and its effects. (11:4-35) Rebellion and Leadership The coherence of this passage is difficult, perhaps reflecting different traditions; yet good sense can be made of the awkwardness. On the
Many of these narratives (a mixture of the traditional sources) are ordered in a comparable way (see at 11:1—3) an(^ mirror the wilderness stories of Ex 15:22-18:27. Once again we hear of manna, rocks producing water, battles with desert tribes, and non-stop complaints. But Numbers is different. The complaints in Exodus are tolerated, as if a long-oppressed people is entitled to some grumbling. In Numbers, however, in view of the giving of the law and the golden calf debacle, the themes of sin, repentance, and judgement are introduced. The people are sharply identified as rebellious, against both
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they had finished eating (the entire amount; cf. w. 19—20), God's anger was provoked and a plague (related to the food?) swept the camp.
'miraculous' provision of food in the wilderness see NUM 20:1—13. This murmuring immediately follows the first; complaining has become a pattern of life. The complaints of the rabble (non-Israelites, Ex 12:38), intensified by Israelites, despise God's gifts of food (w. 6,18) and deliverance (v. 20). Nostalgically recalling the (mostly vegetable!) diet typical for Egyptians, they cry out for fish (cf. v. 5). God's gift of manna (see EX 16), which the narrator notes was tasty and choice, was not thought to provide the strength they needed. This amounts to a rejection of God and a request for the Exodus to be reversed (v. 20)!
The place was called Kibroth-hattaavah ('Graves of craving'), recalling the people's complaint (v. 4) and the effects of the plague.
(12:1-16) Familial Challenge to Moses' Leadership This text concerns the authority of the Mosaic tradition in view of rival claims regarding divine revelation; it may reflect later power struggles among priestly groups (cf. NUM 16).
Challenges to Moses as a unique spokesman for God are brought by his sister and brother (though God alone hears them, v. 2?). The stated basis for the challenge is that Moses had married a Cushite woman. Gush usually refers to Ethiopia (if so, this would be Moses' second wife; so the LXX), but here it probably refers to a Gush in northern Arabia (see Hab 3:7). If so, she would be Zipporah, a Midianite (10:29; ^x 2:I5~
God's anger is revealed to Moses, who joins the people in complaint about a related matter (w. 10—15). m language typical of lament psalms, Moses complains that, given what the people have become, God has mistreated him, placed too heavy a leadership burden on him (see Ex 18:18), and provided insufficient resources. Feeling caught in the middle, he asks for either reliefer death. The maternal imagery Moses uses is striking; God has conceived and birthed this people (see Deut 32:18), and hence God should assume the responsibilities of a wet-nurse and see to their nourishment. Moses should not have to carry this burden 'alone', implying that God is somehow negligent.
22). Why this issue is raised remains uncertain. If v. i is integral to the reason given in v. 2, the issue centres on intrafamilial conflict regarding authority in view of Zipporah's (growing?) leadership role and/or influence with Moses (see Ex 4:24-6; 18:2). Miriam and Aaron assume that God has spoken through them (cf. Mic 6:4), confirmed by God in v. 5, for Miriam is a prophet (Ex 15:20) and Aaron speaks for God (Ex 4:15). 11:4—35 has shown that God does not speak only through Moses; moreover, God's spirit will rest upon Joshua (27:18) and even on Balaam (24:2-4,15-16). God is not restricted to a single way into this community.
A lively exchange between God and Moses follows (w. 1623). God replies to Moses in two respects: he will share the spirit given to Moses with others, who will help bear the burden (see w. 24-30); God will provide the meat for which the people have asked (see w. 31-2). Regarding the latter, however, God's anger at the people remains. Repeating their complaints, God declares that they are to prepare for an encounter with him; they will indeed get meat, a month's worth, but so much that it will become loathsome. Moses responds by wondering how meat can be found for so many people (only soldiers are counted, 1:46). God responds with a rhetorical question: in effect, God's hand is not too short (NRSV fn.; no general statement is made about divine power; cf. Isa 50:2; 59:1) to provide this amount of food. God will show that his word is good.
Yet, challenges to Moses' status with God are not countenanced. The narrator bases this point on Moses' unique relationship with God, stated generally (v. 3, devout, humble before God) and, in an act of conflict resolution, God's own words to Aaron and Miriam in Moses' presence. God customarily speaks to prophets in visions and dreams, but Moses is different for two reasons: he is uniquely entrusted with the house of Israel (see Ex 40:38) and God speaks to him directly
(lit. mouth to mouth) and he sees the form of YHWH, a human form that God assumes (cf. 14:14; Ex 24:9-11; Deut 34:10; in Deut 4:15, the people see no form). The issue pertains both to what is heard (that is, clarity) and what is seen (God). Unlike with dreams and visions, Moses' entire person, with all senses functioning, is engaged in the experience (for detail, see Fretheim 1984: 79-106). God assumes (v. 8c) that Miriam and Aaron were aware of this uniqueness, and his response is anger (see 11:33).
As for burden-sharing (w. 16-17, 24~3°)> Moses obeys God and gathers seventy elders around the tent (probably in the centre of the camp in spite of w. 26, 30, which may speak of movement within the camp). God shares Moses' spirit (ruah, not quantitatively understood), which had its source in God, with the elders, who prophesy. Such a charisma was given to various leaders (see 24:2, 27:18, i Sam 10:5—10) and was transferable (see 2 Kings 2:9; on prophecy and ecstasy, see Milgrom 1990: 380-4). While they prophesy only once (unlike Moses), 16:25 suggests they assume some ongoing burdens. Even two elders who remained in the camp (Eldad and Medad) receive a share of God's spirit. In the face of efforts by Joshua to stop them, Moses refuses any protection of his authority or restriction of the divine word to established channels (see 12:1—16; Balaam); indeed, he wishes that all God's people could receive this charisma.
When Miriam becomes leprous (an unidentified skin disease), Aaron interprets it as a consequence of their foolish sin and pleads ironically to 'my lord' Moses that he (not God!) spare both Miriam and himself. The Hebrew 'do not lay sin upon us' (NRSV fn.) should not be translated 'punish'; rather, the effect is intrinsic to the deed. The whiteness of Miriam's skin (a reversal ofthe dark skin of Moses' wife?) occasions the stillborn analogy, in effect: do not let her waste away to death. Aaron may not suffer the same effects because of his confession and plea or perhaps because he is high priest (see Lev 22:4), revealing a clerical (and male) bias. Moses prays to God on Miriam's behalf, but God responds that she is to be barred from the camp for seven days. The
The gift of meat (w. 18-20, 31-5) comes in the form of quails (see Ex 16:13; PS 78:26-31), carried into the camp on a wind (ruah) provided by God. They cover the ground for miles to a depth of two cubits (about 3 ft); the least that anyone gathered was ten homers (probably 60 bushels). But before
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detail were present in the other sin and judgement stories, a comparable understanding would no doubt be evident.
levitical regulations speak of a fourteen day process for leprosy
(Lev 13:4; 14:8), so the banishment is probably an external sign of shame (like a parent spitting in a child's face, Deut 25:9). Miriam bears her shame, and the people honour her by not resuming the march until she returns (apparently healed). v. 16 probably means they remain in the wilderness of Paran
1. God voices a lament (14:11), echoing those of the people and Moses (11:11-14), usrng language familiar to the psalms (cf. Ps 13:1—2). God does not remain coolly unaffected in the face of these developments. But the judgement that follows is spoken, not with the icy indifference of a judge, but with the mixed sorrow and anger of a suitor who has been rejected. That God's lament is repeated in 14:26, interrupting the announcement of judgement, reinforces this understanding (see Fretheim 1984:107-26). The phrase 'you shall know my displeasure' (14:34) may refer to this divine frustration.
(see 10:12).
(13:1-14:45) The Spy Mission The setting for chs. 13-20 is Kadesh-barnea (13:26), about 50 miles south of Beersheba in the wilderness of Paran (or Zin, 20:1). On historiographic considerations, see Levine (1993: 372-5). This passage interweaves at least two traditions; the epic story has Caleb as hero and the Priestly tradition adds Joshua. This rebellion proves to be the decisive one for the future of Israel.