Part 37
Those who adopt a wide view of royal psalms ascribe the psalm to the king, usually in the setting of the rites of the annual festival, but others restricting such psalms to a minimum identify the psalmist as a sufferer who is ill and near to death. A royal interpretation permits the scope to be extended to include the Israelite people whose representative the king is.
There is a marked change of tone from petition to thanksgiving at v. 22 (or 2ib if the NRSV is followed—the Hebrew is ambiguous and possibly corrupt). Have two psalms been combined? Does this represent the 'certainty of hearing', which perhaps followed a prophetic oracle or some symbolic action, or even a direct divine revelation? Or is it the words of the psalmist's vow? Verbal links and the many changes of mood and style throughout the psalms are commonly seen as evidence that the psalm is a liturgy.
Alternative interpretations range from regarding the psalm as the (non-cultic) prayer of a pious Jew to ascribing it to the nation in exile in Babylon. There are also differences of opinion about the banquet, some regarding it as metaphorical, others as a reference to a literal sacrificial meal. Even the classification as a psalm of confidence has been challenged, and it has been interpreted as the psalmist's thanksgiving after he has been 'delivered' from his enemies or even acquitted from false accusations.
As often we do not know how the psalm was originally used or in what context, and therefore what its original meaning was. It is, however, the greatest of the laments within the Psalter, akin to the book of Job. More than most psalms the sense of personal experience floods through it. Despair almost drives out hope, yet two things support the psalmist: he remembers that God saved his people, and he looks back on the way God cared for him from his birth.
In fact the original meaning and setting of the psalm are completely unknown, and we are left with hypotheses and the more certain later use by Jews and Christians.
Two translation difficulties may be noted. The traditional 'valley of the shadow of death' assumes the existence of a rather unusual Hebrew word. Many change the vowels and produce 'valley of darkness' (cf NRSV). In v. 6 'and I shall dwell' follows the LXX and Syriac versions. The Hebrew appears to mean 'and I shall return', possibly a vow or a hope that the psalmist will be able to keep on coming to the temple to worship rather than remaining there permanently for the rest of this life.
The structure is relatively plain: in the first part prayer and complaint alternate with expressions of confidence (w. 1—2,3— 5, 6—8, 9—10, n—21), and in the second vows (w. 22, 25) mingle with hymns of thanksgiving and praise.
The animals in w. 12,16, 21 may be the psalmist's enemies (if he is the king, the enemies of I srael), but some regard them as demons, as in Babylon, where sickness is often attributed to demons pictured in the form of animals. The last line of v. 16 is difficult. The familiar 'They have pierced my hands and my feet' (retained by NIV) comes from the LXX. The Hebrew is literally: 'like a lion my hands and my feet'. Instead of the NRSV's 'My hands and feet have shrivelled' REB reads 'they have bound me hand and foot'. Curiously the verse, which many see fitting the crucifixion of Jesus perfectly, is not quoted in the New Testament.
Psalm 24 The structure of this psalm is beautifully clear. w. i—2 are hymnic, declaring that the world was created by God; w. 3-6 is an 'entrance liturgy', similar to Ps 15 and Isa 33:14—16; and w. 7—10 contain a dialogue at the gates of the city or temple, repeated, as often in liturgies, and reaching a climax with the declaration of YHWH as 'YHWH of hosts', 'the king of glory'. While some believe that the three parts were originally separate, the whole fits together easily into a single liturgical movement.
The title may refer to the morning sacrifice, although the LXX translated 'the hind of the morning' as 'the help [which comes at] morning' (picking up 'help' in v. 19). But it may be the name of the melody to which it was sung.
The LXX adds 'of [ for] the first day of the week' to the title, reflecting later Jewish usage, which linked the psalm to the story of creation in Gen i. Those who try to set it within the life of David connect it with the bringing of the ark into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6). Within the worship of the pre-exilic temple it may have been used during the annual Autumn Festival, with the celebration of YHWH as creator, and as warrior who returns to his temple in triumph after the defeat of the powers of chaos (possibly with the ark symbolizing his presence carried in a procession, although there is no explicit mention of the ark). If the psalm is post-exilic it may be a hymn which reflects features from earlier rituals. Paul quotes v. i to defend the eating of meat that had been sacrificed to idols (i Cor 10:26), and later Christian tradition linked the entrance of'the LORD of hosts' through the gates with the entrance of Christ into heaven at the ascen-
Psalm 23 The happy confidence of this psalm, coupled with the comfort that it has given to those in 'the valley of the shadow of death' (v. 4, AV), have made it the best known and best loved of all the psalms. Later usage has taken over from the original meaning, which is clouded in uncertainty.
The most obvious structure divides the psalm at v. 5, making the depiction of God as shepherd and host. The two ideas do not easily sit side by side, however, and (unsuccessful) attempts have been made to retain the pastoral metaphor throughout the psalm, usually by emending 'table' (v. 5) into some kind of weapon. Another proposal finds three metaphors, with YHWH as guide of a wanderer in w. 3—4. It may
375 PSALMS
thirsty' (v. 9) is literally 'men of blood', i.e. murderers (cf. 2
sion. In such varied ways was this psalm reused and reinterpreted.
Sam 16:7-8). Psalm 27 This seemingly simple and confident psalm presents the interpreter with three problems: is it a unity? who is the speaker? and how are the Hebrew tenses to be translated?
v. 6 is textually difficult. On its own the Hebrew would be most naturally translated: 'those who seek thy face, Jacob', but this seems impossible. The LXX apparently read: 'those who seek the face of the God of Jacob', hence NRSV.
w. i—6 speak about YHWH as if addressing an audience, expressing confidence in his protection from future dangers, or possibly thankfulness for past deliverance. In w. 7-12 the psalmist addresses YHWH directly with a plea not to reject him or abandon him to his enemies, but the psalm ends with a renewal of confidence (v. 13, the Heb. is difficult, however, and the translation of NRSV involves either emendation or paraphrase) and a call to wait for God's deliverance in hope (v. 14).
Psalm 25 The acrostic form of this psalm is well preserved, although there are a few irregularities. In v. 2 NRSV follows the verse division of the Hebrew, but 'O my God' should be taken with v. i to enable v. 2 to begin with the letter b. The w verse is missing, but is easily restored by inserting 'and' before 'for you I wait' (v. 5; there may be a further corruption since w. 5 and 7 consist of three lines, while the restored w verse would possess only one). There are two r verses (18 and 19); perhaps the first originally began with a q word, but it is possible now only to guess what it might have been. An additional p verse stands at the end. There are two striking similarities with Ps 34, which also lacks a w verse and concludes with an extra p verse. Some suggest that both psalms come from the same writer.
Those who accept that some psalms have been wrongly separated (cf. Ps 9—10 and 42—3) and others deliberately combined (Ps 19,108: the LXX also combines 114 and 115) solve the problems of the differences in tone and address by treating the two parts independently, as a psalm of confident trust and a prayer for help. Those who prefer to keep to the present text explain the changes of tone and form as derived from liturgy: by expressing trust in God before offering his urgent prayer, the psalmist makes it more difficult for God to refuse his request.
The acrostic form tends to isolate the individual verses, and an overall structure is difficult to discern. Broadly, w. 1-7 are a prayer for help, guidance, and forgiveness; w. 8—15 reflections on the character of God and the blessedness of those who serve him; and w. 16-21 further prayers for deliverance, with v. 22 expanding the mainly individual lament into a prayer for the nation. While some regard this verse as a late addition to fit the psalm for congregational worship, the similar feature in Ps 34 suggests that it may well have been original.
Royal maximalists see the speaker as the king, pointing to the references to battle in w. 2-3, treating v. 10 as an allusion to the king's adoption by God, and regarding the overall style as 'royal'. The setting will then be in worship, either as part of the ritual at a festival or in response to the attacks by national enemies. Others take the military allusions to be metaphorical, and interpret the psalm as spoken by an ordinary Israelite, possibly facing accusations (cf. v. 12) and seeing the action of the psalmist's parents as their rejection of a son they hold to be guilty.
Confession of sin is rare in the Psalter, and this makes the confession in w. 7 and n the more notable.
Psalm 26 The psalmist protests his innocence and asks God to examine his integrity. The precise occasion for reciting this psalm, however, is far from clear. A common view points to similarities with Ps 7 and 17, and posits an appeal to a temple court or an ordeal. The doubts expressed in the notes on those psalms apply equally here. Those who link a majority of the psalms with the king, find here a royal psalm of confidence, but despite the stress upon 'steadfast love' and 'faithfulness', armed enemies are lacking and the general mood would seem more suited to an ordinary Israelite. The declaration in w. 4—5 recalls Ps i, and it has been suggested that the psalm stands closer to Ps 15 and 24 than to 7 and 17. To see it as the worshipper's declaration as he seeks entry into the temple and faces the priest's questioning, may provide the best guide to the spirit of the psalm, with praise and worship dominating over legal declarations, and the hand-washing (cf Deut 21:6) and procession round the altar reflecting ritual actions (cf. Ps 118:27). The themes of innocence, prayer, and confidence in God are intertwined and it is not easy to analyse the psalm rigidly; none of the Eng. versions offers a convincing structure.
In a striking metaphor YHWH is described as 'my light' (v. i), a phrase found only here in the OT, although in Isa 10:17 he is the 'light of Israel' and in Isa 60:19, 2O h£ is me <ever~ lasting light' of his people.
NRSV has adopted a common emendation in v. 8 without comment. The Hebrew seems to be literally: 'To thee my heart has said, "Seek [plural] my face" ', although it has been suggested that it could mean: 'From thee my heart conveys the message "Seek my face"' (Eaton 1986: 176).
Psalm 28 The psalm falls into three distinct sections. In w. 1-5 the psalmist utters a passionate plea to God to hear his prayer and not remain silent and unresponsive, but rather punish the wicked. NRSV shifts to a future tense in v. yd, but the plea may continue: 'may he strike them down' as REB (the LXX has 'you (sing.) will pull them down and not build them up'). The tone changes to 'certainty of hearing' (cf. PS 6), or possibly thanksgiving at v. 6. w. 8—9 return to prayer, but now for the king and the nation. While some regard the third part as an addition to an original psalm by an individual, the whole may be a liturgical unity, with petition followed by two responses, as the psalmist both expresses his own confidence and includes his people in his prayer.
'Vindicate' (v. i) is perhaps too strong in the light of v. 2 and while 'judge' may not express the psalmist's confidence that when God examines him he will find that he is innocent, the psalmist's plea is for a hearing. NRSV takes 'faithfulness' in v. 3 to be that of the psalmist, but the parallel line suggests that REB represents the sense better by referring to God's faithfulness which sustains his worshippers. The 'blood-
To define the setting more closely is difficult. Some hold that the psalmist is the king, interpreting the enemies as rebels or even foreigners, and placing the psalm within the temple ritual. The reference to God's 'anointed' (v. 8, almost
PSALMS 376
With such a strong sense of individuality, it is strange to find 'a song of [at] the dedication ofthe house [temple]' in the title. Most probably it was added at a late date when the psalm was linked with the rededication ofthe temple in December 164, after it had been desecrated by the Greek king Antiochus Epiphanes (i Mace 4:42—59), and the festival of Hanukkah ('dedication') was inaugurated. Alternative suggestions ofthe dedication of David's palace or the dedication ofthe rebuilt temple in the time of Haggai and Zechariah are less probable. The major difficulty lies in understanding how such an individualistic psalm could be applied to a public ceremony. Perhaps the strong note of thanksgiving and the psalmist's call to the congregation to join in praise led to its use.
certainly the king rather than the post-exilic high priest), however, does not require that this is a royal psalm, since the individual may well have included king and people together in his final prayer. The distress of the psalmist is, as often, vague and complex. Is the psalmist ill and near to death? Has plague broken out, affecting both good and evil people, and he fears it may strike him? Or is his suffering largely caused by hostile and deceitful neighbours ? The suggestion that the 'workers of evil' (v. 3) are sorcerers has been generally abandoned, but given the nature of small-scale societies the possibility that the psalmist fears that his illness is caused by sorcery should not be completely ruled out. Psalm 29 This is a majestic hymn of praise to YHWH, the God of the thunderstorm. After an initial call to the 'sons of gods', the lesser gods who are members of YHWH's court (w. i—2, cf. Ps 82, Job 1:6; 2:1), the main body of the psalm echoes with the voice of YHWH, repeated seven times, as he thunders against (rather than 'over') the primeval waters, breaks the cedars, makes the mountains quake, flashes flames of fire, shakes the wilderness, and strips the forest bare (w. 3—9). The conclusion probably describes his enthronement as king over the flood, and as the protector of his people (w. 10-11).
In v. 3/7 the NRSV text and margin represent two Hebrew traditional readings. The stress in v. 5 is upon the merciful favour of God rather than the brevity of his anger. The Hebrew is extremely terse, and REB's Tn his anger is distress, in his favour there is life' is a possible way of taking the words.
Psalm 31 Although rich in isolated spiritual phrases, when viewed as a whole this psalm presents grave difficulties. Urgent prayer for deliverance from a variety of troubles, quiet trust in YHWH, and glad thanksgiving mingle in what may be a many-layered liturgy. On the other hand two, three, or even four psalms may have been combined (w. i—8 and 9—24, or 19-24 may be divided off as a separate thanksgiving, or three laments may be distinguished: w. 1-8, 9-12, and 13-18). The distress from which the psalmist seeks deliverance is equally uncertain, and illness, unjust accusations, and the attacks of enemies have all been proposed. Since illness was commonly seen in ancient Israel as divine punishment, it is possible that this is the background to the whole psalm, explaining the whispers and ostracism to which the psalmist is subjected
Less certain are the date and original occasion of the psalm, and the precise meaning of the beginning and the end.
Similarities with Ugaritic poems have led some to date the psalm very early in the history of Israel, possibly as an adaptation of a hymn to Baal or Hadad, the storm god. At the other extreme, by taking the final verse as a petition on behalf of Israel, it has been suggested that, at least in its present form, the psalm is a congregational hymn, possibly quite late in Israel's history. The psalm may have been sung in the Autumn Festival, as the LXX addition to the title, 'at the closing festival of tabernacles' indicates. Later Jewish tradition linked it with the Feast of Weeks. If the Autumn Festival included the celebration of YHWH's enthronement, this may be reflected in v. 10.
(w. 13-15) and even the 'lying lips' of v. 18. The address to the 'saints', those in a covenant relation with God, in w. 23-4 indicates that the prayer was offered publicly within an act of worship, although not necessarily in the Jerusalem temple. The striking change to confident thanksgiving at v. 19 may be a further example ofthe 'certainty of hearing' which followed the giving of a favourable sign or prophetic oracle, but some interpret the whole psalm as a thanksgiving, the apparent prayers for deliverance being descriptions of the dangers from which the psalmist has been saved. Those favouring psychological interpretations see the wavering between petition, complaint, and confidence as varying emotional moods. In the MT the psalmist confesses his 'iniquity' in v. 10 (cf. NRSV marg.), but since this is the only mention of sin in the psalm and the LXX has 'destitution', most make the small emendation adopted by NRSV.
Tn holy splendour' (NRSV) or 'in holy attire', may seem a disappointment after the AV's 'in the beauty of holiness'. The splendour is probably God's, the attire that of the worshippers. But perhaps the Hebrew word is connected with a Ugaritic word meaning 'vision' and hence a reference to the 'theophany'. The LXX has 'in his holy court', but there is little other evidence for this text. Sirion (v. 6) is Mount Hermon, to the north of Israel.
The tenses in the last verse present a problem. NRSV takes them as an invocation of blessing. The REB's futures make the verse an expression of confidence that the majestic God who is now enthroned as king will protect his people. NIV continues the descriptive presenttenses ofthe previous verses. It is difficult to decide between these three interpretations. Psalm 30 There is fairly general agreement that this is the thanksgiving of a man who has recovered from a serious illness. The Israelites thought of illness as sinking into Sheol, and this is the image behind v. 3. w. 6-10 are best seen as a flashback to the time ofthe psalmist's distress, rather than a present prayer, and the note of joyous thanksgiving sounds out clearly in the two final verses. Although some have attempted to draw this psalm into their group of royal psalms, most find here words said by an individual Israelite.
Those who posit a royal background to most of the individual laments ascribe this psalm also to the king, pointing to the psalmist's strong sense of privileged position before God, the stress on the covenant relationship, the covenant virtues of faithfulness, righteousness, and 'steadfast love', and the designation of the psalmist as YHWH's 'servant' (v. 16). T was beset as a city under siege' (v. 21), usually taken metaphorically, is treated as an actual attack by foreign enemies.
According to Lk 23:46 (= v. 5), 'Into your hand I commit my spirit' were the last words of Jesus on the cross, a further
377 PSALMS
to the 'renewal' of the covenant, or the 'new' creation celebrated at the beginning of the year. Less probably it looks forward to the future age when God works 'new things' (Isa 42:10). More generally the praises of the eternal God are timelessly new. The seer picked up the phrase in Rev 5:9. Psalm 34 This is another acrostic psalm. Two peculiarities link it with 25: both psalms lack a w verse and both end with an additional p verse. Despite the constraints of the acrostic, it has a clear structure: w. 1-3 are a call to praise, w. 4-10 express the psalmist's thanksgiving, and w. 11—21 are closer to wisdom instruction.
example of the way the psalms were linked with the passion narrative in Christian tradition. Psalm 32 The structure and general sense of this psalm of joyous thanksgiving for healing and sin forgiven are clear, even though the text is in disarray in several places (cf NRSV marg. at w. 4, 6). The psalm opens with a twofold beatitude (w. 1—2), followed by a description of illness, seen as divine punishment (w. 3-4), and an account of the psalmist's confession (v. 5). In v. 6 the psalmist addresses the assembled congregation and in the following verse reverts to his own thanksgiving. It is not clear who the speaker in w. 8—9 is: if it is not the psalmist, these verses may contain divine teaching, perhaps through a prophet or, more in accord with the style, one of the 'wise' teachers. The final two verses
The heading presents problems. If the reference to the incident in David's life recorded in i Sam 21:10-15 was added by a later editor it is odd that the name of the Philistine king is given as Abimelech and not Achish. Attempts at an explanation include the unlikely suggestions that Abimelech was the dynastic name, a royal title, or the Semitic name for Achish. The error is surely too blatant to be a simple scribal error, though it is surprising that it was not corrected later. Content of the psalm has little connection with the Achish incident, and some see the reason for the ascription in the occurrence of two similar Hebrew words in i Sam 21:13 (HB 2i:i4)(tatmd 'behaviour') and the psalm (tcfamu, v. 8, 'taste').
(perhaps to be taken with w. 8—9) express the common idea of retribution, and call the righteous to rejoice in YHWH.
The date and original setting of the psalm are difficult to determine. The wisdom style in w. 1—2 and 8—9 may point to a post-exilic date, and it has been suggested that the whole psalm fits synagogue practice better than pre-exilic worship in the temple. But it is not impossible that the psalm was intended to accompany the sin or guilt offering.
To be noted are the three words for sin in w. 1—2, etymologically derived from rebellion, missing the way, and crookedness, combined with three words for forgiveness, lifting the sin from the sinner, covering it up, and no longer accounting the sinner as guilty. But etymologies are fascinatingly deceptive, and use is a better guide to the meaning of words than derivations. Above all the repetitions reveal the psalmist's horror of his sin and underline his happiness.
The central problem lies in the twin notes of thanksgiving and instruction, and decisions about its origin depend on which is taken as dominant. If thanksgiving, then some liturgical setting is required, though whether the links with wisdom place it within synagogue worship may be questioned. On the other hand, if the wisdom element is stressed it may be that a scribe took a thanksgiving psalm as the basis for his teaching.
In Christian tradition this is one of the seven penitential psalms, though it is really thanksgiving for sin forgiven. Psalm 33 Apart from Ps 10, this is the only psalm in the set of Davidic psalms 3-41 lacking a title. The LXX has 'To David', and Qumran evidence suggests the longer, 'To David, a song, a psalm'. A few MSS join it to Ps 32, but the form of these two psalms makes it certain that they are separate poems, in spite of a few common features.
It is easy to value the psalm lightly as expressing a superficial view of retribution. If, however, stress is placed upon the distress from which the psalmist has been delivered, it gives the psalmist authority to utter his teaching about God's goodness. Psalm 35 Three times the psalmist utters a prayer for help (w. i-io, 11-18, 19-28), each time concluding with a vow to praise God. While some find here three originally separate psalms, the changes may reflect liturgical movement, and other analyses of the structure are possible. More difficult is to determine the occasion of the psalm and the identity of the 'enemies', and, as often, the presuppositions of the interpreter determine the interpretation. Some point to the military phraseology in w. 1-3 and find here a king's prayer against his enemies, perhaps vassals who have supporters among the king's own people. Others note the allusions to witnesses, defence, and judgement in w. n, 23—4, 27 and describe the psalm as the petition of the falsely accused. Others again regard all such language as metaphorical, and prefer to take the psalm as a more general prayer to be used by any upon whom trouble has fallen, whether illness or more general misfortune (it is difficult to be more precise). In this case the enemies would be those within the village community who see the disasters that have befallen the psalmist as evidence that he has been abandoned by God, and an occasion to mock and take advantage of him.
This is a good example of the hymn form. w. 1-3 contain the call to praise; 'For' in v. 4 introduces the central section (w. 4— 19), setting out the motivation for offering praise and declaring the greatness of God; and w. 20-2 express the response of the congregation. The psalm contains the same number of verses as the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and although it is not an acrostic, this probably is more than chance (cf. Lam 5). The kinship with acrostics is further seen in the great regularity in the length and metre of the verses of the psalm, and the lack of clear structure, reflected in the considerable variation in the way it has been set out (contrast NRSV, REB, and NIV). Instruction, exhortation, and beatitude mingle with the descriptions of God as creator and defender of his people (cf. w. 8,10—n, 12,16—17 with 4~7> 9> I3~I5> 18—19). God watches over those who trust in his love—the psalmist thinks of safety from death and famine. As with most of the psalms, the original setting is uncertain. The pre-exilic New Year Festival, worship in the second temple, and late synagogue worship have all been suggested.
Several features of the psalm are striking. T am your salvation' (v. 3) might be the type of priestly or prophetic oracle that
The 'new song' (v. 3, cf. 96:1; 98:1; 149:1) hardly means that it was specially composed for this occasion. Perhaps it refers
PSALMS 3;
envying the prosperity of the wicked, certainty that the good prosper and the wicked will soon suffer disaster, faith that God is active in his world, the conviction that goodness is valuable in itself, and the practical aim of persuading the hearers to commit themselves to God. Especially striking are the frequent imperatives (w. i, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 27, 34, 37). While v. 25 might imply a superficial confidence in exactly proportioned reward and punishment, the fact that the psalmist feels a need to expound this teaching may point to the beginning of doubt, such as appears more strongly in Ps 49 and 73. Psalm 38 Illness, sin, divine punishment, and the hostility of enemies and former friends dominate this psalm, which is one of the traditional penitential psalms of the Christian church. Confession is neither as central as that tradition suggests nor as plain as the NRSV translation T am sorry for my sin' (v. 18) appears to say (the verb means T am anxious, troubled', cf. REB, NIV). Nevertheless, sickness and sin are clearly related, as in the book of Job, and this sufferer accepts that he has sinned and that his illness is divine punishment.
many believe was given to the sufferer when he came to the sanctuary to pray. The appeals to God to help (w. 1—3,17, 22—4) are very forthright and strongly expressed, with bold, almost irreverent, imperatives. And the promises to offer thanksgiving and praise are both part of the appeal to God and an expression of the psalmist's own confidence. Psalm 36 The divisions into which this psalm falls are strikingly clear: w. 1-4 are a wisdom-type description of the wicked, w. 5-9 praise God in a hymn, and w. 10-12 are a prayer for help against evildoers. Some think that the sections are so distinct that three separate psalms have been combined. Others, noting the reference to the wicked in the first and last sections (although the only common term for those who are evil is 'wicked') take the whole psalm to be an individual lament, with the hymnic section as part of the appeal to God by stressing his faithfulness and righteousness. Those who link many of the psalms with the king, find here another of the royal psalms, though with somewhat less confidence than with many other psalms. The sparse use of the first person singular (only in v. n; the Heb. has 'my heart' in v. i, but most follow a few Heb. M S S and the Syriac to read 'his', cf. NRSV 'their') has led some to give the psalm a communal reference, taking it as a national prayer, a view which links easily with the king as representative of the nation. How the psalm originated and in what situation it was used is quite uncertain. This, however, does not impair its religious value.
The intensely personal tone has convinced many that this is the prayer of an individual sufferer. Others set it within the cult or some healing rite. If cultic the prayer may have been offered in the sanctuary by a friend or representative of the sufferer rather than in person; if a healing rite it may have been performed at home, perhaps in the presence of some religious expert.
The psalmist's friends, companions, and neighbours who distance themselves from him (v. n) probably see his suffering as a proof that he has sinned. Who those are who seek his life (v. 12) is not clear. Perhaps they are only those who demand that he should be punished for the wrong he has done rather than 'enemies', although later the psalmist is more bitter against them (w. 19-20; the emendation adopted by NRSV and REB is very plausible). Whether the psalmist's deafness and silence (w. 13—14) are his refusal to answer the accusations of his enemies or represent his humility before God is uncertain.
The text in several sections is corrupt, v. i begins with the noun ne'um that is frequently found at the end of oracles in the books of the prophets, where it is conventionally translated 'says the LORD' (e.g. Am 1:15). It is linked with transgression only here. (Is the idea that rebellion, personified, speaks to the wicked as YHWH speaks to the prophets?) Hence the emendation 'Transgression is pleasant to the wicked' has been proposed. The different translations of w. 3 and 6-7 among the Eng. versions indicate the difficulty in interpreting the Hebrew words. NRSV has taken 'mountains of God' in v. 6 as 'mighty mountains', but since 'the great deep' is the primeval ocean in Gen 7:11 the psalmist may be using mythological ideas to stress the greatness of God's righteousness. Psalm 37 The acrostic in this psalm has been preserved almost perfectly. In v. 28c the "ayiri verse is easily restored with the help of the LXX as 'The unrighteous will perish for ever'
'For the memorial offering' in the title is a possible interpretation of the Hebrew which is more literally 'to call to remembrance' and has been taken as 'to confess one's sins'. The Targum supports the reference to an offering; the LXX adds '[for remembrance] concerning sabbath'. Psalm 39 To understand this poignant psalm it is necessary to remember the basic convictions of the psalmist. He believes that sickness is divine punishment for sin, and he has no hope of any life beyond the grave.
(cf. REB; NRSV has inserted an interpretative 'the righteous' absent from the Heb., contrast NIV). Since the pattern is two double-line (stick) verses to each letter of the alphabet, the longer w. 14 and 20 are suspect, but there is no textual evidence to support deleting a line.
NRSV takes w. 1—3 as the psalmist's musings—he tries to keep silent and avoid questioning God, but he finds no relief. At v. 4 he begins his prayer. It is unusual in individual laments to find wisdom-type references to the brevity of human life in general; here the psalmist's pessimism approaches that of Qoheleth. In w. 7—10 he affirms his trust in God and reiterates his refusal to question him before making his plea for healing. Then after a renewed acceptance of retribution, he utters a further passionate prayer (w. 11—13).
All agree that the psalm is related to wisdom teaching, some classifying it as a wisdom psalm which has no connection with the cult, others rejecting that it is by an individual and relating it in some way to liturgy, possibly, it has been suggested, within the synagogue (although those who make this connection usually date the rise of synagogues earlier than is often allowed now). The acrostic form tends to produce poems without any obvious structure, and the lack of agreement about how it is to be divided (w. i—jct, jb—n, 12—15, 16—26, 27—33, 34—4°> and i—n> 12—20, 21—31, 32—40 are two proposals) indicates how difficult it is to find any progression of thought. Five themes may be singled out: a warning against
In v. 12 the psalmist describes himself as God's 'passing guest' and 'an alien' (NRSV). The translation carries false overtones. The Hebrew word, rendered 'sojourner' by the older translations in many of the legal passages (e.g. Deut
379 PSALMS
and lament have a large place, some classify it as the thanksgiving of the individual, treating w. 4—10 as a description of the illness from which the psalmist has been healed by God. Others hold that it is a prayer for healing; the confidence in w. 1—3 expresses the psalmist's faith in wisdom-style language, and the concluding w. 11—12 the 'certainty of hearing' found in several laments (e.g. Ps 6:8—10).
24:17-22), refers to the non-Israelite who has settled in the land. Lacking the protection of the head of the family, he was liable to be taken advantage of and oppressed. The laws single out the 'sojourner' as enjoying God's special protection, alongside other vulnerable persons, such as the fatherless and widows, and call upon the full members of the Israelite community to love them as themselves, remembering that they were 'sojourners' in Egypt (Lev 19:33-4; Deut 24:18, 22). The psalmist is putting himself under God's protection rather than stressing the brevity of his life.
The setting of the psalm is equally debated. Royal maximalists ascribe it to the king. The care of the poor (v. i) is a standard duty of the king, when the king is ill his enemies, even courtiers ('who ate of my bread', v. 9), are likely to plot against him, and the revenge of v. 10 is the common sequel to the defeat of such plots. Care of the destitute and orphans and the accusation that those who ate the writer's food raised up troops against him is found in the Egyptian Instruction of Amen-em-het. Others, however, see here family or village services in the home for those who are ill, the enemies being those friends and neighbours who regard the psalmist's illness as divine punishment. In w. 7-8 there may even be a hint of sorcery and the belief that the psalmist is subject to a curse.
As with Ps 38, the intensely personal character of this psalm has led some to regard a cultic setting as impossible. Those who think all the psalms have liturgical use compare somewhat similar laments in other countries of the ancient Middle East. Ultimately it has to be admitted that the origins of this psalm are lost to us. Psalm 40 w. 13-17 ofthis psalm recur as Ps 70. This, together with the sharp difference between the thanksgiving for deliverance in the first part of the psalm (w. i—10) and the plea for help in the second (w. 11—17) suggests to many that two psalms have been combined. Others, however, treat the psalm as a unity, the thanksgiving leading into the petition. In support of this they point out that there are links in vocabulary between the two parts (cf. 'steadfast love' and 'faithfulness' in w. 10 and n), and that the division in Ps 40 does not coincide with the beginning of Ps 70, which looks like a fragment ('Be pleased', v. 13, is missing from the Heb. of Ps 70:1).
It is very probable that v. 13 is the closing doxology to the first book of the Psalter. Psalms 42—3 This was almost certainly a single psalm, despite its division into two by both MTand LXX. Some Hebrew M SS join them together, although a few others add the title 'Of David' to Ps 43, where the LXX has 'A psalm of David'. The refrain (42:5, n; 43:5: NRSV has slightly modified the end of Ps 42:5 to agree with the later forms, probably rightly), and similarities of thought and language across both psalms confirm their original unity.
Royal maximalists include this psalm among the royal psalms, interpreting the ethical stress in w. 6-8 as fitting an annual festival or an enthronement ceremony. The lament following expressions of God's favour would equally well suit a royal prayer in time of national distress, perhaps the attack of an enemy. Even if the psalm is taken as the prayer of an individual Israelite, a cultic background seems assured from the references to the 'great congregation' (w. 9—10), the tone of bearing witness to past help from God, and the more general declaration of divine support for those who trust in YHWH, in the thanksgiving section.
Opinions on the nature of the psalm and the psalmist differ widely. The intensely personal descriptions, mood, and petitions persuade some that it comes from an individual Israelite poet, expressing his inner thoughts and feelings. Ps 42:6 has often been taken to show that the psalmist was living in the north of Israel, perhaps in exile, perhaps at home but too far from Jerusalem to go frequently to the temple. The references to the psalmist leading the festal procession in the temple
The early Christians understood the psalm as messianic prophecy, w. 6—8 are quoted in Heb 10:5—7 in the LXX version where the somewhat curious Hebrew 'ears you have dug for me' (NRSV 'you have given me an open ear') is replaced by 'you have prepared a body for me', which was then taken to be a reference to the incarnation. The origin of the LXX phrase is uncertain; it may have been internal Greek corruption (the Gk. words for 'ears' and 'body' are not too dissimilar, but could hardly have been confused except in a damaged M S) or a part of the body ('ears') may have been taken to represent the whole.
(42:4) suggest to others that it is a royal psalm, sung either when the court was absent from Jerusalem, perhaps on a military campaign, or when the king was on the way to pay tribute to his overlord. If the references in 42:7 are mythical and the descent into Sheol figurative (the repetition of the exact phrase in Jon 2:3 points to this), the king may be seriously ill. Yet others place the psalm in the worship of postexilic Israel, as the Jews, suffering in the midst of a pagan empire, seek comfort and reassurance in a congregational liturgy. Whichever interpretation is adopted, the psalmist's eager longing for God, expressed in the simile of a deer searching for water in a barren desert (42:1—2), his memories of happier days in the past (42:4), and his delight in the temple worship (42:2,4; 43:4) are plain to see. Like other psalmists he is not afraid to accuse God of forgetting him (42:9) and abandoning him (43:2). Yet hope remains and becomes the refrain. He prays that the day will come when he can once again worship God in Jerusalem (43:3-4). Psalm 44 The kind of occasion on which this communal lament may have been sung can be found in 2 Chr 20. Israel
The apparent rejection of sacrifice in v. 6 is in line with some prophetic words (cf. Am 5:21-4), but the intention is probably to stress the greater importance of ethical obedience. The identification of 'the scroll of the book' (v. 7) is uncertain and suggestions are linked with the general view of the psalm that is taken: the document of the covenant demands presented to the king at his enthronement, the Torah with its laws that the individual accepts, and the heavenly record of the psalmist's deeds have been proposed. Psalm 41 Sickness and enemies lie behind this psalm. Beyond this, interpretations vary widely. Although complaint
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The psalm has been understood in four ways, (i) Historically, it has been linked with the failure of Sennacherib to capture Jerusalem in 701 BCE (2 Kings 18:9—19:36). (2) As cultic, it has been seen as part of the Jerusalem New Year Festival (v. 8 may call the worshippers to see the ritual drama). (3) Eschatologically, it has been treated as prophecy, looking forward to God's final salvation of Israel. (4) Liturgically it has been understood as part of the worship of post-exilic Judaism, the divine protection of Zion in past history or mythology providing assurance in the present. Of these the second seems most likely. There is insufficient detail to link it with any historical event, and while Zech 14 points to the use of cultic mythology in prophetic vision, it is more natural to see in the psalm the cult behind the prophecy rather than prophecy itself. The psalm has provided reassurance to anxious worshippers in the period after the Exile and beyond (Luther's great Reformation hymn, 'A safe stronghold our God is still', is based upon it), but this does not determine its origin.
has been defeated in battle. The people come to the temple in great distress, unable to understand why God has not given them victory and beseeching him to help them.
The first part of the prayer is almost a hymn (w. 1-8), recalling the way God had defeated the Canaanites and given his people the land of I srael. The people proclaim their trust in God and not in their armies and their own weapons. The tone changes completely at v. 9. God has allowed them to be defeated, even to be killed and taken prisoner. Neighbouring peoples scoff at their humiliation. They reiterate their trust in God and deny that the defeat is punishment for any sin. With great boldness they call upon God to awake from sleep and save them.
The occasional singular verses (4, 6, 15) may indicate that this is another royal psalm, the king being the leader and representative of the nation. Some of the Church Fathers took the psalm to be messianic prophecy, and v. 22 is quoted in Rom 8:36. Psalm 45 Although some have interpreted this as a popular wedding song in which the bridegroom and bride are addressed as king and queen, and others treat it as referring to YHWH's 'marriage' with Israel (cf Isa 62:4-5), it is most probably a psalm for a royal wedding. Because 'the daughter of Tyre' in v. 12 was taken to refer to a Tyrian princess, some have linked it with Ahab's marriage to Jezebel (i Kings 16:31) and seen it as a northern Israelite psalm, but the phrase may refer to the 'people of Tyre', as NRSV. It may, therefore, have been used regularly at royal weddings. Less likely is the suggestion that it is evidence for a 'sacred marriage' in the annual festivals at Jerusalem.
NRSV has retained the traditional 'a very present help in trouble' (v. i). The meaning is more probably, 'a well-proved help'. In v. 9 'shields' involves a change in the Hebrew vowels, and is widely accepted. MT has 'carts, wagons', a word which is never used of war-chariots.
The meaning of 'To Alamoth' in the title is completely unknown. Aquila and Jerome took it as 'young women', hence as sung by sopranos. The LXX has 'hidden things', i.e. religious mysteries. Another suggestion is that it is the name of the tune to which it was sung. In i Chr 15:20 the harpists play 'according to Alamoth'. Psalm 47 This is the first of the 'enthronement psalms' (47; 93; 96—9; see PS E.5b, F-4). Its interpretation depends upon general conclusions about the existence of a New Year Festival at which YHWH was annually enthroned, the relation of this group of psalms to Deutero-Isaiah, the precise translation of the phrase 'God is king', whether a procession carrying the ark, symbol of YHWH, into the temple is implied by v. 5, the extent to which the allusion to the conquest of Canaan in w. 34 emphasizes the covenant and controls the meaning rather than ideas of YHWH's enthronement, and how far ideas of a future divine rule are pre sent. The dominant view today is that the psalm celebrates God's kingship at the New Year Festival, but there is less assurance that he was annually enthroned. In Christian tradition the psalm was linked to the celebration of the ascension, owing to v. 5 being taken as an ascent to heaven.
After an introduction (v. i), the poet addresses first the king (w. 2—9) and then the princess (w. 10—15), finally promising to the king both sons who will become princely rulers, and world-wide fame (w. 16-17).
From early times the psalm was regarded as messianic prophecy. The Targum paraphrased v. 2 as 'Thy beauty, O King Messiah, exceeds that of the children of men', and the writer to the Hebrews quotes w. 6-7 to show the superiority of Jesus over the angels (Heb 1:8—9). m Christian liturgical tradition it is sung on Christmas Day.
The text is in disorder in a number of places, hence the different renderings by modern Eng. versions. The meaning of v. 6 has been hotly debated. The most natural way of taking the Hebrew is as NRSV, with the king addressed as God. Because this would be unique in the OT (although the future king of Isa 9:6 is called 'mighty god'), alternative ways of interpreting the Hebrew have been sought. The NRSV marg. is one possibility, another is 'Your throne is everlasting like that of God'. Psalm 46 Three stanzas, each ending with a refrain (w. 7, n; it seems to have fallen out after v. 3) and 'Sdd', give this psalm a clear structure. Each section is marked by mythological features: the shaking of the earth, the river (akin to the river of Eden), YHWH as warrior. The divine name 'the Most High', probably rooted in Canaanite mythology (for the title 'the LORD of hosts', see PS H.5). There is no river in Jerusalem, only the spring of Gihon, but the idea, expressing the lifegiving presence of God, was picked up frequently in the OT (cf. Isa 33:21; Ezek47; Zech 14:8).
The structure is not entirely clear. NRSV accepts the 'Sdd' as marking a major break, and introduces another break at v. 7. Alternatively the renewed call to praise in v. 6 may be the beginning of the second section of the psalm.
The translation 'with a psalm' (v. 7) takes the word maskil to be the same as that found in several psalm titles (e.g. Ps 32). Alternatively it may be verbal: 'to him who deals wisely', referring to God. Psalm 48 This is the second of the Zion psalms (PS 1.53) and forms a pair with 46, praising God for his defence of Jerusalem. The main interpretations take it either historically, as the thanksgiving after the lifting of a siege by Israel's enemies, or within the cult, most probably as part of the New Year Festival. A few hold that it belongs to the worship of post-exilic Judaism.
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The meaning of v. 15 is uncertain. Possibly the psalmist accepts the general OT belief that there is no life beyond death, and looks simply for God's protection from premature death. The overall sense of the psalm, however, with its contrast between the wealthy oppressors who are unable to 'ransom' their 'brother's' life, or perhaps their own (v. 7), and the divine 'ransom' suggests that here is a leap of faith: God will 'receive' the psalmist, perhaps in the same way that he 'took' (the same Heb. word) Enoch (Gen 5:24; cf. Elijah in 2 Kings 2). Psalm 50 The links with prophecy are clear (see the judgement scene in Isa 1:2; Mic 1:2-4; 6:1-2; the teaching about sacrifice in Isa 1:10-15; Am 5:21-5; Mic 6:6-8; and the demands for righteousness in Isa 1:16—17, 2I~6; Hos 4:1—3; Am 2:6—16; 5:24), suggesting to some that this psalm should be termed a 'prophetic liturgy', coming from a prophet within the regular cultic worship. Others propose a setting within the New Year Festival or posit a festival for the renewal of the covenant (cf. w. 5,16). Another view places the psalm in postexilic Israel and terms it a levitical sermon.
w. 1-3 express the praises of God and of his city, Jerusalem. The assembly, attack, and flight of the hostile kings who have come to seize the city is described in w. 4—7. In w. 8—9 the worshippers recall the deliverance they have witnessed and God's 'steadfast love' which secured it. Praise is again taken up in w. 10—n, followed by a call to take good note of Zion so that the divine deliverance may be reported to future generations (w. 12-14).
Probably 'in the far north' (v. 2) is mythological (cf NIV 'Like the utmost heights of Zaphon'). At Ugarit saponwas the sacred mountain, the dwelling-place of the gods. The word does mean 'north' in Hebrew, but it is difficult to extract a satisfactory sense from it, despite attempts to show that Jerusalem was most beautiful when viewed from the north, that the psalm is really northern and does not refer to Jerusalem, or that it comes from the far south of Judah, from where Jerusalem would be in the north. Possibly the difficult closing words of the psalm express the same mythological ideas. NRSV has altered the vowels of MT to produce 'forever'. Others, with a small emendation, read 'According to Alamoth' (see the title of Ps 46), and take it as part of the title of Ps 49. With other vowels it may mean that YHWH is his people's leader and protector 'against Mot (death)', Baal's enemy in Ugaritic myths. Such use of mythology, together with what is apparently a religious procession in v. 12, and the claim to have 'pondered' (perhaps 'pictured', 'seen portrayed') these events within the temple, support the cultic interpretation of the psalm. No occasion when an enemy was defeated inside the city is known, and on a historical interpretation the procession would seem to be a tour of inspection after the enemy had retreated. The reference to the destruction of the 'ships of Tarshish' (probably Tartessus in Spain) may be a further indication that the ideas were taken over from Ugarit.
The introduction depicts God coming in a majestic theophany, reminiscent of the appearance on Sinai (Ex 19:16—20), though now coming from the temple in Zion, and calling heaven and earth as witnesses in his lawsuit against his people Israel (w. 1-6). The rest of the psalm falls into two parts, w. 7—15 proclaim, with mocking irony, that God rejects sacrifice that is not offered in the right spirit. It is unlikely that ideas of sacrifice as food for the gods still survived openly in Israel, but the psalmist recalls the people to more spiritual ideas: the call in v. 14 is probably to offer a 'thanskgiving sacrifice', rather than to substitute thanksgiving for animal offerings, w. 16—21 move on to a demand for righteousness. Stealing, adultery, and slander in w. 18-19 bring to mind the Ten Commandments, but the phrasing is different and it is unlikely that they are a direct call to obey the Decalogue. The two final verses are akin to the curses and blessings found e.g. in Deut 28. v. 23 must express the same sense as v. 14: 'He who sacrifices thank-offerings honours me', NIV.
The LXX adds 'for the second day of the week' to the title, presumably indicating its place in the worship of the Jews in Egypt.
Psalm 49 This is usually described as a wisdom psalm, and there are similarities with the wisdom books both in theme and vocabulary. Nevertheless, it is included within the Psalter and may have been sung within the liturgy in post-exilic times. The imagery, e.g. death the shepherd (v. 14), and the contrast between the inability of humans to ransom their life and the divine ransom (w. 6—7,15), is striking.
Running right through the psalm is a sense of the majesty of God, from the initial piling up of 'The mighty one, God, YHWH' (the Heb. could be equally well rendered 'YHWH, the greatest God'), through the imagery of the theophany and God's power as creator and owner of the universe, to the final threat of punishment and promise of salvation. Psalm 51 The title links this, the greatest of the penitential psalms of the church, with the David and Bathsheba story (2 Sam 11-12). Although some attempt to justify this ascription, and others think that it was composed with David's sin in mind, it is more probable that the editor was led to make the connection because he thought it was generally suitable and noted certain similarities of language. Proposed settings for the psalm include penitential rites within the Jerusalem New Year Festival performed by the king as representative of the nation, corporate confession by survivors of the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, and early synagogue worship. The use of 'your holy spirit' and priestly sin and atonement language perhaps point to a date after the Exile.
The text is difficult and certainly corrupt in places (hence the many footnotes in all the Eng. versions), w. 12 and 20 look like a refrain, but there are significant differences, retained only in NIV among recent translations. NRSV assimilates both to the form in v. 12, without a footnote, while REB emends both verses. The LXX reads both as: 'Man being in honour does not understand; he is compared to senseless animals and is like them.'
The poem consists of three parts: w. 1—4: introduction; w. 5-12: musing on universal death of rich as well as poor; w. 13-20: confidence in divine 'ransom' from Sheol despite universal human mortality. If the differences between w. 12 and 20 are significant, the second part of the psalm becomes yet more positive, distinguishing those with religious under-
Appeals for divine forgiveness, cleansing, and renewal (w. i—2, 6—12) lead into confession (w. 3—5), joyful thanks-
standing from the impious rich.
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Psalm 53 This psalm appears to be a variant of Ps 14. The general interpretation is given there, but a few additional points need to be added.
giving (v. 8, cf. v. 12), vows (w. 13-15), and the acknowledgement that God desires contrition rather than sacrifice (w. 16— 17). w. 18—19, with their prayer to God to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem and, in an apparent reversal of w. 16-17, declaration that God will then delight in animal sacrifices, are often considered a later addition to the psalm. Some of those who link it with the pre-exilic temple cult accept an original unity, treating the rebuilding of the walls as simply strengthening them and interpreting w. 16-17 as asserting no more than that God does not accept sacrifice without true penitence as sufficient in itself for atonement; once the people are penitent God will again delight in their offerings.
Two extra phrases appear in the title: 'A Maskil [of David]', found in the group of psalms 52—5 and 'according to Mahalath', which may refer to a flute accompaniment or a flute-playing ceremony, or be the name of a melody. Another suggestion is that it is a reference to illness. Mahalath occurs only here and in Ps 88 (as Mahalath Leannoth, perhaps meaning 'to humiliate', i.e. for penitence), and while illness is appropriate there, it is not in Ps 53.
The differences in the text between the two psalms are relatively small, apart from the substitution of 'Elohim' for YHWH (a feature of this group of Elohistic psalms), and v. 6, where Ps 14 reads: 'There they shall be in great terror, for God is with the company of the righteous. | You would confound the plans of the poor, | but God is their refuge.' The attention is focused on the destruction of the wicked in Ps 53, but on God's protection of the poor in Ps 14. This suggests that the two traditions developed independently and that different factors influenced them. If the differences are purely textual, the state of the Hebrew text in the Psalter is worse than is commonly supposed. Psalm 54 Here, as with Ps 52, the close resemblance of the historical part of the title to i Sam 23:19—almost a direct quotation—points to an editor searching through the historical books for a suitable setting for the psalm.
The psalm is notable for its deep understanding of sin and forgiveness. The psalmist realizes that all wrongdoing is sin against God and that the most serious consequence of sin is alienation from him, not any punishment that the sinner may receive. He knows that repentance requires not only knowledge of wrongdoing but also knowledge of God's grace (v. i). Then repentance will not be a gloomy thing but full of gladness.
v. 5 has had a long, unhappy history of misunderstanding as providing evidence for original sin and the 'sinfulness' or impurity of sexual intercourse. Since ancient Israel rejoiced in marriage and the birth of children, this is hardly likely to be the true meaning. Rather the psalmist acknowledges that he belongs to a sinful race, and confesses the depth of the sinfulness he feels.
Here, as always, the interpreter's presuppositions determine the description of the psalm. Those who believe that a number of psalms were prayers against false accusations, perhaps linked with an ordeal, the taking of an oath, or an appeal to the 'higher court' of the temple, find support in v. i with its 'vindicate me'. A royal perspective finds foreign enemies or cultic opponents in the 'strangers' (v. 3; NRSV emends to 'the insolent'), 'the ruthless' (v. 3), and 'enemies' (v. 5), and supports this as the prayer of the king before battle or in a cultic drama by the appeal to God as personal saviour, and the covenant 'faithfulness' (v. 5). Others more generally describe it as the lament, prayer, or complaint of an individual.
Psalm 52 The genre and background of this psalm are uncertain, and the text in w. 1-2,7, 9 is difficult. The title, with its reference to i Sam 22:9, is an example of the way the editor has searched the stories about David in the books of Samuel to discover suitable occasions for the composition of a number of the Davidic psalms. The psalm fits the narrative badly, since Doeg is an informer rather than a liar.
w. 1-4 address the evildoer, v. 5 appears to express confidence that God will punish him, though it can be read as a prayer, and this confidence is continued in w. 6—7. In w. 8—9 the psalmist expresses his trust in God's steadfast love and concludes with a vow.
From appeal (w. 1—2) the psalmist moves to description of the danger facing him (v. 3), and on to confidence in God
Those adopting a maximalist position on royal psalms explain this psalm as the king's speech to a powerful enemy, perhaps in the style of mockery before the actual combat. The 'righteous' and 'faithful' in w. 6 and 9 may be the king's supporters. Others describe it as the prayer of a man accused by a perjured witness, even as a curse uttered against the wicked man before he is expelled from the community. Yet others link it with wisdom teaching, and see it as communal instruction. The denunciation is similar to that of the prophets (cf. Isa 22:15—19), and the psalm may have come from one of the prophets employed in the temple. If the main emphasis is placed upon w. 5-9 the psalm may be taken as a thanksgiving after a slanderer has been discovered and condemned. With such obscurity about its nature and origins, the psalm may belong to any period of Israelite history.
(w. 4-5). Finally the psalmist promises to sacrifice a free-will offering, the one sacrifice which expressed the voluntary gratitude of a thankful heart (w. 6-7, another example of the 'certainty of hearing'). Psalm 55 Several unique words of uncertain meaning, textual problems, doubt about the tenses in some verses, sudden changes of thought, and an alternation between a single enemy and groups of oppressors (somewhat obscured in NRSV) make this a difficult psalm to understand. It is commonly taken to be the prayer of an individual. Those attracted to royal interpretations ascribe it to the king, beset by foreign enemies and hostility within his own city, and with the head of a neighbouring state now become his adversary. The wider corruption depicted in the psalm may indicate that it is a prayer for the community, but the intense individuality found especially in w. 4—8,12—14 makes this less likely.
The attitudes of the psalmist are hardly fitting for Christian worship, yet the psalm expresses divine judgement upon evil, bears witness against the sins of lying and slander, and is suffused with trust in God.
After an appeal to be heard (w. 1-2 a), the psalmist describes his anguish (w. 2/7—5; me verse division of NRSV is probably
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case, cf. T will awake the dawn', v. 8). Others see it as a royal psalm, the shelter of God's 'wings' (v. i) and the divine title 'elyon ('God Most High', v. 2) linking it with the Jerusalem temple, while 'steadfast love' and 'faithfulness' (w. 3, 10) reflect God's covenant with the king. On this last view the reference to the king's 'glory' (v. 8; NRSV translates as 'my soul') perhaps indicates casting off his ritual humiliation. The title shows that the editor linked the psalm with the stories in i Sam 22—4.
right). He has contemplated flight (w. 6-8), for the city is full of violence, and he utters a curse (w. 9—11: it may be that poetically 'violence and strife' are depicted as going round the walls, whether as watchmen or demons, but the subject of the verb may revert to the evildoers). Even his close friend has turned against him (w. 12—14), an(^ the psalmist utters a renewed curse (v. 15). Taking up his complaint, this time with greater confidence (w. 16-19), he once again reverts to the treachery of his friend (w. 20-1). In v. 22 he may recall the assurance of a temple prophet, and he closes the psalm with fresh trust in God who will destroy his enemies (v. 23).
Psalm 58 This psalm does not easily fit into any of the main categories. The dominant theme is confidence that YHWH's justice will prevail over present evil. An obscure text, which is probably corrupt (all the modern translations introduce some emendations) makes the details uncertain. A major difficulty is a word in v. i which appears to mean 'silence' (cf. RV 'Do you indeed in silence speak righteousness', apparently meaning that the judges or rulers fail to maintain justice). The LXX and Jerome read it as 'but', hardly possible in the context. Most change the vowels to read 'gods' (cf. Ps 82), either the lesser gods charged by YHWH with maintaining justice in the world, or the rulers, who are acting wickedly instead of upholding the law. The psalm is commonly regarded as a communal lament, but it is unusual to begin with an address to those who are causing the evils to which the righteous are being subjected. The description of the wicked in w. 3-5 has suggested to some that it is instruction, perhaps given in the synagogue alongside the reading of the law, but there is little evidence for this. The calls for fierce punishment in w. 6—9 (akin to the prophetic invective of Ps 52) and the rejoicing of the righteous when they see vengeance being taken (w. 10—n) strike the modern reader as brutal. Attempts to soften the harshness include stressing the social situation where evil appears to call into question God's authority and justice, the need in ancient Israel for justice to be vindicated in the present world, the danger of divine punishment on the covenant community when the covenant laws are flagrantly broken, and the use of curses as a protection and a way of affirming the covenant demands (see PS f.2-8).
Verses of great beauty (cf. 6-7, 16, 22) may appear to be immersed within desires for vindictive revenge, but the psalmist is concerned for righteousness and faithfulness, and it is this which determines the overall tone of the psalm.
Psalm 56 This is another prayer for help against enemies. Beyond that little can be said for certain. There seems small reason to class it with the prayers of those falsely accused, though some have proposed this. Those who ascribe many psalms to royal rites interpret the 'peoples' of v. 7 as foreign enemies, find references to national war in w. 1-2, 9, and regard the vows and thank-offerings (v. 12) as particularly suitable for the king. They link the references to 'death' and the 'light of life' (v. 13) to royal imagery, perhaps related to a cultic drama. Alternatively it has been suggested that the psalm comes from one of the Jews of the dispersion who had to face anti-Semitism.
The similarities between w. 4 and 10—n may point to a division into two stanzas, with a concluding section w. 12-13. But the certainty of hearing seems to begin at v. 9, which cuts across this scheme.
Special interest attaches to the title. The editor who linked Davidic authorship with events recorded in the historical books related the psalm to David's flight to Gath in i Sam 21:10—15. NRSV's 'according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths' involves a change in the vowels of MT, which appears to mean 'a dove of silence, distant ones'. The phrase is a reference to a melody, although it has been explained as a reference to a dove sent into the distant desert, rather like the scapegoat of Lev 16:20—2. The LXX has 'for the people far off from the holy places (or holy people)', while the Targum reads 'concerning the congregation of Israel, which is compared to a silent dove at the time when they were far from their cities, and turned again and praised the Lord of the world'. Both of these show that in later tradition the psalm was treated as a national psalm spoken by the personified people.
Psalm 59 This vigorous plea for the destruction of the psalmist's enemies has been interpreted in several different ways. The least likely is that it is the prayer of the man who has been accused of some wrong, despite the protests of innocence in w. 3-4. The clear references to foreign enemies (the word translated 'nations' in v. 5 is rarely used of Israel) and the general impression of hostile attacks in war possibly point to national prayer. This could be incorporated in a royal psalm, where the king is the leader and representative of his people and the one against whom the enemy's attacks are primarily directed. Royal covenant ideas, such as steadfast love and fidelity (w. 10, 16, 17), are noted by those who champion this interpretation.
Psalm 57 w. 7-11 recur in Ps 108:1-5, and this, together with the change of theme between w. i—6 (a prayer for deliverance from enemies) and 7—11 (a confident thanksgiving which almost turns into a hymn), has suggested to some that two psalms have been combined. Against this is the refrain in w. 5 and n, and the probability that Ps 108 is a liturgical combination of psalmic pieces (108:6—rj/Ps 60:5—12).
The structure is not clear. What might appear as two refrains (w. 6—7, 14—15, and 9, 17) have differences in wording that are hardly textual errors, and they do not divide up the psalm in any very obvious way, as an outline reveals: petition (w. 1—2), description of the ambush (v. 3»fc), declaration of innocence (w. y—^a), renewed appeal (w. 4^—5), comparison of the enemies as scavenging dogs (w. 6-7), declaration of confidence that God will give victory over the enemies whom
Some interpret this psalm as an individual lament (with the certainty of hearing having a more prominent place than usual), an individual thanksgiving (the first part describing the dangers from which the psalmist has been saved), or the prayer of a man falsely accused (who may have spent the night in the temple precincts while awaiting the decision on his
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entrance of Sheol. The references to God's 'tent' and the 'shelter of your wings' (v. 4) may refer to the Jerusalem temple. Psalm 62 Royal maximalists treat this as a king's psalm, pointing to the references to God as 'my rock', 'my salvation', and 'my fortress' (w. 2,6), seeing in v. 3 a warning by the king, noting the exhortations to the people in w. 8—10, and finding behind w. 11—12 a divine oracle given to him. Others classify it as a psalm of confidence, even one of the clearest examples of this genre, with trust in God expressed in w. 1-2, 5-8, 11-12; they explain the remaining verses, which describe attacks by enemies and teach the insignificance of human power and wealth, as a foil to this assured faith. The suggestion that the psalmist has taken refuge from his enemies in the temple, which some infer from w. 2, 6, 7, seems rather precarious.
he holds in derision (w. 8-10), plea for the destruction of the enemies (w. 11—13, with some ambiguity as to whether the enemies are to be totally destroyed or simply weakened), repeated refrain (w. 14-15), and a vow to offer praise or a closing thanksgiving (w. 16-17).