Part 56
'Indictment', v. i (rib) is a legal term. The absence of knowledge of God in the land is an important theme in Hosea (4:6; 5:4; 6:6). 'Knowledge of God' is not mystical knowledge of God (as in the NT), but an awareness of his basic moral laws, and a practical keeping of them—summed up in hesed, 'steadfast love', v. 2 castigates 'murder', 'stealing', and 'adultery', the same terms used in the sixth, eighth, and seventh commandments of the Decalogue (Ex 20, Deut 5); also mentioned are 'swearing' and 'lying', equivalent to the sins found in the third and ninth commandments. Scholars debate whether Hosea refers specifically to the Decalogue. If it is older than Hosea (and Ex 20 has traditionally been ascribed to the Elohist source, £.750), he could have done so, but recently some scholars have dated it later. By way of judgement 'the land dries up'—'dries up' is a better translation of the verb 'bl here than the usual 'mourns', v. 5, 'the prophet also shall stumble with you by night' is probably a gloss; prophets are nowhere else mentioned in this chapter and some other glosses contain 'also' (5:5; 6:11).
(5:8—6:3) Israel's Sickness unto Death and Hosea's Exhortation to Repentance This section concerns the period of the Syro-Ephraimite war (735-733 BCE) and its aftermath (733-731) (see HOS A.3). In 5:8—15 Hosea describes the internecine strife of that period between Judah and Israel and expresses divine judgement on both. YHWH will inflict sickness and death on the nation, but in 6:1-3 predicts it will revive if they accept his exhortation to repent.
5:8—10 reflects the movement north of Judean troops into northern-Israelite/Benjaminite territory during the SyroEphraimite crisis, and this is condemned. At the same time, the northern kingdom is condemned for its self-inflicted wound in going after 'vanity' (Heb. uncertain), which refers to its attack under Pekah (with the Syrians under Rezin) on Judah in the time of Ahaz. At 5:12 translate 'Therefore I am like a moth to Ephraim', as traditionally (RSV), not 'maggots'
'Thing of wood' or 'staff, v. 12 (RSV) is probably an abusive description of a wooden idol used in divination, possibly the Asherah. Though sometimes seen as rhabdomancy (divination by sticks), this is unlikely since it is only rarely attested in the ancient Near East. REB 'diviner's wand' and NRSV 'divining rod' are unlikely, v. 13 alludes to the sanctuaries known in the OT as 'high places' (Hos 10:8) and the description of sacrifices taking place on mountains and under trees recalls the frequent phrase 'on every high hill and under every luxuriant tree' (cf Jer 2:20; NRSV's 'green tree' is incorrect). Continuing with the high places, v. 14 alludes to 'cult prostitutes'
(NRSV) or 'festering sore' (NEB, REB), which have bee proposed for 'as on the basis of an alleged Arabic cognate. Certainly 'as means 'moth' in Job 13:28, where it is parallel with raqab, 'rottenness', as here. The thought is compressed: just as a moth is to a garment, so will YHWH be to Israel. 5:13 mentions Ephraim's going to Assyria, which refers to Hoshea's submission to Tiglath-pileser III in 731. Judah under Ahaz appealed to the Assyrians too (even though this is not explicit here), following the northern Israelite and Syrian invasion of Judah (2 Kings 16:7-8; cf. Isa 7). The Assyrian ruler is referred to as 'the great king' (similarly Hos 10:6): the Hebrew is unusual (mdck yarlb), rendered incorrectly by AV and RVas 'King Jareb'.
(RSV) there. The word literally means 'holy ones' (qedesot) and the parallelism with 'harlots' (zonot) here and elsewhere (Deut 23:17-18; Gen 38:15, 21-2) establishes the meaning as 'cult prostitutes'. We cannot say much about their precise role, but they seem to have had some connection with the Baal fertility cult. There is no reason to doubt their existence, as some scholars have done recently—in addition to the OT we have references to them in many (admittedly mostly late) classical sources, as well as in Mesopotamia, where they were particularly associated with the goddess Ishtar. In v. 15 Hosea rejects Gilgal and Beth-aven (i.e. Bethel), both sites of sanctuaries. Gilgal (Khirbet el-Mefjir, near Jericho) is also condemned in 9:15 and 12:11, there specifically in connection with sacrifices. Beth-aven, literally 'house of evil', is a derogatory name for Bethel (modern Beitin; cf. 5:8, 10:5), the leading sanctuary
Israel's hoped-for restoration is depicted in 6:1—3, which raises two highly debated questions. First, with regard to who is speaking it has been suggested: (i) that these are the words of the Israelites, but that they are insincere. However, the language is so full of genuine Hoseanic images and the sentiments so similar to Hosea's exhortation to repentance in ch. 14, that it is difficult to regard the words as insincere. (2)
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ness. The words reapply Hosea's message to Judah at a later date. 'Harvest' is an image for judgement. In 6:11/7—7:2 YHWH states his willingness to restore the fortunes of Israel, but cannot because of their wickedness. Samaria (7:1), first mentioned here in Hosea, was the capital of the northern kingdom since the ninth-century King Omri (it has been excavated); sometimes it stands for the remaining rump northern kingdom (cf. 10:5).
Some suppose these are the words that Hosea hopes the Israelites will say, but 'saying' (RSV) is lacking in the Hebrew at the end of 5:15 and the parallel with ch. 14 also tells against it. So (3) is most likely—this is Hosea's own exhortation to the people, like 14:1-3.
The second debated question is whether Hosea's imagery is of resurrection from death or simply healing of the sick. In favour of the former are: (i) elsewhere when the verbs 'revive' (hiphil ofhyh) and 'raise up' (hiphil of qum) appear together, they denote resurrection (Isa 26:14, J9> J°b I4:I2> 14); (2) 6:5 speaks of Israel as slain; (3) there are impressive parallels between chs. 5-6 and 13-14 (lion image, 5:14, 13:7-8; exhortation to return, 6:1; 14:1; dew or rain imagery, 6:3; 14:4), and since in ch. 13 it is clearly a case of death (w. i, 9, 14), this should also be the case in chs. 5—6 (cf. Ezek 37 for death and resurrection as symbolic of exile and restoration). Probably Hosea has appropriated the imagery of Israel's death and resurrection from the dying and rising god Baal. This is supported by 13:1, 'he incurred guilt through Baal and died', and the association of the resurrection with rain in 6:3. 'After two days... on the third day' means 'after a short while'; cf. 'etmdl silsom, 'formerly', literally, 'yesterday, the third day'. (6:4^7:16) Israel's Corruption, Political and Religious This section contains loosely connected oracles mostly concerned with Israel's political, but also religious, corruption. 6:4-6 enunciates Israel's failure to live up to YHWH's demand for steadfast love and knowledge of God; 6:7—10 recalls crimes perhaps associated with Pekah's rebellion; 6:na is a Judean gloss, applying YHWH's judgement to the southern kingdom; 6:11/7-7:2 explains how Israel's corrupt deeds prevent YHWH from restoring her; 7:3—7 describes vividly the court intrigues leading to the overthrow of a king; 7:8—12 rejects foreign alliances; finally, 7:13-16 condemns religious apostasy.
The treachery involved in one of the coups d'etat is reflected in 7:3—7, possibly when Hoshea overthrew Pekah (£.731). The passionate intrigue of the conspirators is compared to the heat of a baker's oven (cf. 7:4, 6, 7). It has sometimes been supposed that Hosea was opposed to kingship in principle, but it is more likely that it was the behaviour of contemporary kings that he opposed.
The section 7:8-12 returns to condemning Israel's foreign alliances. These devour Israel's strength (7:8), a probable allusion to Assyria's annexing some of Israel's territory in 733. The fact that Israel calls upon Egypt as well as Assyria (7:11) probably indicates a date after Hoshea's appeal to Egypt in £.725. At 7:13-16 Israel's religious apostasy is again condemned. There is an interesting reference in 7:14 to the ritual practice of people gashing themselves for grain and wine. (The translation 'they gash themselves' follows LXX and some Heb. MSS instead of MT, 'they assemble themselves'.) Lacerating oneself is prohibited in Deut 14:1 (cf. i Kings 18:28), but was part of the Baalistic cult. The beginning of 7:16 is unclear: perhaps emend to 'They turn to Baal', which fits the context, though other suggestions have been made.
(8:1—14) A Catalogue of Israel's Sins Here Hosea recounts the sins which will lead to judgement on Israel, w. 1—3 begin in general terms, proclaiming that Israelhas broken God's covenant and transgressed his law. The specific sins are unauthorized changes of rulers (v. 40), making of images, especially the (golden) calf cult (w. 4/7—6), Israel's foreign alliances (w. 8—10), sacrificial worship (w. 11—13), an(^ trust in fortifications rather than YHWH (v. 14).
The statement at 6:4-6 has often been thought to be YHWH's response to Israel's insincere repentance in 6:1—3, but, as noted, it is not insincere, but contains Hosea's own exhortation to repentance. Rather, 6:4-6 reflects Hosea's response to the people's current plight prior to any possible repentance such as that depicted in 6:1—3. Hosea's famous words in 6:6 elevate the importance of right moral behaviour above ritual. As in similar passages in other prophets (Isa 1:10-17; Jer 7:2I~3; Mic 6:6-8), it is probably not sacrifice per se that is rejected, but hollow and meaningless worship (and syncretistic worship in Hosea's case). 'Not this but that' can mean, 'That is more important than this'. Obscure allusions to crimes at various locations are contained in 6:7-10. Gilead
v. i is significant because, along with Hos 6:7, it contains the only explicit mention of the word 'covenant' (Heb. berit) to describe YHWH's relationship with Israel in the eighthcentury prophets. Although some have argued that the notion of covenant was a later invention ofthe Deuteronomists, there are good grounds for seeing it as authentic to Hosea here and in 6:7 (Day 1986). Also in v. i 'trumpet' is better rendered 'ram's horn'. 'One like a vulture' is the probable translation (retaining MT) and seems to be an image for the invader's swiftness, v. 43 refers to the frequent coups d'etat of Israel's final years after the death of Jeroboam II. Then, in 8:4/7-6, in condemning images, Hosea focuses especially on the calf cult, claiming that the calf is not a god and will be destroyed (cf. 10:5—6; 13:2). In referring to the calf as Samaria's (w. 5, 6) the prophet probably means the province of Samaria (i.e. the northern kingdom), not the capital city (cf. 10:5). Jeroboam I had set up golden calves in Bethel and Dan in £.930 (i Kings 12:28—30) to lure the north away from the Jerusalem temple. The calf cult at Dan probably ended in 733 when Assyria annexed part ofthe northern kingdom. Probably the golden calves were originally symbols of YHWH, not a pagan god, and had been acceptable to many Israelites. It is sometimes
(v. 8) was in Transjordan and Adam (v. 7, read with NRSV 'at Adam', not 'like Adam') was a town in the Jordan valley in the region of Gilead. Since Pekah's rebellion in £.735 started in Gilead (2 Kings 15:25), we may have allusions to it here. v. j's words, 'But at Adam they transgressed the covenant' are significant, since, together with 8:1, we have here the only explicit reference to YHWH's covenant with Israel in any of the eighth-century prophets. It has sometimes been supposed that the covenant referred to here is rather a political treaty, but against this note that elsewhere 'transgress a (political) treaty' is heperu berit, not 'aberu berit as here. (See Day 1986.) v. ua is an anti-Judean gloss. Other glosses also contain 'also'
(cf. 4:5 and 5:5) and its lame brevity challenges its genuine-
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evil of theirs began at Gilgal; there I came to hate them.' It is uncertain whether we should translate as past tense (as NRSV) or with present tense. Also, the evil referred to at Gilgal is unclear. Elsewhere Hosea refers to cultic misdemeanours there (4:15; 12:11) so that may be the case here. If the tense is past, the reference may be to the Baal-peor incident alluded to in v. 10, which Mic 6:5 says extended 'from Shittim to Gilgal'. Others envisage political misdemeanours, whether referring in the past to Saul, who was made king at Gilgal (i Sam 11:14— 15), or to some contemporary event, as might be suggested by 'all their officials are rebels'.
maintained that they were merely pedestals of the deity, but this is unlikely. Hosea insists, 'it is not God', which would be meaningless if everyone regarded it as simply a pedestal. Probably the calf image goes back to the supreme Canaanite god El (called 'Bull El' in the Ugaritic texts) with whom YHWH was equated (cf. Bethel, 'house of El'). Aaron's golden calf (Ex 32) is probably a back projection from i Kings 12:28-30. w. 8-n condemn Israel's foreign alliances, a repeated theme of Hosea's (5:13; 7:8—9, n; 12:1; 14:3). In particular he condemns the alliance with the Assyrians: this probably refers to Hoshea's submission to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 731. This fits v. 9, 'Israel is swallowed up; now they are among the nations as a useless vessel', as Tiglath-pileser III exiled part of Israel in 733 (2 Kings 15:29). The translation of 8:iofc is uncertain: RSV follows LXX, 'And they shall cease for a little while from anointing king and princes.' w. 11-13 reject Israel's sacrifices on account of the people's sin; probably sacrifices are not rejected per se (cf. HOS 6:6). Finally, v. 14 rejects Israel's trust in fortifications rather than in YHWH.
(10:1-8) The Coming Downfall of Cult and King Hosea here anticipates the downfall of the nation's institutions, both religious and political. Characteristically, he flits from one to the other: w. 1—2, 5—6, 8 envisage the end of the cult and w. 3—4,7 highlight the futility of the monarchy and its foreign alliances and anticipate the end of Israel's king.
For the image of Israel as a vine (v. i), cf. Isa 5:1—7, Ps 80:8— 16 (MT 9—17). The 'pillars' (massebot) of w. 1—2 were sacred pillars at the high places, and symbolic of the male deity. Originally they were acceptable (Gen 28:22), but later they were condemned (Deut 16:22). The covenants opposed in v. 4 are probably treaties made with foreign nations (cf. 12:2). w. 5—6 predict judgement on the calf of Beth-aven, i.e. Bethel (see HOS 8:5-6). 'Calf (v. 5) follows Greek and Syriac—Hebrew, strangely, has feminine plural, feglot. For v. 6's 'great king', see HOS 5:13. The 'high places' (Heb. bamot) of v. 8 were local sanctuaries where the syncretistic practices condemned by Hosea took place. Strangely, in Hosea the term occurs only here. Some (e.g. NRSV) take 'awen as a place-name (Aven, short for Beth-aven, i.e. Bethel), but more likely it has its normal meaning 'wickedness', because of the plural 'high places'.
(9:1—9) Exile will Bring an End to Israel's Festal Worship These verses form a prophetic diatribe, unlike 9:10—13,15—16 and most of ch. 8, where YHWH speaks in the first person. The prophet condemns the festal worship and predicts that exile in Assyria and Egypt will bring it to an end. Hosea's words lead the people to think he is a mad prophet (v. 7), to which he replies in v. 8. Israel's return to Assyria and Egypt is predicted in v. 3, whilst v. 6 emphasizes simply the return to Egypt. This latter verse's detail suggests it is meant literally, not symbolically. In the light of Hosea's message of doom, v. yb quotes the popular view of him as a mad prophet. (Cf. 2 Kings 9:11 and Jer 29:16 for the perception of other prophets as 'mad'.) v. 8 then presents Hosea's response to this charge with his claim that, as a prophet, he is rather God's watchman over Ephraim. Interestingly, this passage challenges the proposal of some recent scholars that the pre-exilic prophets did not actually see themselves as prophets and that this was a later Deuteronomistic understanding. The reference at v. 7 to Hosea as 'the man of the spirit' is also of interest, since unlike the 'word' of God, the 'spirit' is mentioned only rarely in the pre-exilic canonical prophets.
(10:9-15) Predictions of War and Disaster This section begins and ends with judgement oracles (w. 9—10, 13/7—15); in between are sayings about Israel, using agricultural imagery
(w. 11-130).
For 'the day of Gibeah' (v. 9) see HOS 9:9. w. 11-130 illustrate Hosea's fondness for agricultural images. Within v. n the reference to 'Judah' is probably a gloss, extending the words to the southern kingdom. Some think v. 14 refers to an invasion of Irbid (Arbela) in Transjordan by King Salamanu of Moab, whilst others identify Beth-arbel with a place in northern Israel and see Shalman as the Assyrian King Shalmaneser V. The latter would be a more effective image, since Shalmaneser V eventually destroyed the northern kingdom as anticipated by Hosea (HOS A.4). In v. 15 MT has 'Bethel', but the context of w. 13—15 supports 'house of Israel' with LXX. 'At dawn' (NRSV follows MT): RSV 'in the storm' is based on debatable emendation. (n:i-n) YHWH's Inextinguishable Love for Israel and Israel's Ingratitude This is one of the high points in the OT, depicting God's love in the face of Israel's continued ingratitude, w. i—n appear to be a unity, apart from v. 10, which is probably a later addition, w. 1-4 depict YHWH's love for Israel from the Exodus and Israel's ingratitude, sacrificing to the Baals, w. 5—7 prophesy the divine judgement and Israel's exile, w. 8—9 then mark a shift, not only in the move from YHWH's speaking of Israel in the third person to addressing it directly, but in
The reference to the people as corrupt 'as in the days of Gibeah' (v. 9, cf. 10:9) probably alludes to the outrage in Judg 19-20, when a Levite's concubine was raped and murdered in Gibeah, which made a notable impression (Judg 19:30). The combination of violence and sexual sin makes it appropriate for this to be paradigmatic for Hosea. A reference to Saul, whose capital was at Gibeah, is less likely.
(9:10—17) Israel's Sinful History Begets a Barren Future These verses are primarily in first-person divine speech, unlike the preceding and following sections. They describe how, though YHWH found Israel in the wilderness like grapes or the first ripe figs, they committed apostasy with Baal-peor (v. 10), and following in the same train ever since, they are destined to infertility (cf. w. 11-14, I^)- Since Baal was a fertility god, there is evident irony here.
v. 10 speaks of Israel's apostasy to Baal-peor, recalling Num 25:1—5. 'Shame' (Heb. boset) is a euphemism for 'Baal', v. 130 is difficult and various renderings have been given, v. 15, 'Every
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(J). A second allusion to Jacob's ambition comes in 12:3/7—40, recalling Jacob's wrestling with God/an angel at Penuel (Gen. 32:22—32), though Hosea's reference to Jacob's weeping there is unattested in Genesis. The third allusion is to God's meeting with Jacob at Bethel (12:4/7), attested in both Gen. 28:10— 22 (J) and 35:9-15 (P). At 12:7—8 the theme of Israel's deceit is continued, but without explicit allusion to Jacob. With their condemnation of Israel's commercial corruption these verses are reminiscent of Amos. 12:11 condemns two sites, Gilead, perhaps as in 6:8 for its part in Pekah's rebellion, and Gilgal for its sacrificial cult. 12:12 returns to citing the tradition about Jacob, this time in connection with his flight to Aram (Syria), where he served for his wives (Rachel and Leah—cf. Gen 29:15—30). The point is not wholly clear, but it probably hints at Israel's embroilment in foreign alliances and exile, since 12:13 contrasts Moses' leading of Israel out of Egypt. Moses is called a 'prophet' (taking up the theme of prophets in 12:10), the first time in the OT he is so called. Moses is later called a prophet in Deut 18:15, J8; 34:10, one of a number of instances in which Deuteronomy stands in the tradition of Hosea.
its poignant depiction of the anguish of YHWH's love so that he cannot totally destroy Israel. Finally, w. 10—n depict Israel's subsequent deliverance from exile.
v. i speaks of YHWH's call of Israel, his son, at the time of the Exodus (cf Ex 4:22; Deut 14:1). In w. 3-4 YHWH's tender care for the infant Israel is more characteristic of a mother, and feminist scholars have suggested YHWH is depicted with female imagery (cf. Isa 66:12-13). This maybe, though the OT never directly calls YHWH mother, but only father, v. 5, the threat of exile in Egypt and Assyria is a repeated theme in Hosea (7:16; 8:8—10,13; 9:3, 6). v. 7 contains a textual problem: NRSV has 'To the Most High (
fal) they call', but 'al is possibly a corruption from ba'al (Baal).
In w. 8—9, one of the most moving passages in the OT, YHWH struggles with himself, and the anguish of his love finally dictates that he cannot totally destroy Israel as he did Admah and Zeboiim (these being two cities of the plain destroyed alongside Sodom and Gomorrah: Deut. 29:22—3; cf. Gen 10:19; I4:2> 8). This does not negate the promise of judgement, but means that Hosea foresees it as not final; rather it has a chastening effect on Israel. In the literal sense this contradicts some other passages where YHWH says he will destroy Israel (13:9, 16), but even there subsequent restoration is envisaged (ch. 14). Interestingly, Hosea implies a degree of divine suffering; contrast the denial of divine suffering in some early Church Fathers, v. 10 is probably a later addition, alluding to a return of Israel's western exiles: other prophetic references to an ingathering of western exiles are post-exilic (Isa 11:11; 60:9; Joel 3:6-7; Ob 20). v. 10 is probably a later amplification of Hosea's authentic prophecy of return from exile in v. n (reversing the threat of v. 5).
(13:1—16 (MT 14:1)) Death for Israel Ch. 13 is pervaded by Israel's death. This is primarily future, but in v. i is already present. This is a metaphor for Israel's end, specifically with reference to exile. The chapter divides into three sections, w. 1—3, 4—8, and 12—16, beginning with a historical retrospect establishing Israel's guilt (w. 1—2,4—6,12—13) an(^ concluding with a declaration of judgement (w. 3, 7-8, 14-16). To the second oracle is appended a mocking condemnation of the monarchy (w. 9—11).
The statement in v. i that Israel'incurred guilt through Baal and died' is ironical. Baal was a dying and rising fertility god, and Israel has died through worshipping him (to be followed, after repentance in ch. 14, by resurrection). The current 'death' probably alludes to Tiglath-pileser Ill's exile of part of the northern kingdom in 733. The end of v. 2 is a little uncertain: NRSV is probably right, with partial LXX support, to read ' "Sacrifice to these", they say. People are kissing calves!' For the calf cult, cf. 8:5—6 and 10:5—6. In devouring Israel (w. 7—8) YHWH is compared with various wild beasts. YHWH as a lion
(11:12—12:14 (MT 12:1—15)) Israel's Perfidy and Kinship with its Ancestor Jacob In the MT ch. 12 begins with 11:12 of the English versions and this represents a better chapter division. Allusions to Israel's lies and deceit in 11:12 clearly belong with ch. 12 (cf. w. i, 3, 7). Much of ch. 12 is pervaded by Israel's deceit and unfaithfulness, and interestingly, Hosea associates this with the character of Israel's ancestor, Jacob (w. 2-4,12). Hosea here shows knowledge of traditions about Jacob very similar to those contained in the J source in Genesis. In contrast stand God's prophets (12:10), including Moses, who led Israel out of Egypt (12:13). Th£ chapter is essentially a unity, though there are later glosses, both preand antiJudean, in 11:12/7 and 12:20. The translation of 11:12/7 is uncertain, but it seems to contrast Judah's faithfulness with Israel's infidelity. That 'Judah' is a gloss in 12:2 is supported by the play on the name Israel as well as Jacob in v. 3, which supports 'Israel', not 'Judah' being original in v. 2. In 12:1 the oil carried to Egypt probably alludes to an Israelite gift to induce Egyptian support, rather than being part of the ritual of treatymaking. 12:2 introduces the verses about Jacob with 'The Lord... will punish Jacob according to his ways', indicating the remarks about Jacob are intended to be critical. Jacob's overweening ambition was first manifested in the womb when he sought to supplant his brother Esau (12:30). The word 'supplant' (ycfdqob) here plays on the name of Jacob. Cf. Gen 25:26 (J), where Jacob takes Esau by the heel ('aqeb), and 'aqab (supplant) is used rather in connection with Jacob's taking Esau's birthright and blessing in Gen 27:36
(w. 7-8) is found also in the similar passage in 5:14. v. 10 possibly refers to the period after £.725 when King Hoshea was imprisoned by the Assyrians. There may be a play on his name (meaning 'salvation') in the words 'that he may save you'.
In v. 14 YHWH declares he will hand Israel over to the power of Death (Sheol). The interrogative particle ha is lacking, so the ancient versions (followed by Paul in i Cor 15:33) understood the sentiments positively: T shall ransom them from the power of Sheol...', but this does not fit the context (cf. 'compassion is hid from my eyes' at end of verse). In v. 14 Israel is in the grip of Death (mawet) and Sheol, whilst in v. 15 Israel's 'fountain will dry up, his spring will be parched'. This ultimately reflects Baal mythology, for in the Ugaritic Baal myth, after Baal goes down into the realm of Mot (Death), the land becomes dry and parched.
In v. 15, read probably 'among the rushes' ('ahu) with NRSV rather than MT's 'among the brothers' ('ahim), as it fits the nature-based imagery better.
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rejected in the same context and that the Canaanite goddess Asherah, worshipped by the Israelites, was symbolized by a stylized tree, may indicate that Hosea is appropriating her role as a source of fertility to YHWH. The words 'It is I who answer and look after him' (faniti wa'asurennu) could be a word play on the names of the goddesses Anat and Asherah. (14:9 (MT 10)) Epilogue This is an editorial postscript in the style of the Wisdom writers, reflecting on the message of the book. It implies that, rightly understood, its words bring blessing, but to the wicked they bring disaster.
(14:1-8 (MT 2-9)) Repentance and Restoration As is characteristic of OTprophetic books, the final chapter of Hosea ends happily, anticipating Israel's future repentance and restoration, w. 1-3 are the prophet's exhortation to the people to repent. Following this, in w. 4-8 YHWH promises to restore Israel; the passage employs striking images from the blossoming of nature to depict this.
In w. 1-3, following the prophecy of Israel's death (exile) in ch. 13, there is a call to repentance, just as 6:1-3 has a call to repentance following the description of Israel's illness/death in 5:12—16. In repenting, the people are to confess their guiltto YHWH, renouncing their faith in Assyria, military might, and idolatry (v. 3). Following its repentance, v. 4 gives a beautiful depiction of Israel's future national restoration, depicted under the imagery of the growth and blossoming of nature.
Brenner, A. (1995) (ed.), A Feminist Companion to the Latter Prophets, A
Somewhat similar imagery is used of the restoration of Israel in Isa 27:2-6, which is probably dependent on Hos 14 (see Day 1980).
Feminist Companion to the Bible, 8 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press), 240-1. Davies, G. I. (1992), Hosea, NCB (London: Marshall Pickering). Day, J. (1980), A Case of Inner Scriptural Interpretation', JTS NS 31:
The passage has several textual problems. In v. 5 probably retain MT 'Lebanon' (NRSV, etc.) rather than reading libneh, 'poplar' (RSV, etc.). In v. 7 probably retain 'his shadow' rather than emending to 'my shadow' (contra NRSV, etc.), and also in this verse read 'they shall grow grain' with MT (similarly RE B) rather than emending to 'they shall flourish as a garden' (contra RSV, NRSV); also, zikro should be rendered 'their fame' (cf. REB), not 'their fragrance', v. 8 is best translated 'What has Ephraim to do with idols? It is I who answer and look after him. I am like a luxuriant cypress, from me comes your fruit.' It is unique in the OT for YHWH to be compared to a tree. The fact that idolatry is
309-19. (1986), 'Pre-Deuteronomistic Allusions to the Covenant in Hosea and Psalm Ixxviii', VT^,6:1—12. Emmerson, G. I. (1984), Hosea: An Israelite Prophet injudean Perspec-
tive, JSOTSup 28 (Sheffield: JSOT). Macintosh, A. A. (1997), Hosea, ICC (Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark). Mays, J. L. (1969), Hosea, OTL (London: SCM). Rowley, H. H. (1963), The Marriage of Hosea', in Men of God (London:
Nelson), 66—97. Rudolph, W. (1966), Hosea, KAT (Giitersloh: Mohr). Wolff, H. W. (1974), Hosea, ET, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: For-
tre).ss
28. Joel CARL-A. KELLER
God Announces the Effusion of his Divine Energy Amidst
A. Structure. We may divide the book into twelve literary units. Units are identified by two criteria: subject-matter and the identity of the speaker. The style of prophetic oracles is quite particular in so far as sometimes God himself is the speaker of a message, the prophet being nothing but his mouthpiece, whereas on other occasions it is the prophet who explains the plans and actions of his Master. In the first case, the T' of the text refers to God, and in the second, the T' is the prophet, who refers to God in the third person. With the aid of these principles we obtain the following units:
Disruptions of Cosmic Order; the Prophet Adds an Exhortation (2:28-32) God Announces the Restoration of Judah and Jerusalem,
and Judgement over the Nations (3:1—8) God and the Prophet Describe the Final Battle Against the
Nations (3:9-17) The Prophet Announces a Glorious Future for Judah and
Jerusalem (3:18—21)
The first eight units, mostly words of the prophet, concern Jerusalem and Judah, whereas the last four, mostly words of God, treat the relationship between God and all the nations. They are divided up differently in the HB: 3:1—5; 4:1—8; 4:9—17; 4:18—21. The book is made up of two parts: is it a unity or the work of at least two authors? But the idea of the day of the Lord is central to both parts and establishes a strong link between them; moreover, there are some expressions and ideas ('Judah and Jerusalem', 'to sanctify'; the question of fertility) which occur in both sections. So we may consider the whole as one in thought and speech. There is no reason either to doubt that it is a single author's work.
The Prophet Announces Destruction by Locusts (1:2-4) The Prophet Describes the Invasion of a Strange 'Nation'
and Exhorts People to 'cry to YHWH' (1:5-14) The Prophet Describes the Drought Caused by the Day of
the Lord (1:15-18) The Prophet's Prayer (1:19—20) The Prophet Praises the Day of the Lord: the Lord is
Coming at the Head of his Army (2:1-11) The Prophet Explains a word of YHWH (2:12-14) The Prophet Summons the People to Fast (2:15—17) God and the Prophet Announce Mercy and Prosperity
(2:18-27)
579 JOEL
B. Background. Nothing is known about Joel (which means 'YHWH is God'), son of Pethuel (which perhaps means 'Man of God'). Most scholars think that he lived in the middle of the fourth century BCE, but their arguments are open to criticism. The following observations pointto a date shortly before 600. Israel, the northern kingdom, has disappeared, but Judah and Jerusalem still exist (3:1): this detail agrees with the situation of the seventh century BCE. Moreover, the expression 'Judah and Jerusalem' alludes to the political status of the city and the countryside which were not the same: the city, conquered by David, was more closely related to the reigning dynasty than the province which had freely submitted to David and his successors (see Alt 1953: 116-34). Th£ absence of an allusion to the king is not surprising, as there are many oracles which do not mention a king (though see the collection in Isa 1:1). On the other hand, 3:1-8 offers arguments which suggest the end of the seventh century (between 630 and 600). During the final years of the seventh century, the declining power of the Assyrians encouraged the small states along the Mediterranean coast, Tyre, Sidon, and the Philistine towns, to join hands in order to make incursions into Judaean territory, to carry away whatever they found and to sell the booty, including men, women, and children, to the Greeks (3:4—6). Archaeological evidence testifies to trade relations between Phoenicia and Greece at the end of the seventh and the beginning of the sixth century. The language of the book is a final and decisive argument in favour of an early date. It is throughout classical, living, pre-exilic Hebrew. The Hebrew of the fourth century (Nehemiah; Ecclesiastes) is rather rigid and gives the impression that it was no longer a living idiom. We consider the Book of Joel in its entirety as a piece of creative prophetic discourse (see JOEL D. i). Other interpretations have also been offered. Some scholars divide the book into at least two parts. They think that chs. 1—2 contain the reactions of the prophet to an invasion of locusts, whereas 2:28-3:21 was added by a later author who belonged to the 'apocalyptic' tradition, describing events of the end times. This 'apocalyptic' author is also thought to have enriched chs. i—2 with allusions to the Day of the Lord. But the divide between prophetic and apocalyptic discourse is extremely tenuous and the notion of the Day of the Lord is an ancient one found also in pre-exilic prophecy. On the other hand, Joel features none of the characteristics of the great apocalyptic texts such as books of Enoch: ascensions and periodizations of history. The announcement of a judgement is not specifically apocalyptic, it is rather an essential part of prophetic literary resources. Other scholars read Joel as a liturgy used on the occasion of an invasion of locusts. There are undoubtedly liturgical elements in it (see JOEL D. 2), and the book (at least chs. 1—2) might indeed have been used as a liturgy, but there is no indication that this was actually the case.
and fear. Joel has splendid and awful visions of this manifestation which strikes the people of God and all the nations. Moreover, the theophany has cosmic dimensions: it is 'thick darkness' and brings about the disappearance of the sun, the moon, and the stars (2:10; 3:3-4; cf. 3:16). On earth, it causes drought, famine, and sheer anguish. Similar descriptions of the 'day' are found in Am 5:18—20; Zeph 1:7—18; Isa 13:6—16; Ob 15-16; Mai 4:5).
2. The effusion of divine energy (of the spirit of YHWH) 'on all flesh' is one of the phenomena which concur with the divine manifestation, and causes profound changes to the minds and behaviour of humans (see JOEL 3:1-2).
3. But with Joel, the destructive power of the manifestation is merely the unavoidable background for renewed blessings. The theophany is an invitation to 'return to God', to pray and to implore God's mercy (1:13-14; 2:12-14). And God responds faithfully to faithful prayer. Thus Joel confirms the central structure of OT thought: the experiential movement which leads people from darkness to light, from suffering to joy, from death to life.
D. The Abiding Value of the Book. 1. The prophecy of Joel was probably occasioned by the devastating incursion of a huge swarm of locusts (1:2-12), but the oracles are essentially the utterances of a man whose word has the creative power to make things happen (see JOEL 1:2—4). Many incidents of Israelite history prove that prophetic discourse was a means to change destinies. It aroused fear and repulsion when it was gloomy, and happiness when it promised a bright future. Joel's prophetic word creates calamities; it is effective when it describes the day of the Lord, and when it indicates the path to salvation.
2. In that sense, Joel stands as a creative word which overrules all contingencies. Not dependent on a particular event, it is non-historical and can exercise its powers anywhere and at any moment. Later readers internalized this and found that it led them from suffering and feelings of deprivation, through repentance and prayer, to the joy of renewed communion with the merciful Lord.
(1:1) For the names, see f DEL B. The word of the Lord 'came': it is active, and even the prophet's own words are powerful because the Lord's word is acting through them.
(1:2—4) The Locusts The 'elders', citizens with full rights, and the entire population must listen: the prophetic word concerns everybody. 'Has this [Heb. contra NRSV 'such a thing'] happened in your days': no, it has never happened but it happens now, through the very word of the prophet. This newly created event is a thing to be remembered (and thus re-enacted) by future generations, v. 4 presents an unsolved riddle: do the four terms for 'locusts' stand for four varieties of insects, or for various stages in the development of one, or do they represent vernacular differences? Whatever the answer, it is clear that the accumulation of terms creates the certainty of total devastation.
C. The Message of Joel. 1. The pivot of the prophet's message is the announcement of the day of YHWH. Many scholars think that this latter notion is rooted in the ideology of YHWH's holy wars; according to this view, the 'day' is the great day when YHWH vanquishes his enemies. This hypothesis being admitted, we must insist that the Day is above all a theophany, a glorious and intruding manifestation of God and his uncanny army (2:1—11) which creates feelings of awe
(1:5-14) Incursion of a Strange 'Nation' The prophetic word evokes the havoc wrought by a swarm of locusts and asks drunkards, farmers, growers of fruit-trees, and priests to
JOEL 580
asking for is a total engagement of the human being: fasting, weeping, and mourning as over one's own death, w. 13—14, the prophet, expatiating on this invitation, encourages the people and develops some very pertinent theological considerations.
'awake', to fast, to assemble in the temple, and to pray. The devastation is undoubtedly attributed to locusts, none the less the swarm is called a 'nation' (v. 6), perhaps on account of its strict 'political' organization, but more probably in order to suggest something more than locusts: the attack by a strange power of which the locusts are but the visible forms. In 2:25, this 'nation' is, in almost mythological terms, called 'the great army of God'. 'Sanctify a fast' (v. 14): the fast is a holy rite which requires mental preparation, an attitude of prayer, and the fully assumed intention to consecrate oneself entirely to communion with God.
(2:15—17) The Prophet Organizes the Ritual Mourning Not content with a general sermon on God's mercies, the prophet orders precise action: a holy ceremony uniting the whole people, including children and infants, sanctified by holy rites and by holy intentions, assembled for prayer in the temple, under the leadership of the priests (w. 15-170). The prayer he suggests (v. 17/7) corresponds to the prayers of collective mourning found in the Psalms.
(1:15—18) The 'Day of the LORD' Causes Drought and Despair The 'day of the LORD', the awful manifestation of God (see JOEL c), elicits a sigh of despair even from the prophet who is compelled to evoke it: 'Alas!' In normal times, rich harvests fill the temple with joyful songs and dances; the manifestation of the 'day' transforms laughter into subdued groaning. (1:19-20) A Prayer of the Prophet The prophet experiences pain along with all those who suffer. The desolation he had helped to bring about by his prophetic word stirs up feelings of compassion and he is moved to prayer. The prophetic ministry had two sides: to address the people in the name of God, and to talk to God on behalf of the people. Joel does not fail in this twofold task. He acts in communion with the animals
(2:18-27) With One Voice, the Lord and the Prophet Announce Salvation This passage introduces the final reversal of things. The Lord who has manifested the terrible effects of his coming, announces now his mercy in favour of Judah and Jerusalem. The main thrust of his revelation comes to its end: abundant blessings and joy. The proclamation is pronounced alternately by the prophet (w. 18, 21—4, 260) and the Lord (w. 19-20, 25, 26/7-27). Th£ prophet introduces the statements by declaring that the Lord has felt 'passionate love' (rather than 'jealousy'—a term which does not render the real meaning of the Heb. verbal root q-n'). His promise of blessings is the answer to the people's ritual mourning.
(v. 20); prophetic prayer never ignores the moaning of the animal world (cf Jer 14:5-6; Rom 8:19).
The Lord confirms the prophet's sayings and announces the blessings the people are waiting for. Moreover, he is going to 'remove the northern army [northerner] far from you [ from over and against you]' (v. 20). The 'northerner' (the Heb. does not have 'army'!) is a mythological term which designates a superhuman power (note its gigantic dimensions: from sea to sea!) residing on a mythological mountain somewhere in the 'north'. Here, the term refers probably to the mythological forces accompanying God's theophany.
(2:1-11) The Lord at the Head of his Dreadful Army This is the most vivid description of the 'day of the LORD', that is, of the Lord's theophany or manifestation (see JOEL B). It is like a terrifying army marching against Jerusalem under the cover of cosmic darkness (v. 2: the 'thick darkness' mentioned in another foundational theophany, Ex 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:22; cf. also Zeph 1:15). God's action and the action of his army are invisible to human eyes stricken with blindness. The army is a mysterious one. The prophet does not dare to give a clear description of it. It is anonymous, 'like blackness spread over the mountains' (v. 2), surrounded by fire burning in front of it and behind it (v. 3); the 'soldiers' are something like horses or like war-chariots (w. 4-5). The prophet avoids clear terms, everything is vague and suggests an event which eludes human language. But these ghastly warriors are everywhere, on the roofs, on the walls, through the windows, in the houses (v. 9), everyone his own commander, resisting all attempts to halt him (w. 7—8). Heaven and earth tremble, sun, moon, and stars lose their light—darkness everywhere (v. 10). But a voice is heard in the night and amidst the terrors: the voice of the divine commander, the Lord himself (v. n).
In w. 21-4 the prophet enlarges on God's promises, inviting soil, animals, and trees (note again his solidarity with the nonhuman world, as in 1:20) not to fear but to rejoice over God's loving-kindness. Hethenaddressesthe sameexhortationtothe inhabitants of Jerusalem (w. 23-4). In v. 25, God declares that he will 'repay' (cf. 3:18—21) the damage caused by the swarms oflocusts, his 'great army', during several years: the cata strophe is not a momentary one, it strikes serious and lasting blows. In w. 260-27, which may have received additions by a later hand, God reveals the true intention of all his actions: that his people may come to know him and his faithfulness. This is expressed with the ancient formula which sums up the covenental relationship: YHWH is Israel's God, none other.
(2:28—32) The Outpouring of the Lord's Energy The Hebrew word riiah usually translated by 'spirit', means first of all 'wind' or even 'storm-wind'; ruah is an energy whose effects can be felt and seen. Theologically, this energy is the very lifeenergy of God. In OT history we learn that this divine life-energy may suddenly fall on a human—a military hero or a prophet—and enable him to work extraordinary things. Whenever God pours out his divine energy, people are transformed; they behave like madmen, they dance frenziedly; seized by ecstasy they undress and lie naked on the ground. Moreover, they have visions and enter the heavenly realms. In our text, this divine energy is poured 'on all flesh', on every member of the chosen people; or on all humans? perhaps
Scholars wonder whether Joel is speaking of a human army or of locusts. This question seems out of place. In the passage under discussion the prophet tries to describe or rather to provoke a supra-human and cosmic event which is beyond human imagination. In so doing, he chooses language which seems to allude to the activities of soldiers and of locusts.
(2:12—14) A Sermon Based on a Word of God This passage represents a literary form which we find elsewhere in the prophetic books: the prophet quotes a word of God (v. 12) and unfolds the meaning of it in his own words (w. 13-14). In the midst of the terrors of his manifestation, the Lord invites his people to 'return to him'. The repentance he is
AMOS
nations' in the valley Jehoshaphat ('YHWH judges' or 'YHWH is judge'): the Assyrians who have dispersed Israel, broken up the northern country, and ill-treated boys and girls; and the small nations along the Mediterranean coast who have pillaged Judah and Jerusalem and who are guilty of selling prisoners as slaves to the Greeks. God has decided to release the victims and to punish the guilty according to the principle of the lex talionis. (3:9-17) The Final Battle in the Valley Called 'YHWH judges' The programme mentioned in the preceding passage is being carried out: YHWH assembles the armies of all the nations and rouses them to fight against his own warriors (v. n). These latter are probably the mythological soldiers described in 2:1-11. The prophet (it is he who speaks in w. 9—11) calls upon YHWH to bring down this army again, at a specific place: 'there'. Further, he does not hesitate to reverse the prophecies announcing the transformation of swords into ploughshares (Isa 2:4; Mic 4:3), for now the atrocious final battle is unavoidable: YHWH has decided to manifest his triumph. In v. 12 YHWH adds a word to say that he 'will sit to judge' while the battle is raging: the judgement determines the outcome of the fight. In w. 13—17 the prophet gives a terrifying picture of the contest which is nothing less than the manifestation of the day of the Lord with its cosmic dimensions (w. 14-15). Finally, he reminds his audience that YHWH is definitely dwelling in Zion and that he will manifest this fact to all who survive the battle (v. 17). In passing he quotes an exclamation which is also found in Am 1:2, probably a liturgical formula. (4:18-21) Final Benediction It is a message of prosperity, happiness, and peace for Judah and Jerusalem, whereas there is no hope for the enemies of the people of God (v. 19; see JOEL B).
even on animals? For this event is a new manifestation of the 'day of the LORD' (v. 31) and it leads up to yet another manifestation which will be the final judgement over all the nations (3:14). This universal action of God colours the outpouring of his energy 'on all flesh'; it changes radically the mind and the behaviour of those who are touched by it. 'Sons and... daughters' will 'prophesy': possessed and pushed on by this energy, they will do strange things—things which we see Saul and his servants do when they are seized by the same divine energy (i Sam 10:10—13; 19:20—4). Old people will have dreams heavily laden with meaning, and young men visions giving fresh spiritual insight (v. 28). The social order will be disturbed or rather abolished as everybody, including male and female slaves will suffer the same transformations of mind and behaviour (v. 29). While the outpouring of the divine energy produces mad behaviour and social disorder on earth, the whole cosmos undergoes frightening transformations: 'blood, fire, and columns of smoke' (v. 30); the sun loses its light and the moon is changed into blood (v. 31). The 'great and terrible day of the LORD' brings the world order to its end.
In the context of the whole passage, the outpouring of divine energy is an ambiguous event. People are filled with divine presence and God is revealed to them, but nothing is said about the contents of the dreams and visions. The prophecy inspires embarrassment and awe. Perhaps we ought to understand the story of the first Christian Pentecost (Acts 2, where our text is quoted) more in the light of eschatological revolutions than in that of the current Christian concept of the Spirit.
The revelation of the Day being terrifying, the prophet feels compelled to give some concrete advice (v. 32). He proposes a two-sided attitude. First, in the midst of the disturbances, continue to invoke the name of the Lord, remain faithful, and trust in YHWH. Secondly, stay in Jerusalem, for there the Lord will save those whom he chooses. Even this advice is thus tainted with uncertainty: who will be chosen? (3:1-8) The Judgement in the Valley Called 'YHWH judges' This passage gives concrete information about the historical background of Joel (see JOEL B). The Lord assembles 'all the
R E F E R E N C E
Alt, A. (1953), Kleins Schriftenzur Geschichte des Volkes Israel (Munich:
C. H. Beck), ii.
29. Amos J E N N I F E R M. D I N E S
4:18; Am 9:2-3 echoes Jon 1:3. These and other links suggest deliberate arrangement (Collins 1993; Nogalski 1993; Coggins 1994).
A. Canonical Context. 1:1 sets Amos the prophet in the eighth century BCE, just prior to Assyria's conquest of Israel (Soggin 1987: i; Andersen and Freedman 1989:18—19). Further internal evidence (e.g. 6:13—14) suggests a period slightly antedating Hosea and Isaiah (cf. Hos 1:1; Isa 1:1); hence Amos is often called the earliest 'writing' prophet. But in the Twelve ('Minor') Prophets, the book of Amos never comes first, either following Hosea and preceding Micah (LXX) or following Hosea and Joel and preceding Obadiah (MT). MT's canonical order is perhaps by supposed historical period (Amos is contemporary with all prophets from Hosea to Micah) but not chronological priority. Books are linked verbally and thematically; Amos dovetails with Joel (Am 1:2; Joel 4:16) and Obadiah (Am 9:12; Ob 1-4); Am 9:13-15 resembles Hos 14:4-8, Joel
B. Outline. From Jerusalem, YHWH judges surrounding nations, Judah, and Israel for 'transgressions'; Israel's crimes include oppressing the poor, perverting justice, and resisting prophets (1:1-2:16). Mistaken religious attitudes are exposed (3:1—4:13). Israel's only hope lies in 'seeking' YHWH through justice and compassion (5:1—27). Mistaken confidence is exposed (6:1-14). Visions, threats, and narrative reinforce YHWH's judgement; eventually restoration is promised
(7:1-9:15).
C. Style and Structure. Amos is mainly poetic in form; see especially 1:3—2:6; 3:3—8; 4:6—11; 9:2—4; other sections are held
AMOS
together by various literary devices (e.g. 3:9-15; 5:1-17; 6:1-7). Later passages often echo earlier ones (e.g. 6:1—7114:1—3; 7:i5-i6||2:n-i2; 8:4-6||2:6-8; 9:3||i:2), with many crossreferences (e.g. 9:7||i:5; 3:2; 9:14115:11), suggesting deliberate symmetry (Smalley 1979). Other comprehensive structures have been suggested (e.g. Andersen and Freedman 1989: 26; Paul 1991: 6—7; Bovati and Meynet 1994: 237—8); none exhausts all the possibilities. The outline followed here is:
Judgement on Nations, including Judah and Israel
(1:1-2:16)
(1:1) Title Uzziah (Azariah) of Judah reigned (including coreigns) £.783—735 BCE; Jeroboam II of Israel £.786—746 (Soggin 1987: i; King 1988: 8). Uzziah's literary priority indicates a Judean perspective: Amos's prophecy 'concerning Israel' involves both kingdoms. The referent for 'Israel' is often unclear; alone, 'Israel' properly refers to the northern kingdom, but wider usage, denoting all descendants of Jacob/Israel, means that Judah is often included, or intended (Andersen and Freedman 1989: 98-139). NRSV's 'shepherd' is a guess; MT's noqed perhaps means 'sheep-farmer' (cf 2 Kings 3:4). Effectively, Amos is presented as a Judean countryman (cf. 7:14-15). 'Saw' (haza) is a technical term in prophecy (cf. 7:12, 'seer' hozeh). Formally, visions occur only in chs. 7-9; chs. 1-6 consist of speeches ('words'): both are prophetic. Zech 14:5 echoes this verse, but there is no firm external evidence for dating the earthquake. Earthquake imagery is, however, important throughout Amos, symbolizing YHWH's judgement.
Judgement on Nations, including Judah and Israel (1:1-2:16)
Indictment of, and Appeal to, Israel (3:1-6:14) Visions, Interpretations, Words of Judgement and Salvation (7:1-9:15)
D. Composition. The present surprising form of the text (it emphasizes judgement, but ends with salvation) has been accounted for by several theories, (i) It reflects Amos's real preaching. His oracles were preserved by disciples; almost everything dates from the eighth century (e.g. Paul 1991). (2) An eighth-century stratum of judgement oracles against Samaria hasbeen progressively expanded, particularly by a proJudean, anti-Bethel redaction in the seventh century, and an idealistically hopeful redaction in post-exilic times (e.g. Wolff 1977; Coote 1981). This is the majority position. (3) Most of the writing was done in the post-exilic period, utilizing earlier
(1:2) Epigraph Amos's first 'word', a hymnic couplet, is partly shared with Joel 4:16, melding the two books and setting Amos's theme: YHWH's supremacy. YHWH's 'roar' is lionlike (cf. 3:8); 'utters his voice' suggests thunder (cf. Ps 29). Emanating from Jerusalem, this 'voice' reinforces the Judean perspective. The effect is devastation of naturally fertile countryside; 'the top of Carmel' (cf. 9:3) is explicitly contrasted with Zion/Jerusalem, YHWH's power-base. (1:3-2:16) Oracles against the Nations (cf. Num 21:27-30; Isa 13-23; Jer 46-51; Ezek 25-32; Zeph 2). 1:3 initiates a collection of eight quasi-legal arraignments for war-crimes (Barton 1980); six nearby nations are accused (see map), then Judah and Israel. The numerical expression is idiomatic, probably indicating an unspecified, cumulative number. The composition-history of this passage is disputed; the judgements on Tyre, Edom, and Judah are often thought to be later than the rest. Literary features, however, show that the whole poem is carefully constructed. Even if individual oracles were composed at different times, starting in the eighth century, the passage can be read as an integrated whole where Tyre, Edom, and Judah play significant roles. The historical allusions are obscure, as are reasons for geographic and ethnic sequence (Andersen and Freedman 1989: 208-10; Paul 1991: 11—15), but the Oracles against the Nations significantly shape what follows: YHWH's control of historical destinies. (1:3-5) Damascus Capital of Israel's traditional enemy Aram, Damascus represents the whole country (v. 5). Its crime, real or metaphorical, is an atrocity against the fertile Transjordanian territory fought over by Israel and Aram in the ninth/ eighth centuries BCE, and prominent again in Maccabean times. 'Threshing sledges' symbolize military victory also in Isa 41:15, where Israel is to do what Am 1:3 condemns! Punishment is imprecise; 'fire' may be metaphorical for warfare, or suggest supernatural intervention (cf. 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). 'House of Hazael' is a double entendre: 'house' represents both building and dynasty (cf. 7:9). Hazael and Ben-Hadad were ninth/eighth century Aramean kings. The 'strongholds' (a
(possibly anonymous) poetic collections and traditions; historical and biographical information is not necessarily to be taken at face value (e.g. Davies 1989: 278, 289). Option (i) seems unlikely, given Amos's integration with the Twelve which must belong, finally, to the post-exilic period. Option
(2) is plausible, though difficult to establish in detail (e.g. the same verses in 1:3—2:6 have been assigned to different editorial stages by different scholars). Option (3) plausibly emphasizes the creative role of post-exilic editors; but marked differences between individual prophetic books, and circumstantial details (e.g. the description of Amos as noqed in 1:1) perhaps point to the survival of ancient historical elements. This commentary takes the position that the received text is essentially a post-exilic literary work, produced, in the form in which we have it now, during the Persian or early Hellenistic period (6th—4th cents. BCE); it assumes that there are traces of earlier sources and traditions within 'the words of Amos' (1:1), but is agnostic as to whether, or how much, these can be identified. In what follows, it is assumed that 'the words' are understood by the book's author to apply to the whole text.
E. Method. A step-by-step reading of the received text highlights its verbal and thematic interconnections, and its shifting moral and theological perspectives. As far as possible, the text is interpreted within its own literary context, in an attempt to do justice to it as a whole. Historical issues, although addressed where appropriate, are not the main focus. This is not because they are unimportant but because they interrupt the sequence of the text, and also because, within the limits of a short commentary, it is impossible to discuss them thoroughly. For further information see e.g. Wolff 1977; King 1988: Andersen and Freedman 1989. Speculation about compositional process is, for the same reason, generally avoided. As part of the Twelve, Amos necessarily reflects Second Temple shaping; an understanding of the text against this background is a necessary preliminary to considering questions of historical origins and redactional development.
583 AMOS
(2:1—3) Moab (cf. Gen 19:30—7); despite this literary closure, the poem continues, suggesting a larger pattern ('sound', v. 2, is qol, cf. 1:2). The catchword is 'king'; surprisingly, Edom is victim of an atrocity. The crime probably hinges on sacrilege
recurring term in chs. 1-6), belong to powerful leaders in Israel and abroad; they are special targets for YHWH's anger. The word translated 'inhabitants' could also mean 'ruler', matching 'the one who holds the sceptre' (cf. 1:8). 'Valley of Awen' (lit. of nothingness, futility) and 'Beth-eden' (House of Pleasure) are sarcastic punning allusions, perhaps to real places. 'Awen' appears again (5:5) describing Bethel (NRSV: nothing). 'Eden' perhaps hints at luxurious living (cf. 4:1; 6:17). The threat of mass deportation ('go into exile') introduces an important theme. In 9:7 Kir (location unknown, probably in Mesopotamia) is Aram's place of origin (cf. 2 Kings 16:9; Ezek 21:30). (1:6-8) Gaza 'Carried into exile' links w. 6-8 with 1:3-5: the reference is probably to Philistine slave-raids (cf. NJB). Ironically, what YHWH does to punish Aram (1:5) is Gaza's cause of punishment! The unidentified victims are destined for Edom, the nation traditionally descended from Esau (Gen 36). In pre-exilic times Edom lay south-east of the Dead Sea (slavers used the port of Ezion-Geber on the Gulf of Aqaba); but later Edom/Idumea occupied the south of erstwhile Judah, close to the Philistine cities. Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Ekron are other Philistine city-states; Gath is not mentioned till 6:2. Philistia's punishment is severer than Aram's. A remnant which itself is devastated recurs elsewhere (esp. 9:4; cf. Isa 6:11-13). (1:9-10) Tyre Of the Phoenician cities, only Tyre is mentioned; by implication all are probably covered. The crime resembles Gaza's; in addition, some contract or treaty has been broken; the word berit (covenant) occurs, but not theologically of a 'contract' between God and Israel. The deportees are not explicitly Israelites, though Judeans might remember dealings between Solomon and Hiram (i Kings 5; 9:11—14). Historically, Tyre survived until Alexander's conquest. If this is ex eventu prophecy, it dates from after 332 BCE at the earliest. Otherwise, it may express traditional convictions about national enemies, as with the rest of the Oracles against the Nations, and could be earlier. (1:11-12) Edom Twice implicated in others' crimes, Edom now faces judgement. The catchword is 'brother', but the atrocity does not refer to dealings with Gaza and Tyre; nor do traditions in Gen 27:41 or Num 20:14—21 really fit. Edomite expansion during the sixth century (Ezek 25:12—14; Ob 10—14; PS
(cf. Jer 8:1—3; cf. 2 Kings 23:16—20). Bones figure again in 6:9— 10 (also obscure). Burning the bones 'to lime' (NJB: ash) precludes burial, or suggests savagery, v. 2b echoes 1:14/7. The trumpet reappears in 3:6, in a similar context (cf. Ex 19:13, 16,19).
(2:4-5) Judah Little links this oracle with what precedes but, as it separates two blocks (1:3—2:3; 2:6—16), it may reflect the post-exilic writer's central interest (Bovati and Meynet 1994: 59-62). Formally, it follows the standard pattern. Judah's sin, however, is religious not political. 'Lies' suggest idolatry; 'ancestors' extend it backwards in time (cf. 1:11).
(2:6-16) Israel Finally, Israel is accused like the rest (v. 6). The mention of Judah (2:4—5) defines Israel as the northern kingdom, though the distinction soon blurs. This 'transgression' too differs from that of the foreigners; it is primarily social. The 'righteous' (saddiq) is either 'an honest man' (cf. REB), sold into debt-slavery, or the 'innocent' party (Soggin 1987: 47—8), unjustly convicted. The reference to 'sandals' is obscure (see Andersen and Freedman 1989: 310-13 for suggestions), w. 7-8, instead of sentence immediately being passed, Israel's crimes are elaborated. The verdict comes in w. 13—16, but from v. 7 on, the form of the Oracles against the Nations dissolves. There are difficulties in v. ja, but the link between economic poverty and corrupt legal practice seems to be maintained (cf. NJB; 8:4). v. yb is obscure (lit. a man and his father go to a/the girl), but the accusation appears to be sexual. The juxtaposition with v. ja perhaps suggests exploitation. The result is profanation of YHWH's name: there is a religious dimension (cf. 2:4). 'On garments taken in pledge' (v. 8; cf. Deut 24:12—13; Ex 22:26—7) implies a night-time setting and a wrong done to the poor. Drinking the proceeds of fines is not obviously illegal; the objection is presumably to callousness. 'House of their God/god/gods' ('elohehem permits all three interpretations) indicates a sanctuary setting; the accused are wealthy and powerful over against those from whose plight they profit, w. 9-10, YHWH reminds Israel of his benefits when they entered the land. 'Amorites' is a blanket term for the original inhabitants of Canaan who, under many names, are often described as giants (e.g. Deut 2:10, 20-1; 9:2; Num 13:32-3); though only here are the Amorites in general so described. As in the Oracles against the Nations YHWH controls the destinies of all. The past annihilation of the Amorites balances 1:8, the future annihilation of the Philistines. History is extended even further back, to the Exodus (v. 10, cf. 3:1; 9:7) and the Wilderness Period (cf. 5:25). 'Inheriting' recurs in 9:12, where the restored Davidic kingdom will 'inherit' the 'remnant of Edom'. There is no mention of the lawgiving at Sinai/Horeb (evoked only in 2:4).
137:7) provides a likely context, if'brother' means 'Israel' (i.e. Judah, cf. 9:12); v. ub underlines Edom's continuing aggression. 'Cast off is literally 'destroyed'; the word translated 'pity' possibly means 'womenfolk' (Paul 1991: 64—5; cf. LXX), which would create a link with 1:13 (cf. 1:3 LXX; 5Q Amos). 'Anger' and 'wrath' (virtually personified) are better taken as subjects; the verb rendered 'maintained' (tarap) is used of wild beasts tearing their prey (cf. 3:4). Teman (N) and Bosra (S) represent the whole of Edom/Idumea. (1:13-15) Ammon 'Gilead' knits Ammon's crime with 1:3, so Israelites are victims. For Ammon's kinship with Israel, see Gen 19:30—8. The motive is territorial gain, through a form of genocide (cf. 2 Kings 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16), doing to Gilead what YHWH threatens to do to the Philistines. Military action becomes a tempest (suggesting YHWH as the epiphanic warrior), a merging of themes typical of Amos. 'Says the Lord', and 'exile' constitute an indusio with 1:5, tying 1:3-15 together.
w. ii—12, prophets and nazirites were further divine gifts (cf. Deut 18:15-19; the same verb, 'raise up', occurs). They are the central element in w. 6-16 (Bovati and Meynet 1994: 45). For the nazirite vow, see Num 6:1—21. The rhetorical question leads the addressees to condemn their own actions (cf. 5:14; 9:10): Israelites (the inclusive 'people of Israel' occurs for the
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first time) stand accused of corrupting nazirites and silencing prophets (the two groups are linked only here), i.e. neutralizing potential saviours. Nazirites are not mentioned again; prophets are central to chs. 3 and 7. w. 13-16, YHWH's verdict, expected since v. 6, is of a new kind: instead of fire, an obscure picture involving a wagon. The verb (NRSV: press down) may mean 'tremble' or 'split', and refer to an earthquake (Soggin 1987: 49); if so, this resembles the Oracles against the Nations' supernatural fire. An ominous use of apparently positive imagery is typical (cf 8:1). What impresses is the initial vagueness of Israel's punishment. The image of a defeated army (w. 14-16) is clearer: no escape, no survival (cf. 9:2-4). The situation is, however, quite general: many historical events could fit. Nor is the victor named: perhaps Assyria, perhaps Babylon, certainly YHWH. MT contains much assonance and wordplay: repetitions create a sense of inexorable doom, dramatically ending 1:3-2:16.
implication may be that YHWH's speech is not heard because prophets have been ignored.
(3:9—15) Destruction for Powerful Oppressors The threat of 3:8 unfolds (w. 9-12). Enemies are summoned for a grandstand view, or as witnesses in a trial. Some scholars emend 'Ashdod' to 'Assyria' (e.g. Andersen and Freedman 1986:406; cf. LXX); this is possible: together, Assyria (N) and Egypt (S) would imply 'all foreign powers' (cf. 1:12; 6:14). Egypt was named in 2:10; 3:1, in connection with the Exodus; here it is a contemporary. This is also the first naming of Samaria, the northern capital. The situation is ironic: instead of foreigners contemplating their own crimes (1:3-2:3), they are now to witness Israel's. The simile in v. 12 suggests the situation covered by Ex 22:13, but now me shepherd finds only scraps as evidence. The point is not that there will be survivors, but that practically nothing will remain at all. v. 12 b is obscure; NRSVadopts a plausible conjecture, implying that only scraps of luxury items enjoyed by Samaria's warlords survive as evidence of their demise.
Indictment of, and Appeal to, Israel (3:1-6:14)
'Hear this word', introducing chs. 3-5 (3:1; 4:1; 5:1; cf. 3:13; 8:4), creates one literary unit (3:1-5:17). Two 'woes' (5:18; 6:1) structure another (5:18—6:14). (3:1-5:17) (3:1-8) YHWH's Control of Israel's History, and the Role of Prophets, Reinforced (cf. 2:9—11). The 'family' of Israel (w. i— 2) is distinguished from other national 'families' (cf. Gen 12:3); this is contradicted in 9:7. The logic of Israel's punishment now depends on the exclusivity of the historical relationship with YHWH, not on violations of human rights (2:6—8, though from either perspective Israel stands condemned). Aphoristic questions (w. 3-8) draw obvious conclusions
w. 13—15, a further summons again presumably addresses foreigners. 'House of Jacob' occurs for the first time, probably involving all Judah/Israel (Andersen and Freedman 1989: 410); it recurs only in the pivotal 9:8/7. A new theme appears: YHWH's decision to destroy the northern sanctuary of Bethel. Cutting off the 'horns' of altars (for illustrations, see King 1988: 93) means that blood cannot be smeared on them to make sacrifices valid (Lev 4:30; 16:18); nor can they be grasped for sanctuary (i Kings 1:50—3; 2:28). No explanation is given for the threat. Perhaps the link is with 2:8, where sins are committed in the 'house of their God/god(s)'; Bethel means 'House of El/God'. The desecration of Bethel is recounted in 2 Kings 23:15. Coote (1981: 46—53) connects this and other passages with a seventh-century redaction; Soggin (1987: 65) thinks an earthquake is intended. 'Falling' is an important motif (5:1; 8:14; 9:11). 'Winter house' and 'summer house' (v. 15) are conjectures; MT's 'house of ?harvest' and 'house of ?fruit' possibly have cultic overtones, which would fit well with v. 14; most, however, suppose the magnificent houses of the rich are meant (see King 1988: 64—9). 'Great' could also be 'many'; the word is that used in v. 9 of 'tumults', effectively providing an indusio: the 'tumults/oppressions' come from 'houses' (cf. v. 10, 'strongholds'). (4:1-13) The Fate of Wealthy Women and Religious Enthusiasts w. 1—3, wealthy women: their crimes recall 2:7 (cf. 6:1— 7); 'oppress' echoes and makes specific 3:9. 'Cows of Bashan' suggests affluence (Deut 32:14; Ezek 39:18; cf. Ps 22:12). 'Let's drink' (nistdi; cf. 2:8, 12) is countered by 'has sworn' (nisba', 4:2). This wordplay introduces YHWH's first oath (cf. 6:8; 8:7). YHWH swears by his 'holiness' (cf. 2:7), rendering the outcome inevitable, although the time-formula is imprecise (cf. 8:11; 9:13). MT is difficult, but 4:3 pictures women being deported. The imagery suggests warfare, perhaps also earthquake; the fall of Samaria in 722 BCE is related in 2 Kings 17:6, but other similar situations could be evoked. The final threat is obscure: 'the Harmon' appears to be a place-name, perhaps a mountain. 'Flung out' is the verb used in the Oracles against the Nations of YHWH 'sending' fire. The savage punishment predicted for these guilty women contrasts with 1:13, where perpetrators of atrocities against women are condemned.
(w. 3—6) until an important theological point is made (w. 7— 8). NRSV's 'made an appointment' (v. 3) interprets the Hebrew verb 'know' again (v. 2; 'know each other' perhaps). The lion's 'roar' (v. 4) echoes YHWH's (1:2). The 'young lion' literally 'gives its voice', again cf. 1:2. 'Prey' (terep) comes from the same root as the verb in 1:11 (NRSV: kept); the implications are menacing. 'Taken' is the same word as 'caught' in v. 4, linking both situations. The trumpet is a siren, proclaiming enemy attack; it recalls the panic in 1:14, 2:2. YHWH's control of history is again underlined (cf. 1:3—2:16; w. 1-2). The solemn title 'my Lord YHWH' (NRSV: the Lord GOD), last met in 1:8, suits imagery of the divine council: YHWH in his heavenly palace discusses plans (NRSV: secret) with his ministers. To this cabinet meeting prophets are occasionally admitted (e.g. i Kings 22:19-23; Isa 6:1-8). The prophet as servant (i.e. high-ranking minister or ambassador) occurs only here in Amos but is presupposed by the 'messenger-speech' form ('Thus says YHWH') from 1:3 onwards, v. 7 is crucial for the theme of prophecy, introduced in 1:1; 2:11-12 (cf. 7:14-15). However, it undermines the point made in w. 36, that God's action is self-evident; different views of revelation are combined, perhaps reflecting earlier stages in composition (Auld 1986: 31-2.) or an ongoing debate on the nature of prophecy (Carroll 1983: 26). v. 8 links YHWH's roar (1:2) with the divine/prophetic speaking of 1:1; 1:3—2:16, and forms an indusio with the beginning of v. i. The parallelism equates the inevitability of prophecy (cf. Num 11:29) and of Israel's punishment. However, in the light of 2:11-12, the
AMOS
logical centre, begins and ends with mourning, around exhortations to possible survival through justice and compassion, w. 1-3, lament for Israel, v. i introduces a funeral dirge (cf. 2
w. 4-5, a summons to sin. The command (countermanded in 5:5) is a trick: obedience leads to 'transgression', sin equivalent to that of the Oracles against the Nations. Gilgal's location is uncertain; it is again paired with Bethel in 5:5. Cultic faux pas are highlighted, or excesses are mocked; the latter suits Amos's style, and the context. The offerings are voluntary, additional to the major sacrifices, but sin-offerings are conspicuously absent (cf Lev 1-7); the ironic exclamation in v. 5/7 suggests religious fervour which may be genuine; its uselessness is underlined in 5:21—4. Further irony is suggested by 'proclaim', used in 3:9 to advertise Samaria's sins. w. 6—n, fruitless warnings: this poetic set-piece functions as YHWH's response to the enthusiasm of w. 4-5 and suggests the attitude which should have prevailed (cf. Joel 2:18—27, where people do, apparently, 'turn'). The point is that Israel failed to grasp the meaning of the five disasters instigated by YH WH
Sam 1:19-27; 3:33-4). The image is startling: Israel (masculine) is a dead girl, with no one to bury her! This image of the fallen nation is reversed only in 9:11. The decimated armies (v. 3) recall the remnant of 3:12, reinforcing, rather than contradicting, v. 2 (cf. 6:9). The end of v. 3 (omitted by NRSV) reads 'for the House of Israel'. This phrase is functional: it clinches the identity of the 'cities' and forms an indusio with v. i. w. 4— 9, seeking YHWH; 'live' (i.e. 'survive') slightly tempers the language of death; 'seek', a technical term for visiting a cultcentre with a request, resumes the cultic language of ch. 4, but with a contradiction in terms: Israel is not to go to cult-centres! An explicit distinction is made between YHWH's presence and the doomed sanctuaries. The addition of Judean Beersheba is puzzling. It is not threatened with destruction, although its literary centrality may mean it shares the others' fate; it is mentioned again, negatively, in 8:14. 'House of Joseph', supposedly referring to the northern kingdom (Andersen and Freedman 1989: 99), is unique to Amos (cf. v. 15; 6:6). In v. 7 cultic yields to legal language (cf. 2:6). Two important words appear: 'justice' (mispat) and 'righteousness' (sedaqd, cf. saddiq, 2:7); together, they suggest 'universal order' (Murray 1992: 42-3; Barton 1995: 56). 'Turn' is hdpak, the opposite of order (cf. 4:11, 'overthrow'). This creates powerful associations: 'they' are doing to 'justice' what YHWH did to Sodom and Gomorrah. The second doxology (w. 8-9; cf. 4:13; 9:6) again highlights YHWH's activity in creation and human affairs. The catchword with v. 7 is again 'turns' (hapak). The phenomena evoked are natural, although hapak, the imagery of darkness and light, and the suggestion of a flood (cf. 8:8; 9:5), are menacing. There is also irony: YHWH transforms elemental forces; people overthrow justice.