Part 54
(29:1—32:32) Against Egypt The seven oracles against Israel's smaller neighbours in chs. 25—8 are balanced in chs. 29—32 by seven oracles directed against Egypt. The object of condemnation equal to that directed against all other nations combined, Egypt is represented as the great enemy of Israel and of YHWH. Unlike the other nations, however, Egypt is nowhere accused of mocking Israel or of taking advantage of its destruction. Rather, Egypt is condemned for its grandiose pretensions—the power that rendered it a fatal lure for Israel (see EZEK B). As described in chs. 20 and 23, Israel had since earliest times demonstrated a weakness for 'the idols of Egypt' (20:7; cf. 23:8, 19). More recently, Judah had repeatedly d pended on Egypt to support rebellion against Babylon. Egypt, then, is the enemy making possible Judah's violation of YHWH's covenant with Nebuchadrezzar. Egypt has presented itself as protection against the wrath of Nebuchadrezzar and of YHWH, and YHWH must therefore avenge his honour against the challenge of Egypt.
Against the Ruler of Tyre (28:1-19). Ezekiel delivers an oracle against the ruler (negid) of Tyre (w. i—10) followed by a lament over the destruction of the king (melek) (w. 11—19). m
the initial oracle the prince is accused of calling himself a god
(perhaps playing on the theophoric name of Ittoba'al III (man of Baal), who ruled Tyre from 590—575 BCE). Although he is indeed wiser than the legendary king Dan'el (v. 3; see EZEK 14:14) and has prospered through his wisdom, yet YHWH will bring 'the most terrible of the nations' (Babylonia, v. 7) against him. Tyre's prince will be relegated to Sheol, where he will be unable to boast divine status. The ensuing lament over the king of Tyre strikingly combines imagery drawn from the Israelite cult and from the Eden tradition, depicting the monarch simultaneously as the first man and as high priest. Like the primordial man (cf. Gen 2:4/7—3:24) he was in Eden, until, having become corrupted, he was cast out by the guardian cherub. Like the Israelite high priest (Ex 28:6-14; 24:I3)» he wore a breastplate encrusted with precious stones and resided on the holy 'mountain of God'. Having profaned his sanctuaries, however, he was consumed by fire. The king of Tyre is thus depicted as having enjoyed God's favour to an unprecedented degree, having become corrupted by his immense wealth, and finally being destroyed forever. The oracle's symbolism is puzzling, as no known tradition links Tyre directly with either the Eden or the priestly traditions. (28:20-3) Against Sidon A brief oracle announces YHWH's judgement against Sidon, another member of the antiBabylonian alliance mentioned in Jer 27. No direct accusation against Sidon is made, and its punishment is described in the most general terms. More significant than either Sidon's sin or its punishment, however, is YHWH's ultimate goal, repeated twice in this brief oracle: they shall acknowledge YHWH's sovereignty. (28:24-6) Promises to Israel The catalogue of Israel's smaller neighbours concludes with two brief oracles of promise to
Pharaoh the Sea-Serpent (29:1-16). In an oracle dated to January of 587 BCE, YHWH addresses Pharaoh as a great seaserpent (tannin', reading sing, for MT's pi.) stretched out in the Nile surrounded by fish (w. 3—4). Like the king of Tyre, Pharaoh is condemned for claiming divine status (in this case, as the Nile's creator), and YHWH announces that he will fish out the serpent along with its dependent fishes (Egypt's allies) and fling them out to rot in the field (w. 4—5). Thus, says YHWH, the Egyptians will acknowledge YHWH's sovereignty.
In w. 6b-ga a new metaphor describes the political background for the oracle. Egypt is a reed on which Israel has leant for support, but which has broken and injured those who trusted its strength (cf. Isa 36:6). The image encapsulates Israel's political and military situation. The January 587 BCE date locates the oracle in the aftermath of Pharaoh Hophra's aborted attempt of 588 BCE to lift Nebuchadrezzar's siege of Jerusalem. The staff on which Judah had depended for support had broken easily under Babylonian pressure. YHWH will punish Egypt for the harm done to Judah, with the result that the Egyptians will acknowledge YHWH. In w 9/7—16 YHWH repeats Pharaoh's pretensions as the Nile's creator, responding that Egypt and the Nile will be devastated, and the land made uninhabitable. Like Judah (4:6; cf. Num 14:34), Egypt will be exiled for forty years and then restored as only a minor kingdom (w. 13—15). Israel, recalling its former reliance on this now humble nation, will then acknowledge YHWH's sovereignty.
Nebuchadrezzar's Consolation Prize (29:17—21). This oracle, dated to January 571 BCE, is the latest-dated oracle in Ezekiel (the 573 BCE date assigned to the concluding vision of chs. 40—8 is the next latest). Separating oracles dated to
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Pharaoh to a great cedar. The point of comparison is actually between Egypt and Assyria, depicted here as a cedar of cosmic proportions. Despite the common scholarly practice of emending 'assur (Assyria) to fassur (cypress tree) with the result that Pharaoh is likened to the cosmic cedar tree, MT's 'assur should be maintained; Pharaoh's power is compared to that of Assyria, which despite its former glory has now been laid low by Babylon. The comparison between Egypt and Assyria is intriguing, since towards the end of the sixth century BCE Egypt had gained influence on the eastern Mediterranean seaboard as Assyria's influence in the region waned (see Miller and Hayes 1986: 383-5). Egypt could therefore style itself as heir to the western portion of the Assyrian empire. Ezekiel plays out this flattering comparison. Assyria, he says, was not only great among all other 'trees'; it surpassed even the trees of Eden (v. 8). Assyria is depicted as the 'world tree', known from Babylonian and Sumerian sources as a tree connecting heaven and earth, with roots extending down into the cosmic waters. Beautiful and fruitful, this tree provided shade in which all the nations flourished. The tree's greatness, says YHWH, was its downfall. Because of its excessive pride, YHWH handed over this greatest of all trees to 'the most terrible of nations' (v. 12), Babylonia. Now the tree lies broken, stretched out across the countryside. Indeed, says YHWH, the tree has descended into Sheol, along with all its allies (w. 1417). The unrivalled splendour of Assyria is matched only by the shock felt among the nations over its utter collapse. The moral of the story is tersely stated in v. 18: And you, asks YHWH, which of the trees of Eden were you like in your splendour? No matter; you will have plenty of company among the many trees of Eden in Sheol. 'This', says YHWH, 'is Pharaoh and all his horde.'
January 587 BCE (29:1-16) and April 587 BCE (30:20-6), 29:1721 seems to disrupt the chronology thus far established in Ezekiel. The oracle can, however, be dated with some certainty to 571. The oracle's message is peculiar in that it depends on the inaccuracy of Ezekiel's earlier oracles against Tyre. In chs. 26—8 (dated to 586 BCE) Ezekiel had predicted Tyre's downfall in a series of oracles, including specific notice in 26:7—14 that YHWH's agent for Tyre's destruction would be Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon. Nebuchadrezzar had in fact mounted a prolonged siege against Tyre following his successful campaign against Jerusalem. After a thirteen-year siege, however, in 572 Nebuchadrezzar proved unable to take the island fortress. Apparently in response to Nebuchadrezzar's failure (and so also the failure of his own earlier predictions), Ezekiel now offers Egypt to the Babylonian king as compensation for his fruitless efforts on YHWH's behalf in the aborted siege of Tyre. Egypt, says YHWH, will serve as Nebuchadrezzar's payment for services rendered during the siege of Tyre (v. 20). Egypt's demise will bring honour to Israel, who in turn will recognize YHWH. Ezek 29:17-21 is remarkable for its open acknowledgement of unfulfilled prophecy. In fact, Nebuchadrezzar did invade Egypt in 568 BCE (ANET 308), but even his own annals do not claim victory. While disrupting Ezekiel's overall chronology, the oracle's contents—predicting Nebuchadrezzar's conquest of Egypt—explain its insertion into a collection of oracles condemning Egypt and announcing Nebuchadrezzar's triumph over Pharaoh.
The Day of YHWH against Egypt (30:1-19). This oracle announces YHWH's judgement on Egypt in three sections. In w. 1-5 YHWH announces that the day of YHWH (see EZEK 7:10) has come for Egypt. YHWH's sword will be unsheathed and the nation will be utterly destroyed. The final section, w. 13-19, presents YHWH as an ancient Near Eastern monarch publishing his conquest list—the list of cities vanquished during a successful military campaign. The oracle's central section, w. 6-12, announces the instrument by which YHWH will devastate Egypt; YHWH will conquer Egypt 'by the hand of King Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon' (v. 10). This central section combines the cosmic imagery of w. 1—5
Concluding Laments over Egypt (32:1-32). Ezekiel's final oracles against Egypt are assigned a range of dates in the various MSS, with most locating them in March of 586 or 585 BCE. The oracles thus address Egypt in the context of Jerusalem's destruction, whether immediately following the event, or on the first anniversary of the city's fall. In either case, Ezekiel's oracles against Egypt cover a span of over two years (excluding 29:17-21, which reflects the situation over a decade later). The oracles thus begin during the siege of Jerusalem, condemning Egypt for misleading Israel into rebellion (29:6—7), and conclude after the city's fall with two 'laments' (32:1-16,17-31), one summarizing all the preceding oracles, the other celebrating in advance Egypt's arrival in Sheol. The concluding oracles address an Egypt that has apparently emerged unscathed after luring Israel to its destruction, and express the prophet's determination that YHWH (and therefore Nebuchadrezzar) has yet to conclude his dealings with Pharaoh.
(YHWH will dry up the life-sustaining waters of the Nile; v. 120) with descriptions of normal, human warfare and its consequences (w. n, I2b). The oracle thus reinforces its claim that victory over Egypt belongs to the Divine Warrior. Nebuchadrezzar's army represents merely the human aspect of YHWH's triumphant day.
Pharaoh's Broken Arm and Nebuchadrezzar's Strong Arm (30:20-6). In an oracle dated to April 587 BCE YHWH reiterates both his condemnations of Pharaoh (see ch. 29) and his announcement that he will place his own divine sword in Nebuchadrezzar's hand (cf. 30:10—11; ch. 21). The date, like that of 29:1, locates the oracle in the aftermath of Apries's withdrawal from Jerusalem. The current oracle may reflect Nebuchadrezzar's renewal of the siege. YHWH claims that, having already broken one of Pharaoh's arms, he will now shatter the other. By contrast, he will strengthen Nebuchadrezzar's arms, arming him with YHWH's own sword. As Babylon is fortified and Egypt dispersed into exile, the nations will acknowledge the sovereignty of YHWH.
w. i—16 present a recapitulation of the punishments designated for Egypt over the course of the previous three chapters. YHWH begins in w. 1-6 by saying that although Pharaoh considers himself a lion, he is in fact a sea-serpent, fouling the waters of the Nile. As in 29:1—5, YHWH will trap the serpent and fling it out to die in the open field. The earlier image of animals feeding on Pharaoh's corpse appears here in even greater detail. YHWH's victory over Pharaoh will, like the day of YHWH described in 30:2—5, reverberate throughout the cosmos, as YHWH blots out the light of the sun, moon, and
The Fall of the Great Cedar (31:1—18). This oracle, dated to June of 587 BCE, consists of an extended metaphor comparing
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stars (w. 7-8). Egypt, as predicted in 29:9/7-12, will be exiled from its land (w. 9, 13) because of YHWH's sword and the sword of Nebuchadrezzar (w. 10—12; cf. 29:8; 30:2—12, 20—6). In the aftermath of Jerusalem's destruction YHWH renews his earlier threats against Judah's attractive but deceitful ally. The oracle departs from the course set by earlier condemnations of Egypt only in its depiction of Egypt's restoration. Whereas the oracle dated to 587 BCE could envision Egypt's humble return following its forty-year 'exile' (29:13-16), in the aftermath of Jerusalem's destruction Ezekiel promises only that the land itself will be restored. After Egypt's land has been 'stripped' of its inhabitants, YHWH will restore its luxuriant streams (w. 14-16). The oracle concludes with the recognition formula (v. 16), the seventh and final declaration within the oracles against Egypt that finally, in their utter devastation, the Egyptians will recognize YHWH.
they would abandon their sins in time to avert YHWH's judgement against them. In ch. 33 YHWH again asserts, now in the aftermath of Jerusalem's destruction, that Ezekiel is to stand as sentinel over Israel (v. 7). Ezekiel must warn the people to repent, lest when destruction comes he should bear responsibility for their death, having failed to warn them. The people, for their part, must heed the sentinel's warning and repent, lest they die and, having been forewarned, bear responsibility for their own deaths (w. 8-9). The image of Ezekiel as sentinel is startling in context, since it assumes that the sentinel will be posted on the wall of a city that has already been destroyed. Some scholars assume the oracle is intended for an audience that does not yet know of Jerusalem's destruction, an event not announced until 33:21. The large block of oracles against foreign nations, however, which immediately precede ch. 33, depend on the reader'sknowledge of Jerusalem's fall (see e.g. 25:3; 26:2). Thus, in the current arrangement of chapters, whether Ezekiel's own or an editor's, the reader hears Ezekiel commissioned to watch over a city that has already been destroyed. Such a commission is ironically apt for Ezekiel, who even while Jerusalem anditstemple were standing could deliver his prophecies only to those who had already been exiled. In ch. 33 Ezekiel hears that just as earlier he was called to prophesy despite his distant location in Babylon, so now he must continue in his calling despite the city and temple's destruction. Israel's moral responsibility and Ezekiel's prophetic role remain, even in exile, even after Jerusalem's fall.
In w. 17-32 Ezekiel laments Egypt's descent into Sheol (see ABD, 'Dead, Abode of the'). No longer a great sea-serpent or a mighty tree, Egypt is assigned to share the fate of all other former military powers; namely, the leaders and warriors who fill the vast underworld, each in its assigned corner of the Pit. After introducing in w. 18—21 the theme of Egypt's descent, in w. 22—30 Ezekiel enumerates the nations with whom Egypt will share the grave: Assyria, Elam, Meshech and Tubal, Edom, and Sidon. Each of these nations was once able to create terror in the land of the living. Now they populate the land of the dead, their graves laid out in orderly array, rank upon rank, shamed, murdered, sharing an unclean grave. Pharaoh, the most recent arrival in this realm (w. 31-2), will be 'consoled' for the loss of his army, presumably when he perceives that his fate is not unique, but shared with many who were once proud and powerful. Ezekiel's final oracles against Egypt, 'lamenting' Egypt's downfall at a period when Egypt appeared impervious to Babylonian incursions, serve as predictions, celebrating in advance the destruction YHWH would finally bring against Egypt, the power whose alliance with Judah had proved disastrous for the smaller nation.
The Possibility of Repentance (33:10-20). Ezekiel is given specific instructions on how to warn the wicked; in effect, the content of the warning he was commissioned to deliver as sentinel in w. 1—9. The warning rephrases the argument of ch. 18 regarding individual responsibility for moral behaviour. In ch. 33, however, the implicit debate concerns not whether one generation bears the punishment for another's sins, but whether repentance has any effect. 'Our transgressions and our sins weigh upon us', say the people, 'and we waste away because of them' (v. 10). The Judeans now accept that they are being punished for their own sins. Acknowledging the justice of their punishment, however, they continue to see no use in repentance. If judgement has already been passed, then repentance must be futile. As in ch. 18, YHWH asserts that his goal is not the death of the wicked but precisely their repentance. 'Turn back, turn back!' YHWH calls (v. n), assuring the people that although prior righteousness will not help righteous people who turn to wickedness, neither will past wickedness trip up the wicked who turn to the path of righteousness. As in ch. 18, so here also YHWH attempts to shake the people out of moral lassitude and awaken belief in their present accountability. Despite YHWH's obvious judgement against Judah and Jerusalem, he urgently claims, T will judge all of you according to your ways!' (v. 20). YHWH's judgement is ongoing and so, therefore, is Israel's responsibility.
Images of Restoration and Return (33'-i-39'-2$)
(33:1-33) Ezekiel's New Commission Following Ezekiel's condemnations of Judah and Jerusalem in chs. 1-24 and his announcement in chs. 25—32 of YHWH's wrath against nations variously implicated in Judah's destruction, in ch. 33 Ezekiel begins a series of oracles (chs. 33-9) promising YHWH's restoration of the people and land of Israel. This new beginning is signalled in ch. 33 by a complex interweaving of themes imported from the first twenty-four chapters of the book. Specifically, the chapter addresses in various forms the question of responsibility, both Ezekiel's responsibility as prophet and the people's responsibility for their own moral and religious choices. The question of how to assign moral responsibility takes on special poignancy in the light of the announcement in the middle of the chapter (w. 21-2): the city has fallen.
Jerusalem's Fall (33:21-2). Following the notices in w. 1-9 and w. 10—20 of Israel's continued moral responsibility—and hence its ongoing relationship with YHWH—in w. 21—2 Ezekiel learns of Jerusalem's destruction. In January 585 BCE, nearly six months after Nebuchadrezzar had breached the city walls and five months after the city's burning (cf Jer 52:12—13; 2 Kings 25:8—9), a refugee reaches Ezekiel to inform him of the city's fall. Babylonian messengers would presum-
Ezekiel as Sentinel over Israel (33:1—9). Ezekiel was first commissioned in 3:16-21 as sentinel over Israel in the context of Judah's rebellion against Nebuchadrezzar (and thus also against YHWH). The prophet's role was to warn the people against YHWH's impending attack in hopes that
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ably have carried the news back to Babylon prior to this date, but the refugee's arrival and report of events fulfils the prophecy of 24:26. Also in accordance with the earlier prophecy, Ezekiel's mouth is 'opened' after the refugee's arrival. The meaning of Ezekiel's newly regained speech is no more clear than the meaning of the dumbness imposed on him in 3:26— 7. The strongest possibility remains that now the prophet is able to speak in his own right, rather than uttering exclusively oracles relayed to him by YHWH (see EZEK 3:26-7).
flock and its leaders as shepherds. The image of a god, king, or other ruler as shepherd was traditional throughout the ancient Near East, and is extended in the OT to include YHWH as shepherd of his people (see Ps 23:1-4; 95:7; ABD, 'Sheep, Shepherd').
Against the Shepherds of Israel (34:1—16). Ezekiel is instructed to prophesy against the shepherds of Israel; that is, the leaders, now presumably in exile in Babylon. Ezekiel distorts the traditional metaphor to highlight the Israelite leaders' abuse of their power (cf. his use of the same technique in chs. 15—17; 19—20). Far from caring for the sheep, these shepherds have slaughtered and eaten them (v. 5). The Israelite leaders' callous harshness left the people with 'no shepherd', and in consequence they were scattered, first on to 'every high hill' as idolaters (see 6:13; Jer 2:20) and then 'over the face of the earth' in exile (v. 6). YHWH, meanwhile, casts himself as the owner of the sheep, who will demand from the shepherds an accounting for their neglect and loss of the sheep (w. 8—10). The rulers will be held accountable for Israel's destruction, and will be removed from leadership. Instead, YHWH will himself act as shepherd, seeking the lost and scattered sheep and returning them to their own land. The metaphor is a complex one, combining images of YHWH as shepherd with the implicit, underlying image of YHWH as king. The reference in v. 12 to a day of clouds and thick darkness recalls the day of YHWH with its imagery of YHWH as Warrior (cf. 32:7-8; Ps 77:17-18 (MT 18-19); 97:2~5)- Finally, literal language clearly anticipates a return from exile to the land of Israel (v. 16).
The Sinful Remnant in Judah (33:23-9). Inw. 23-9 YHWH responds to the Judean survivors' claim to be the new heirs to the land of Israel. Just as Abraham, though only one man, was given the entire land, so now the few remaining Judeans have been given the land to possess (v. 24). The survivors' claim is the logical extension of the argument reported in 11:14-21 that YHWH had expelled the exiles from the land, rejecting them in favour of those who remained. Whereas earlier YHWH had responded with an oracle of promise to the exiles, now he pronounces its converse: judgement against the Judean remnant. Enumerating their various sins, YHWH swears that even those who have survived thus far by hiding in the desert or in caves, he will now hand over to be killed by sword, plague, and wild animals (v. 27). The sins of the Judean survivors—bloodshed, idolatry, adultery, eating blood—recall the list of abominations committed by the 'wicked son' of 18:10—13, wh° is condemned to die for his sins. YHWH's judgement against the Judean remnant in w. 23—9 thus mirrors his call in w. 10-20 for the remnant of Israel to avert further condemnation by turning from their sins.
Israel as YHWH's Flock (34:17—31). Having dismissed Israel's previous shepherds in w. i—16, YHWH addresses his flock in w. 17-31. Speaking now not as shepherd but as judge, YHWH announces that he is about to judge the sheep for their abuse of one another (v. 17). The fat sheep have taken the best pasture, trampled the remainder, and shoved out the weaker sheep to be scattered (w. 18-21). The location of this mixed flock of weak and strong sheep, whether Judah or Babylon, is uncertain. The metaphor is often taken to describe inequities within the exilic community; if this is accurate, then 34:17—31 is the sole occasion upon which Ezekiel addresses struggles among the exiles. Imagery depicting YHWH feeding and watering his flock, however, is strongly associated with the land of Israel as YHWH's pasture (Ps 78:52-5; Isa 49:9-13; Mic 7:14; cf. Jer 13:17), and the passage is probably best understood in this sense. Thus, in w. 23-4 YHWH promises to restore (a descendant of) David as Israel's shepherd, and in w. 25—31 pledges to provide blessings and security for the sheep in the land, rather than return to the land. The consequent picture of conditions within the land of Israel is bleak, with the stronger citizens bullying the poor, who wander homeless (cf. w. 21, 27), 'consumed with hunger' (v. 29). YHWH claims only the weak as his 'flock', and pledges a berit salom (v. 25) with them. In context, this 'covenant of peace' assures salom in the sense of general well-being and prosperity. When those who remain homeless in Judah can dwell secure in their land, they will acknowledge YHWH (v. 27), that he is among them, and that they, his flock, live under his care (w. 30-1). (35:1-36:15) Mount Seir and the Mountains of Israel Two oracles in chs. 35—6 pair judgement against Mt. Seir in
Ezekiel the Minstrel of Israel (33:30—3). These verses afford an unusual glimpse (albeit from the hand of Ezekiel or his sympathetic editors) of how an Israelite prophet was perceived by the people. Remarkably, Ezekiel was popular among the people, even a source of gossip (v. 30), and a trip to sit and hear a word of YHWH takes on the flavour of a social event. The problem with this amiable state of affairs is that the people 'hear [Ezekiel's] words, but they will not obey them' (v. 31, NJPS). Indeed, the prophet who was commissioned in w. 1—9 to blow the warning trumpet for his people finds that the people enjoy his musicianship (v. 32) but ignore his message. None the less, says YHWH, when judgement comes, then the people will realize the prophetic significance of Ezekiel's word.
Ch. 33 displays a chiastic pattern: A (w. 1-9) Ezekiel, as sentry, warns the people, who may or
may not listen. B (w. 10—20) The wicked can escape judgement if they
abandon their sins. C (w. 21-2) Ezekiel receives word of Jerusalem's fall. B' (w. 23-9) The wicked Judeans continue to sin. A' (w. 30—3) The exiles fail to hear Ezekiel's warning. News of Jerusalem's fall in w. 21—2 is thus surrounded by oracles certifying that the people, both the exiles and those remaining in the land, have been fully warned but have refused to listen. They thus bear full responsibility for Jerusalem's destruction, an accountability that continues beyond the city's fall. (34:1-31) Judgement of Shepherds and of Sheep This chapter combines several oracles based on the metaphor of Israel as a
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YHWH then explains (v. 19) that he punished the people for their sins by scattering them in exile. Unfortunately, this punishment itself involved additional defilement of the divine name, in that YHWH was made to appear either weak or unfaithful in allowing his own people to be exiled (cf. EZEK F.2). 'These', say the nations, 'are the people of the LORD, and yet they had to go out of his land' (v. 20). YHWH is therefore forced to act yet again to vindicate his name.
Edom with promises of restoration to the mountains of Israel. The oracles effectively reverse the judgements pronounced against Israel's mountains in Ezek 6. The choice of Mt. Seir (35:1-15) as the counterpart to the mountains of Israel is puzzling. Ezekiel's oracle against Edom in 25:12-14 is a brief, virtually pro forma condemnation of Israel's neighbour for taking advantage of Israel's broken condition. The motivation for locating a second, more vehement condemnation here is obscure. Edom is accused in ch. 25 of'handing over' Israel to its enemies, a possible reference to a last-minute shift in Edomite loyalties (see EZEK 25:12—14). Edom is here further berated for planning to take possession of YHWH's own homeland following the Israelites' deportation. YHWH's reminder that he has been present in Israel all along (v. 10) may provide a clue as to why Mt. Seir is singled out for condemnation. Ancient traditions, both biblical and extrabiblical, associate YHWH with Seir as his residence (see Judg 5:4; ABD, 'Seir') and YHWH's emphatic rejection of Seir and blessing of Israel's mountains (36:1—15) may serve to refute any Edomite claim to YHWH (or to his land). YHWH's determination to 'desolate' Seir is repeated five times in this brief oracle, reflecting an acute awareness that in fact it is Israel's mountains that have been desolated (w. 12, 15; cf 6:14), while Seir remains inviolate. The Edomites are informed that once they too have been desolated, they will then acknowledge YHWH
In w. 22—32 YHWH enunciates not only his promise to restore Israel to the land, but also his motives for doing so: 'It is not for your sake, O house of Israel, that I am about to act, but for the sake of my holy name' (v. 22). YHWH's assertion that he is not acting for Israel's sake is repeated in v. 32, creating an indusio framing YHWH's discussion of his motives. YHWH's holy name—his honour—has been profaned 'among the nations' by Israel's exile (v. 21); therefore he will now display his holiness before the nations by bringing Israel back from exile and restoring a purified people to a fruitful land. The underlying logic is consistent with the discussion of Israel's history in ch. 20 (and cf. 22:16): by allowing Israel to be exiled YHWH violates his own covenant and injures his reputation. YHWH is apparently incapable of protecting his people or even his own temple, and his land has been devastated. It is therefore imperative that YHWH restore land, temple, and people, not for their sake, but for his own. Here Ezekiel's overriding concern with the divine honour (EZEK F.2) comes to the fore. Whatever tenderness might be evident in images such as the 'good shepherd' of Ezek 34, Ezekiel's urgent task remains the vindication of YHWH's honour, power, and holiness. Just as in 20:33—5 YHWH announces that he will rule over the people whether they will or no, so here YHWH re-establishes his people, not only regardless of their worthiness, but, indeed, regardless of their needs or desires. It is YHWH's stature, not theirs, that is at stake and that must be confirmed. YHWH will bring back his people from exile and, before returning them to the land, will first purify them and then render them incapable of defiling his name further (w. 25—7). Whereas Jeremiah had promised that God's law would be inscribed on the people's hearts (31:33), Ezekiel requires that the people's hearts be replaced altogether (cf. 11:19). YHWH will make the people obey his laws by means of new hearts directed by YHWH's spirit
(v. 15).
In 36:1—15 Ezekiel is instructed to deliver an oracle of consolation to the mountains of Israel. YHWH cites the humiliation endured by Israel's mountains as the reason for his special promise to restore them. Specifically, Edom's gloating and its encroachment on Israel's territory are cited. Whether or not Edom annexed parts of Israel following Jerusalem's destruction is debated (see EZEK 25:12-14), but YHWH's point is clear; whatever humiliations the land suffered will now be turned against those who celebrated Israel's fall. Israel's mountains, by contrast, will grow luxuriant and fruitful branches to sustain the people soon to return. In a final promise (w. 13—15) YHWH assures the personified mountains that they will no longer cause Israel to stumble by devouring the nation's children. The reference is awkward, but seems to recall Ezekiel's charge elsewhere (16:20-1; 20:25-6; 23:37-9) of child-sacrifice practised in the period immediately preceding Jerusalem's destruction.
(v. 27). Then Israel will again become YHWH's covenant people (v. 28), and inhabit a land blessed with fertility (w. 29—30). The restoration that vindicates YHWH's name, however, will cause shame for Israel (cf. 16:63) as mey realize the gravity of their sins.
(36:16-38) YHWH's Honour Restored In w. 16-38 YHWH moves from a bitter reminiscence on Israel's pre-exilic sinfulness to promises of its restoration. The predominant concern voiced throughout the passage, however, is not for Israel's history, but for YHWH's. Whether punishing or forgiving, YHWH acts, not for Israel's sake, but to protect the sanctity of his name. In v. 17 YHWH summarizes Israel's past behaviour with a single phrase: they acted lenidda, like a menstruant woman. The simile is intended to capture the intense defilement characterizing all of Israel's actions (cf. 7:20), but the image also recalls the striking personification of ch. 16 in which Jerusalem begins life weltering in placental blood
Proof that Israel's cleansing and restoration have been effective is found in the new reputation YHWH enjoys among 'the nations that are left' (v. 36), presumably those remaining after the day of YHWH described in the preceding oracles against the nations. The nations will credit YHWH with making the desolate land 'like the garden of Eden' (v. 35) and so will acknowledge his sovereignty. YHWH will favour Israel by increasing its population, making it 'like the flock at Jerusalem during her appointed festivals'—that is, both multitudinous and holy— so that Israel also may acknowledge YHWH's sovereignty (v. 38).
(v. 6), matures to menarche (w. 7-9), and finally sheds the blood of her own children (w. 20-2). The designation 'like a menstruant' thus aptly recapitulates the deeds of the 'bloody city' (22:2) Jerusalem.
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(37:1-14) The Vision of the Dry Bones As in Ezekiel's earlier visions (1:3; 3:22; 8:1—3) me prophet experiences the 'hand of the Lord' and is transported in a vision. The vision of 37:1—14 is unique in that YHWH's chariot does not appear. The focus is not on heavenly realities but on Israel's despair and God's response. Ezekiel is placed in a valley (or 'plain'; cf 3:22) filled with bones. As in his vision of the defiled temple in chs. 8—n
kingdoms, but will rule over both. He will appoint David (that is, a descendant of the Davidic house) as 'shepherd', reigning over the reunited kingdom of Israel. The purified people will follow YHWH's laws and inhabit the land (v. 25). YHWH will establish an eternal covenant of peace with the people and will dwell in his sanctuary in their midst (v. 26). The oracle combines images from previous oracles of promise and then extends those promises still further: the appointment of David as 'shepherd' and the promise of the covenant of peace echo YHWH's promise of ch. 34. The cleansing of the people, who will then follow YHWH's laws, recalls 36:25-7 (and cf. 11:1920). YHWH's promised restoration of northern Israel as well as Judah is foreshadowed in the restoration of Oholah (Samaria) in 16:53—5 an(^ perhaps already in the instructions for Ezekiel to 'bear the punishment' of both kingdoms in 4:4-6. YHWH's promise to restore the northern tribes none the less comes as a surprise here, it being nearly 150 years since the northern kingdom's destruction. YHWH's restoration, however, is primarily the restoration of his own kingdom, not Judah's, and he will reign over his entire land and his entire people. The final sign of YHWH's renewed sovereignty is the re-establishment of his sanctuary, the throne-room from which he will reign over the land. The promise of a new sanctuary looks forward to the vision of chs. 40-8, in which YHWH is at last re-enthroned forever over an obedient Israel.
(and cf. chs. 40-8) Ezekiel is led about as a witness, in this instance a witness to the number of bones and their desiccated condition. YHWH asks the prophet whether the bones can live; given Ezekiel's role certifying the bones' utter lifelessness, the obvious answer is 'no'. Ezekiel, however, answers, 'O Lord GOD, you know' (v. 3), an ambiguous response that can signify either, 'You already know they cannot', or more likely a more open-ended deference to YHWH's sovereignty: 'You alone know what is possible.' YHWH then instructs Ezekiel to prophesy to the already dead and desiccated bones, assuring them that YHWH will cause them to live, and, living, to acknowledge YHWH (w. 4—6). The prophecy has ironic overtones in context: for years Ezekiel prophesied to living Israelites who proved as unable to respond as any dry bones. Now he must prophesy to the bones themselves.
Ezekiel prophesies and at once the bones come rattling together. Sinews, flesh, and skin cover them, effectively reversing their decayed state (w. 7-8). The bodies are still lifeless, however, and YHWH commands Ezekiel to prophesy now to 'the breath' (v. 9), calling it to bring life to the corpses before him. Again Ezekiel prophesies, the breath enters the bodies, and they stand, alive, before him. Wordplay based on the word ruah (breath, wind, spirit) lends a mystical ambiguity to the scene. A wind blowing across the valley floor enters the bodies to endow them with breath. This breath, however, is in fact YHWH's own spirit, which will not only enliven the Israelites, but make possible their fidelity to YHWH (w. 13—14; cf 36:27; 39:29). In w. 11—14 YHWH explains the vision to Ezekiel. The bones are Israel in its current, hopeless condition (v. n; cf. 33:10). The image of unburied corpses, now turned to parched, dislocated, and scattered bones, simultaneously evokes the remains of Israelites killed in the Babylonian invasions, the dislocated and disoriented Israelites still living in the land, and the exiles whose hopes have at last been utterly crushed. To this devastated people YHWH promises that he will act beyond their despair; he will open their very graves in order to give them life and restore them to their land (w. 1314). Although later interpreters, both Jewish and Christian, saw in Ezek 37:1—14 a promise of the resurrection of the dead (see ABD, 'Resurrection (OT)'), here the image is clearly metaphorical. The people who find themselves 'cut off completely' (v. n) will be rejoined and given a new life in the land.
(38:1—39:29) Gog of Magog Chs. 38—9 form the climax of Ezekiel's promises of restoration in chs. 33—9. Vividly depicting the Divine Warrior's victory over his ultimate enemy, the triumph of Ezek 38-9 paves the way for YHWH's reenthronement in the restored temple of chs. 40—8. The two chapters comprise two related oracles (38:1—23 and 39:1—29) against Gog of Magog, a figure otherwise unknown from biblical or extrabiblical sources (though providing the basis for the Gog and Magog of Rev 20:7—10). The oracles envision a period after Israel has been restored to the land, at which point YHWH will incite Gog to attack them (38:4; 39:2). YHWH will then engage and defeat Gog in battle, thus displaying his glory and holiness before the nations. Once the land has been cleansed following the carnage a sacrificial feast will be celebrated, the people will receive YHWH's long-promised spirit, and the nations will recognize YHWH.
One of the most vexed questions in the interpretation of Ezekiel remains the identity of Gog. The seventh-century king Gyges of Lydia has often been suggested but is not a convincing candidate. Gyges had been dead over a century by Ezekiel's time and had never commanded power anything like that attributed to Gog. The only points of connection are the similarity in names and the location of each in (different areas of) Anatolia. Recent scholarship prefers to see Gog as an embodiment of chaos, a designation that suits his role as the ultimate force opposing YHWH's people and defying his universal sovereignty. A third possibility is that Gog represents Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon, elevated here into an enemy of cosmic significance. Several factors support reading Gog as a cipher for Nebuchadrezzar. First, the role played by Nebuchadrezzar elsewhere in Ezekiel poses serious dissonances within Ezekiel's overall theological outlook. Nebuchadrezzar is depicted in exclusively positive terms in Ezekiel, as YHWH's covenant partner (see Ezek 17) and his agent in
(37:15-28) The Two Sticks Connected YHWH commands Ezekiel to take two sticks, inscribing one 'for Judah' and the other 'for Joseph', that is, one for the southern and one for the northern kingdom, and to join the sticks in his hand. YHWH goes on in w. 19-28 to explain the meaning of the symbolic action and to deliver further promises to Israel. The two sticks represent the northern and southern kingdoms of Israel. Though both kingdoms have now been destroyed, YHWH says he is about to make them one 'in my hand' (v. 19). The sticks are thus sceptres. YHWH will not only restore the two
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his people and put a new spirit within them, thereby creating a people worthy of his name. In Ezek 38—9 it is precisely Gog's defeat that will accomplish YHWH's self-vindication, removing the stigma of the exile. YHWH will display his holiness (38:16, 23; 39:7, 21—3, 27—8), causing nations to acknowledge his sovereignty. Israel will be cleansed (39:11—16) and gifted with YHWH's spirit (39:28-9). Gog is the monarch whose power continues to defile YHWH's name and whose destruction opens the way for YHWH's re-enthronement. Gog is the enemy who cannot be named but must be overcome: Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon.
destroying both Israel and its smaller neighbours (see e.g. Ezek 21:18—23; 26:7—14; 29:17—20). Nebuchadrezzar's role parallels that played in Isaiah by Assyria, who is employed by YHWH as 'the rod of [YHWH's] anger' against Israel (Isa 10:5-11). In Ezekiel, Babylonia's role as ally and agent of YHWH reflects the reality of YHWH's invocation as guarantor of Zedekiah's vassal-treaty, as well as providing YHWH with a human agent to carry out his warfare in the world. Nebuchadrezzar's capture of YHWH's land and destruction of his temple, however, imply the de facto superiority of the Babylonian god Marduk over the Israelite YHWH. 'These', say the nations, 'are the people of the Lord, but they had to leave his land' (NJPS), a situation that in and of itself defiles YHWH's holy name (Ezek 36:20). Nebuchadrezzar's military superiority together with the implicit supremacy of Marduk over YHWH thus continue to compromise YHWH's honour despite all claims that the Babylonian monarch acts only as YHWH's ally or agent. Isaiah had faced the same theological problem in his use of Assyria and resolved it by claiming that ultimately YHWH would punish the over-proud king of Assyria for believing himself YHWH's conqueror rather than his servant (Isa 10:12—19; 3O:I9~33)- Ezekiel, writing in Babylon, would have had strong reasons to seek a means of predicting YHWH's triumph over Nebuchadrezzar. As a Babylonian vassal living in Babylonian territory, however, he would have had equally strong reasons for predicting this triumph covertly rather than, as Isaiah had, overtly.
Both Ezek 38 and 39 depict Gog's destruction; ch. 38 focuses on events leading up to YHWH's battle with Gog while ch. 39 centres on the aftermath of YHWH's victory. In 38:1—16 YHWH informs Gog as to the circumstances surrounding Gog's attack against Israel. Even before the predicted battle Gog will be YHWH's vassal; YHWH will put a hook through Gog's nose to lead him and his minions out to war. At the time of Gog's invasion Israel will already have been 'restored from war', a land where people have been 'gathered from many nations' (v. 8). This gathering of Israel from 'many nations' may well envision the restoration of the scattered northern tribes (cf. 37:15-23; 48:1-7) as well as Judah. The restoration is apparently not contingent on the prior destruction of Israel's enemies, and so YHWH's final battle against Israel's enemies and his own takes place in the land of Israel, 'at the centre of the earth' (v. 12). Like Pharaoh in the Exodus narrative (Ex 14:4, 17-18), Gog will serve as a foil whose real purpose is to demonstrate YHWH's prowess. YHWH himself will instigate Gog's attack in order to gain renown and display his holiness by crushing the enemy. YHWH announces that Gog is the enemy whom YHWH had for years prophesied that he would bring against Israel (v. 17). If Gog is to be understood as Babylon, then Ezekiel may in part be referring to his own earlier prophecies. Now the battle with Gog is revealed as 'that day', the day of YHWH's wrath, on which the earth will quake and YHWH will rain down fire and sulphur (w. 17—23). Gog's defeat is thus not so much a literal, military victory as the day of YHWH, the triumph of the Divine Warrior.
Gog's true identity as Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon is supported by strong verbal parallels between the description of Gog in chs. 38—9 and depictions of the Babylonian monarch elsewhere in Ezekiel. Like Gog, Nebuchadrezzar is described as coming from 'the north' (23:24; 26:7; cf. 38:6, 15; 39:2; Jer 25:9). Both monarchs are rulers over 'many peoples' (26:3; 31:11; cf. 38:6, 9) and arrive with horses and riders bearing shield, buckler, and helmet (23:23—4; 26:10; cf. 38:4—5) to terrify and devastate their enemies. For Ezekiel the 'king of kings' (26:7), leader of 'the worst of the nations' (7:24) is Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon. Gog's title of nesi' rd's mesek wetubal (38:2; NRSV 'the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal') may point indirectly to Nebuchadrezzar. Traditional designation of Gog as 'chief prince' ignores the construct relation, nesi'ro's, that literally yields 'prince of the head', that is, ruler over the leader of Meshech and Tubal. The location of Gog's home, Magog (cf. Gen 10:2), is unknown, but Meshech and Tubal were regions of north-central Anatolia. Early in the sixth century Nebuchadrezzar gained control over Cilicia in southern Anatolia, and so functioned as a leader in the region. When a dispute broke out between the Lydians and Medes over control of Meshech and Tubal Nebuchadrezzar's deputy successfully brokered a peace in the region (Wiseman 1956). Gog's designation as 'prince over the leader' of Meshech and Tubal could thus covertly designate the Babylonian Nebuchadrezzar in his role as the principal powerbroker in northern Anatolia.
Ezek 39 opens as did ch. 38 with an announcement to Gog that YHWH is about to lead him 'against the mountains of Israel' (v. 2), where he and his troops will die and be devoured by wild beasts. This, says YHWH, will remove the defilement from YHWH's holy name and vindicate him before both Israel and the nations. 'This', says YHWH, 'is the day of which I have spoken' (v. 8). The day of YHWH is no longer a 'distant vision' (12:27); Tthascome! It has happened' (v. 8;cf 7:2,5—6). YHWH's announcement has rendered Gog as good as dead. In w. 9—16 YHWH describes the aftermath of Gog's defeat. The invaders' weapons will suffice for firewood for seven years, not only providing for the people's needs, but also sparing the trees (cf. Lev 19:23-5; 26:34-5). Meanwhile, seven months will be required to cleanse the land from the pollution created by the slaughtered army's corpses (w. n—16). The people will search out the corpses and bury them in a mass grave in the 'Valley of Gog's Multitude' (v. n, NJPS).
The final factor pointing to Gog as a cipher for Nebuchadrezzar is the former's role in YHWH's vindication and in paving the way for his enthronement in Ezek 43. In 36:2032 YHWH admits that Israel's exile has caused defilement of the divine name. He therefore announces his intention to act for his name's sake, to sanctify his name, display his holiness, and gain recognition from the nations. He will then cleanse
In w. 17-20 Ezekiel is commanded to assemble the birds and animals, inviting them to a sacrificial banquet to be held on the mountains of Israel. The animals will eat and drink their fill of human flesh and human blood—the flesh and
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blood of YHWH's slaughtered enemies. The victorious god's sacrificial banquet on the mountain was a stock element of the Divine Warrior traditions of both Canaan and Mesopotamia. Here, however, the image is distorted to make human sacrifices, not animal, the main course. At first glance YHWH's grisly banquet would seem to defile both the participants and the land, as it violates the levitical prohibition against 'eating blood' (see Lev 17:11). In this case, however, the utter defilement of YHWH's enemies (whose corpses are fed to the birds and animals; cf. 32:4) serves to restore the mountains that earlier had been defiled by idolatrous sacrifices (6:1—7). Textually, the banquet of w. 17-20 seems out of place since the corpses of Gog's army are already burned in w. 11-16. It is possible that either w. n—16 or w. 17—20 are later additions, as is commonly assumed. It is equally possible that logical consistency is set aside here in order to depict the events normally preceding the god's enthronement: the cleansing of the land (w. ii—16); the sacrificial banquet (w. 17—20); the triumphant procession into the temple (43:1—5); and last, the enthronement (43:6). The description of YHWH's triumph over Gog concludes (w. 21-9) with YHWH's explanation of the theological significance of his triumph. YHWH's victory manifests his glory (v. 21) and holiness (v. 27) before all nations; both the nations and Israel will acknowledge YHWH's sovereignty. Moreover, with Gog's defeatthe nations will at last understand that 'Israel went into captivity for their iniquity', because of their treachery (mfl) against YHWH (v. 23) and not because of weakness or infidelity on YHWH's part. After YHWH has restored Israel to its land and displayed his holiness by destroying Gog, then the people will be allowed to forget their sins and their shame (w. 25—8). When the people fully understand YHWH's control over both exile and restoration, then he will pour out his spirit upon Israel (w. 28—9), promising never again to abandon them.
(40:1-42:20) The Temple Measurements Ezekiel reports receiving his final vision 'in the twenty-fifth year of our exile' (40:1), 573 BCE. Although often interpreted as a 'half-Jubilee' (that is, half of a theoretical jubilee cycle taking the exile as its starting-point), the year should be understood as a Jubilee year. Just as the vision of ch. i was dated according to the Jubilee ('in the thirtieth year' (of the Jubilee) = the fifth year of the exile; see EZEK 1:1), so this climactic vision of restoration takes place in the Jubilee year, the twenty-fifth year of Judah's exile. The further specification, 'the beginning of the year, on the tenth day of the month' (v. i) confirms the year's Jubilee status, the Jubilee being the only year beginning on the tenth rather than the first of the month (see Lev 25:9), that is, on the Day of Atonement. The date, in October of 573, is thus the proper moment to declare both the enthronment of YHWH as king and Israel's restoration to the land according to the law of Jubilee (Lev 25:10).
As in 8:3 Ezekiel is transported in his vision to the land of Israel. He is placed on 'a very high mountain, on which was a structure like a city to the south' (v. 2). The mountain is evidently Mount Zion, now exalted as in the prophecies of Isa 2:2 and Mic 4:1. The unnamed city replaces the devastated Jerusalem. A man gleaming 'like bronze' (v. 3; cf. 1:7 and the figure of hasmal in 1:27; 8:2), evidently the heavenly guide from the vision of chs. 8-n, appears with a measuring rod and instructs Ezekiel to pay close attention so as to be able to pass on what he sees to the Israelites. The whole of 40:5—42:20 comprises a tour in which Ezekiel witnesses as his guide measures the various dimensions of the temple complex, beginning at the outer wall, proceeding inwards to the holy of holies, and then returning to the complex's outer wall. Unlike the Solomonic temple, Ezekiel's is provided with two courtyards, thus allowing an additional buffer-zone separating the holy from the common. Both the outer and inner courtyards include gates on the north, east, and south sides. Within the inner courtyard are various chambers for the washing and slaughter of sacrificial animals and for the use of Levites and other temple servants. Ezekiel's tour of the new temple, witnessing its structures and dimensions, parallels his tour of the defiled temple in ch. 8. Now, however, he watches as his guide measures and thus certifies the perfection of the new structure. Everything is quite literally in order, creating a physical boundary between sacred and profane space (42:20).
YHWH's Re-enthronement (40:1-48:35)
The last nine chapters of Ezekiel comprise a single vision, the last of Ezekiel's three visions of YHWH on his chariot (cf. chs. i; 8—n). The vision parallels the vision of chs. 8—n in which Ezekiel is led on a tour of the defiled temple before watching the Divine Warrior's departure. In chs. 40-8 Ezekiel tours the restored, pure temple and then watches the Warrior's return and re-enthronement. In each case Ezekiel seems to serve as a witness, certifying both the abominations committed in the old temple and the purity maintained in the new, and then perceiving YHWH's response as he first departs warlike from the old and finally returns victorious to the new temple. Sometimes considered Ezekiel's blueprint for a new, post-exilic Jerusalem temple and cult (a blueprint ignored or rejected by the post-exilic community), in fact the vision gives no instructions for building the temple. Rather, the new temple is revealed as completed, whole and pristine, awaiting only YHWH's formal accession to his throne. Israel's role will be to observe the 'law of the temple' (43:12), not to build it. While the vision's arid details of architecture and ritual praxis often lead commentators to consider chs. 40—8 a secondary addition, the vision's crucial role in completing the plot of YHWH's return and re-enthronement argues for its original congruence with the rest of the book (see EZEK A.3).
(43:1—12) The Enthronement of YHWH Following his tour of the temple precincts Ezekiel is brought to the outer east gate, where he sees the glory of YHWH coming from the east. Ezekiel identifies this vision specifically as being 'like the vision that I had seen when [YHWH] came to destroy the city, and like the vision that I had seen by the river Chebar' (v. 3), that is, like his earlier visions of YHWH as Warrior. Following the pattern of the Israelite enthronement ritual, the triumphant Warrior returns in procession to take his throne within the holy of holies. Ezekiel is brought only as far as the inner court, while, recapitulating YHWH's first possession of the newly built wilderness sanctuary (Ex 40:34—35; cf. i Kings 8:10; Isa 6:1), the glory of YHWH fills the temple. In v. 6 Ezekiel is addressed by YHWH himself, who proclaims his own enthronement within his eternal dwelling, the place of his footstool (v. 7; cf. Ps 99:5). YHWH announces
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meticus II, who in 592 BCE visited Palestine and stationed his priests there, thereby breaking YHWH's covenant with Nebuchadrezzar (see EZEK 17; Galambush 1992).
both his eternal presence among the people and the condition making that presence possible: Israel will cease to defile YHWH's holy name. Israel's past offences are described as its 'whoring' (zenut, cf chs. 16; 23) and its royal pegarim, both in closeproximitytothetemple(v. 8). The pegarimaie probably not royal corpses (as e.g. in NRSV) but royal memorial stelae (see Neiman 1948), perceived as threatening YHWH's exclusive kingship over Israel. Israel's 'whoring' comprised idolatry and foreign alliances, both of which violated YHWH's honour (cf. Ezek 16). Here Israel's exaltation of its own (former?) kings is grouped with idolatry and foreign alliances; all are seen as compromising YHWH's sovereignty and thus his honour; none may be allowed in the restored temple precincts.
YHWH goes on in 44:10-31 to outline the respective duties of the Levites and Zadokites (see ABD, 'Levites and Priests'). The Levites, designated as priests in Deut 18:1—18 but 'given' as assistants to Aaron and his descendants in Num 3:5-10, are here presented as being demoted to the rank of servant as punishment for previous idolatry. The Zadokites, however, are designated 'levitical' priests (v. 15) and alone are authorized to present offerings and to enter the temple proper. Regulations governing the dress and conduct of the priests generally follow the prescriptions of Lev 10 and 21, though with some variation. The priests are charged with teaching the people the distinction between clean and unclean, and with maintaining the holiness of feasts and sabbaths (w. 23-4). As also specified in the Priestly legislation, the priests will inherit no land but will be maintained from temple offerings.
In w. 10—12 YHWH instructs Ezekiel to explain the temple's layout to the house of Israel in order to bring about their repentant shame. The causal relation posited between knowing the temple plan and obedience, seemingly implies thatthe people (perhaps as a result of YHWH's outpoured spirit; 39:29) are now fully ready to obey and need only instruction as to 'the law of the temple' (v. 12).
In 45:1-8 the land surrounding the temple is allocated; the Zadokite priests live in a 'most holy' area immediately adjacent to the temple with the Levites to their north and the city to their south. The areas to the east and west of these holdings will be royal property. The royal holdings are strictly limited by a sharp command in v. 8 for the prince to allow the people their land. The prince is commanded to establish justice and righteousness, the traditional responsibility of divine and human rulers. Legislation in w. 10-17 specifying legal weights and measures as well as the prince's duty to supply various offerings seems aimed at curbing abuses by the ruler.
(43:13—46:24) Laws Governing Land and Cult Following the sequence displayed by Exodus and Leviticus, Ezekiel first describes the temple itself and then witnesses the arrival of the divine glory before detailing the routine of ritual observance (much as the laws of Leviticus follow immediately upon Ex 40:34). With YHWH enthroned in his new sanctuary, Ezekiel proceeds in 43:13-17 to describe the sacrificial altar and in w. 18-27 to detail the procedures for its purification. The altar consists of three square tiers with 'horns' at its four corners (see ABD, 'Altar'). Its purification, performed by Zadokite priests, follows the procedures set out in Lev 8:14-15 and Ex 29:36-7.
The ritual calendar is set forth in 45:18—25, beginning with the cleansing of the temple in 'the first month' (v. 18), apparently assuming a spring new year. This annual cleansing of the temple is similar to the Yom Kippur of Lev 16, but with important differences. First, the cleansing is confined to the court and exterior of the temple, perhaps indicating that grave sins that would contaminate the temple proper are not committed in the restored community. Second, the cleansing is linked to the observance of the Passover two weeks later
Ezekiel is next (44:1—3) brought from the inner court to the east gate of the outer court. Here he is informed that the east gate is to remain closed because YHWH, 'the God of Israel, has entered by it' (v. 2). Although the commandment suggests the special holiness attributed to, so to speak, YHWH's private entrance, the permanently locked gate also symbolizes the permanence of YHWH's presence in the temple. Having vanquished his final enemy and established an obedient people, YHWH will have no further need either to conduct full-scale purification of the temple or to re-establish his supremacy in an annual battle beginning with his departure from the temple. The 'ruler' (nasi', or prince), who is never called 'king' in Ezek 40—8, is alone permitted to enter the east gate (from the courtyard side) in order to 'eat food', presumably taking part in a ritual meal (v. 3).
(w. 21—4) rather than to the New Year or enthronement festival. In v. 25 offerings are prescribed for 'the seven days of the festival' in the seventh month (cf. i Kings 8:2-11), apparently a reference to the old New Year/enthronement festival. No Yom Kippur cleansing of the temple is envisioned, and no ark procession (indeed, the east, processional gate was sealed in 44:1-3). The Autumn Festival's apparent truncation may reflect simultaneously the desire to de-emphasize the role played by the human king (cf. 43:6—9) and to accentuate the unchallenged kingship of YHWH. Following Gog's defeat in chs. 38-9 YHWH no longer needs annually to re-establish his reign by subduing his enemies. YHWH is now enthroned continuously within the temple.
In 44:4 Ezekiel again approaches the temple and is again overwhelmed by the glory of YHWH present in the sanctuary. This additional notice ofYHWH's presence probably serves to reinforce the instructions of w. 1-3; YHWH no longer processes out or in; his location is known and it is eternal (cf. 437)- In 44:5—9 YHWH prescribes that no foreigners are to be admitted to the temple. This prohibition is specifically in response to Israel's former 'abominations', including breaking YHWH's covenant and failing to watch over the temple sancta, instead giving foreigners charge of the temple. The charge is obscure, but may refer to the Egyptian ruler Psam-
In 46:1-18 the logistics governing the access of ruler and people to the temple are laid out. On occasions when the ruler is required to offer sacrifice he is allowed to enter the east gate of the inner courtyard (not the outer, as in 44:3) and stand 'by the post of the gate' (v. 2; cf. 2 Kings 11:14; 23:3) while me
priests present his offering. While the east gate is standing open the 'people of the land' (v. 9) are to pass by it and so (albeit obliquely) 'come before the Lord', w. 16—18 provide for royal property to remain in royal hands, meanwhile prohibit-
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each of the twelve tribes, are described in w. 30—4. Here the tribes of Manasseh and Ephraim, listed as separate tribes in the boundary list (48:4—5), are replaced by Joseph in order to allow for the inclusion of Levi as one of the twelve tribes. This apparent inconsistency may reflect the very practical need for the Levites and Zadokite priests (considered descendants of Levi in 44:15) to enter and exit the city despite their lack of tribal inheritances per sc.
ing the ruler from 'thrusting' the people off their own property. The various rules in Ezek 40—8 prohibiting the ruler from abusing the people (45:8—9) and limiting his cultic function (43:8; 44:3) as well as the avoidance of the title 'king', suggest Ezekiel's distrust of the monarch and his determination not to allow secular authority to erode YHWH's sovereign power. Concern to advance cultic over secular authority may, of course, also have motivated this priest-in-exile. (47:1-12) The Life-Giving River In 46:19-24 Ezekiel is shown various outbuildings in the inner and outer courts and in 47:1 he is returned to the temple door. Water flows out from the south side of the temple threshold and then heads eastward from the temple complex, deepening into a great river that finally empties into the Dead Sea. Along the river's banks grow trees always laden with fruit and medicinal leaves (v. 12; cf. Rev 22:1—2). The river itself'heals' the Dead Sea (v. 8) so that it becomes full offish and thus able also to sustain human life. This life-giving river recalls not only the rivers of Eden in Gen 2:10—14 and me Gihon spring originating from the Jerusalem temple mount (i Kings 1:33), but also the widespread ancient Near Eastern traditions of rivers flowing from a cosmic mountain to the ends of the earth (see Clifford 1972). As in the Psalms, YHWH sits enthroned 'above the waters' (Ps 29:3; 104:3), having both defeated chaos and ordered the fruitful world. Fruitful trees similarly characterize Eden (Gen 2:9) as well as the gardens of ancient Near-Eastern gods generally (see ABD, 'Garden of God'; Levenson 1976).
Ezekiel concludes with the naming of the city in 48:35. The new name, 'YHWH is There', plays on the name 'Jerusalem' (YHWH samma instead of yerusalaim), but proclaims the central triumph of the temple vision: YHWH is present, reigning from his temple and dwelling amid his people forever.
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Testament, HSM 4 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press). Cohen, C. (1973), The Widowed City', JANESCU 5: 75-81. Davis, E. F. (1989), Swallowing the Scroll: Textuality and the Dynamics of
Discourse in Ezekiel's Prophecy (Sheffield: Almond). Galambush, J. (1992), Jerusalem in the Book of Ezekiel: The City as
Yahweh's Wife, SBLDS 130 (Atlanta: Scholars Press). Greenberg, M. (1983), Ezekiel 1—20: A New Translation with Introduction
and Commentary, AB 22 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday).
(47:13—48:35) Boundaries and Tribal Allotments Following the outward movement of the miraculous river, the vision's focus turns outwards. Like the plan of the temple complex in chs. 40-2, the regular division of the land expresses the rule of divine order. In 47:13—23 the boundaries for all of Israel are laid out: the Brook of Egypt (Wadi el-'Arish) on the south, the river Jordan on the east, the Mediterranean on the west, and a line running through Lebo Hamath on the north (cf. the similar boundaries of Num 34:1—12). No trans-Jordanian holdings are envisioned and the northern border is drawn not far north of Dan (see ABD, 'Hamath, Entrance of). The borders are apparently realistic rather than idealized, as is often asserted. That is, if the location of Lebo Hamath at the southern end of the Anti-Lebanon mountains is accepted, then the territory outlined is considerably smaller than that claimed in various other texts (Gen 15:18; i Kings 4:21 (MT 5:1)).
(1997), Ezekiel 21-37: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 22A (New York: Doubleday). Griffith, F. L. (1909) (ed.), Catalogue of the Demotic Papyri in the John
Rylands Library (3 vols.; Manchester: Manchester University Press). Halperin, D. J. (1993), Seeking Ezekiel: Text and Psychology (University
Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press). Hayes, J. H., and Hooker, P. K. (1988), A New Chronology for the Kings
of Israel and Judah (Atlanta: John Knox). Holscher, G. (1924), Hesekiel: Der Dichter und das Buch. Eine literarkri-
tische Untersuchung, BZAW 39 (Giessen: Topelmann). Levenson, J. D. (1976), Theology of the Program of Restoration of Ezekiel
40—48, HSM 10 (Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press). Malul, M. (1990), 'Adoption of Foundlings in the Bible and Mesopo-
tamian Documents: A Study of Some Legal Metaphors in Ezekiel 16:1-7', JSOT^6: 97-126. Milgrom, J. (1976), The Concept ofma'al in the Bible and the Ancient
Near East', JAOS 96: 236-47. Miller, J. M., and Hayes, J. H. (1986), A History of Ancient Israel and
The land is divided into twelve equal portions, excluding that allocated for the temple, Zadokites, Levites, and ruler
Judah (Philadelphia: Westminster). Neiman, D. (1948), 'Pgr: A Canaanite Cult-Object in the Old Testa-
(45:1-7). Each of the tribes is to receive a strip of territory extending across the entire land from west to east, with seven to the north and five to the south of the central, holy portions. Judah, located immediately north of the Levites' territory, occupies the holiest position among the twelve tribes, followed by Benjamin to the immediate south of the city and its territory. The city itself is described last (w. 30—5). The fate of the holy city, which preoccupied Ezekiel throughout the first twenty-four chapters of the book, returns to centre stage at the book's conclusion. The restored city, however, is not given the name 'Jerusalem', a name made infamous by the wild infidelities of YHWH's earlier 'bride' (Ezek 16; 23). The purified city is as far removed as possible from the defilement of its pre-exilic counterpart. The city's twelve gates, one for
ment', JBL 67: 55-60. Olyan, S. M. (1988), Asherah and the Cult ofYahweh in Israel, SBLMS 34
(Atlanta: Scholars Press). Smith, M. S. (1990), The Near Eastern Background of Solar Lan-
guage for Yahweh', JBL 109: 29-39. Vermes, G. (1981), Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels
(Philadelphia: Fortress). Westerbrook, R. (1990), 'Adultery in Ancient Near Eastern Law', RB
97: 542-80. Wiseman, D. J. (1956), Chronicles ofChaldaean Kings (626-556 B.C.) in
the British Museum (London: British Museum). Zimmerli, W. (1979), Ezekiel, tr. R. E. Clements, Hermeneia (Phila-
delphia: Fortress), i; German original, 1969.
(1983), Ezekiel, tr. J. D. Martin, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress), ii; German original, 1969.
26. Daniel P. R. DAVIES
A. The Two Forms of the Book of Daniel. 1. Daniel exists in a Hebrew-Aramaic version, that of the Hebrew (Jewish) Bible which forms the basis of most modern English translations; and also in Greek versions: an Old Greek translation and the one which became the standard Christian text, ascribed to Theodotion. The HB, of which fragments have been found among the Dead Sea scrolls, does not include certain passages and stories that are found in the Greek versions. These Greek additions are usually found in English Bibles in the Apocrypha, as three separate books, under the names Prayer of Azariah, Susannah, and Bel and the Dragon. In the Greek versions, however, Azariah's prayer comes after what is 3:23 in the canonical book of Daniel, while Susannah and Bel and the Dragon form chs. 13 and 14. Apart from these, however, the Old Greek text often differs significantly from the HB (e.g. in chs. 4 and 5) implying more than one Hebrew—Aramaic text of Daniel at some stage.
rulers and empires, but also rescuing his people from the power of those kings and teaching them the limits of their sovereignty. He is thus the only sure source of knowledge about the future, and through him Daniel can predict what will happen in the future. All these stories, set in a foreign court and concerning the success of a wise courtier over his rivals, represent a well-known genre in the ancient Near East (see Wills 1990). In the Bible the genre is also represented in the stories of Esther and Joseph.
3. The visions of chs. 7-12 focus on that future. Already in ch. 2 Daniel has foretold a sequence of four mighty kingdoms which will culminate in a great and everlasting kingdom. In four visions (chs. 7, 8, 9, and 10—12) he narrates how he saw visions which are subsequently interpreted to him by a heavenly being as being symbolic of the rise and destruction of these kingdoms. The one exception here is ch. 9, where Daniel is puzzled not by a vision but by a word of the prophet Jeremiah concerning the length of the desolation of Jerusalem. The final vision consists for the most part of a monologue from the interpreting heavenly messenger, Gabriel, about the history of the last kingdom, which will culminate in great distress for Daniel's people, though they will in the end be saved—or at least the righteous of them.
2. Another major difference between the two forms of Daniel is that the (canonical) HB version belongs with the third section, Writings, while in the Greek (and Eng.) Bibles it occupies a pivotal point in the prophetic section of the canon, between the three major prophetic books and the twelve minor prophets. It is the shorter HB version that is being dealt with here.
4. The visions, at any rate, may accurately be called 'apocalypses', the main feature of which is the revelation of heavenly secrets, usually to a great figure of the past. These secrets may be about the origin of evil, the workings of the universe (sun, stars, winds), or the future. The prime example of this in the Bible is Revelation, which draws some of its inspiration from Daniel. However, Daniel as a whole is not an apocalypse.
B. Original Language. The HB version of Daniel opens in Hebrew, the original language of the Old Testament, but switches in 2:4 to Aramaic, a related language increasingly spoken and written by Jews from the Persian period onwards (from the middle of the yth cent. BCE). But chs. 8-12 revert to Hebrew. It is unclear whether the book was originally written in one language only and partly translated; if so, then the Aramaic is more likely to be the original because chs. 2-7 seem to contain the older parts of the book. But no one explanation of this curious feature has yet been generally accepted.
5. Of the history of the composition of the book we have numerous clues but little consensus. Most of the stories appear once to have been independent compositions. One attractive theory is that chs. 2-7 formed an Aramaic collection (in a concentric pattern, ch. 2 matching ch. 7, ch. 3 matching ch. 6, and ch. 5 as a centre). There are signs of editorial expansion in most chapters, and linking between them, such as the addition ofch. i, and the provision of datings to each chapter, so that both stories and visions run from Nebuchadnezzarto Cyrus. Chs. 812 must have come from a fairly narrow period, between the desecration of the Temple (167 BCE) and its restoration (163).
C. Literary Form and Structure. 1. Two genres are contained in Daniel. One is the story, narrated in the third person, represented by chs. 2—6; the other is the vision report, narrated in the first person (with Daniel the speaker). Ch. 4 is unusual in being a story narrated in the first person by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and ch. i, which contains a little story about Daniel and his friends, seems to have been composed especially to link Daniel with the biblical history and to introduce the characters in the following stories.