Part 53
(10:1—22) Reappearance of the Chariot After the avengers have completed their killing, Ezekiel sees again the chariot vision that he earlier received by the Chebar river. While occasional details differ from those of ch. i, the living creatures, now explicitly called cherubim, the wheels, and their motion are again described in exhaustive detail. Now, however, the divine throne chariot assumes a role in the ongoing drama of Ezekiel's temple vision. One of the destroyers is instructed to bring coals from the midst of the cherubim and scatter them over the city. The coals may represent either the city's destruction following the death of its inhabitants or the beginning of purification (cf. Isa 6:6—7). Th£ avenger takes the coals but no account of the city's destruction (or purification) follows. Instead, the prophet focuses on the cherubim bearing the divine throne and on the movement ofYHWH's glory out of the temple. The details of this second chariot vision are confusing, making it impossible to follow precisely where the glory is (if the glory begins its journey in the holy of holies, who is seated above the firmament carried
The Chariot Departs (w. 14-25). YHWH responds to Ezekiel's protest of v. 13 with an oracle directed to the exiles. Although all Ezekiel's oracles are perforce delivered to the exilic community, this is the first directly addressing their fate. The current residents of Jerusalem, says YHWH, claim that having been spared the exile they are the (righteous) inheritors of the land, while the (unrighteous) exiles have been removed from YHWH's presence (v. 15; cf. 8:6; cf. Jer 24). YHWH, however, refers to the exiles as 'the whole house of Israel', and says that though the exiles have been removed, he has in fact been to some extent their sanctuary in exile
(v. 16). The image is striking. Not only does YHWH claim to
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(v. 12). YHWH will capture him, however; he will be taken to Babylon 'but shall not see it' (v. 13). The prophecy gives a substantially accurate description of Zedekiah's fate in the upcoming siege of Jerusalem. According to 2 Kings 25:4-7
have been present outside the land of Israel, but he identifies his presence as itself a sanctuary (miqdas) in the temple's absence. YHWH then promises that the exiles will in fact return and be given the land. Moreover, YHWH will replace their heart of stone with a new and unified heart, a heart of flesh willing to follow YHWH's covenants and ordinances (w. 19—20; cf 36:26). YHWH then invokes the covenant formula, 'They will be my people and I will be their God', promising a new covenant with Israel upon their return. The promise combines elements from Jer 31:31—4 and 32:36—41. Strikingly, while YHWH in Jer 32:39 gives the people a 'single', i.e. unified, heart and in Jer 31:33 inscribes the law on the people's hearts, in Ezekiel YHWH must replace the people's heart altogether. Humankind must be recreated if they are to be capable of obedience.
(Jer 52:4-11), after the Babylonians took the city Zedekiah escaped via a gate near the palace. He was captured, taken to Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah, and witnessed his own sons' execution before being blinded and taken to Babylon. The details of Zedekiah first escaping, then being captured and taken to Babylon, but unable to see, match the actual events of 586 BCE so closely that the passage is commonly considered 'prophecy after the event', a later addition posing as a prediction. The case, however, is far from simple, since in fact Zedekiah did not burrow through the wall, and the blinding of rebellious vassals was common and perhaps even stipulated in Zedekiah's vassal treaty. The oracle gives a plausible description of what might happen should Zedekiah attempt to escape the impending siege. The sign-act ends with the recognition formula: those who survive will acknowledge YHWH in their exile (v. 16). (12:17-20) Quaking with Fear Ezekiel performs a second sign depicting the siege of Jerusalem: this time not an escape scene but a symbolic portrayal of those remaining during the siege. He is to eat bread and drink water while trembling. Similar to the sign-act of4:g-i7 demonstrating the people's deprivation, eating and drinking while trembling shows the extent to which all of life will be dominated by fear of the upcoming destruction. Here, as in 8:17 and 9:9, it is violence rather than cultic or treaty infidelity for which YHWH will punish Judah (v. 19). (12:21-8) Prophecy and Fulfilment The final section of ch. 12 addresses the people's self-serving belief that prophetic oracles and visions are fulfilled only in the distant future if at all, and their resulting complacency in the face of Ezekiel's prophecy. Twice YHWH cites the people's words: first, a proverb indicating that longstanding prophecies remain (and presumably will continue to remain) unfulfilled (v. 22) and second, the opinion that Ezekiel's prophecies deal only with the distant future (v. 27). The two sayings dovetail conveniently, allowing people to write off new prophecy as not yet due for fulfilment and ancient prophecy as having 'expired'. YHWH responds to both sayings with the grim assurance that no prophecy will be delayed any longer; all will soon be performed.
Following this complete repudiation of Jerusalem and the corresponding promises to the exiles, in w. 22-3 YHWH departs the temple and city altogether, flying to 'the mountain east of the city', the Mount of Olives. Commentators widely assume that the divine glory merely pauses at the Mount of Olives on its way to Babylonia, but such an assumption is without textual support. On the contrary, the Mount of Olives was the traditional goal of the ark's procession at the New Year Festival and the site from which the Divine Warrior waged his battles (see ABD, 'Olives, Mount of). YHWH has left the Jerusalem temple riding on his war chariot, having effectively declared war against Judah and Jerusalem. Ezekiel concludes with the notice that after the glory's departure the spirit returned Ezekiel to Babylon, the vision ended, and he reported to the exiles what he had seen (v. 25).
Rulers, Elders, Prophets, and a Few Virtuous Individuals
(12:1-14:23)
(12:1—16) Escaping the City Ezekiel is now commanded to perform a sign-act directed at 'the rebellious house who have eyes to see but do not see and ears to hear but do not hear' (v. 2). The reference to the people's wilful incomprehension recalls similar characteristics in Isa 6:9 and Jer 5:21. Ezekiel is to prepare 'baggage for exile', presumably the barest necessities, then dig through the wall and depart at night, covering his face so as not to see the land. In v. 7 Ezekiel carries out the symbolic action. The action seems to represent a resident of Jerusalem during a siege who has decided to escape the city by night rather than suffer siege conditions or be forcibly removed by the attacking army. The symbolism of covering the face so as not to see the land is enigmatic, especially since the action is undertaken at night, when the land would not be visible in any event. Most likely the gesture represents the successful escapee's new condition—safe, but no longer able to see the land.
(13:1—23) Varieties of False Prophecy Following YHWH's defence of authentic prophecies that remain embarrassingly unfulfilled, in Ezek 13 he condemns three separate groups of false prophets in Israel: self-appointed men who prophesy despite having heard nothing from YHWH; men who create a false sense of security through platitudinous promises of well-being; and women whose magical practices endanger their clients' lives, w. 2—9 are directed against men who prophesy 'from their own imagination' (v. 2), who fabricate prophecies, having in fact seen nothing. In implicit contrast to Ezekiel, stationed in 3:16-21 as lookout on the city walls, these prophets are scavengers in the ruins of Jerusalem, having neither filled in the breaches nor erected a wall on which to stand on the 'day of the Lord' when the Divine Warrior attacks. Instead they announce, 'Says the LORD', when YHWH has not
In w. 8-16 Ezekiel responds to the people's questions regarding his actions. Ezekiel explains, 'As I have done, so shall it be done' to the residents of Jerusalem (v. n). This response deviates somewhat from the action itself, since Ezekiel has represented someone escaping the city furtively, while the niphal ye 'aseh ('it shall be done') indicates that the exile will be imposed upon the people. Ezekiel's response focuses on 'the prince in Jerusalem' (v. 10), that is, Zedekiah, who will pack a bag, dig through the wall, and cover his face
E Z E K I E L 544 spoken (v. 6). These prophets receive ironically fitting punishment. YHWH responds to their false prophecy with a genuine oracle (appropriately beginning, 'thus says the LORD'; v. 8), announcing that his hand is against ('d) these prophets (not, as in Ezekiel's case, 'upon them'; cf. 1:3), and they will be expelled from both the people and the land of Israel. The recognition formula in v. 9 wryly attests that only after their complete rejection will these prophets 'know the LORD'.
assure the wicked and dishearten the righteous. Ironically, it is the prophet farthest from Jerusalem's walls and apparently in the least danger who must stand guard on the walls and risk his life.
(14:1-11) The Idolatrous Elders Ezekiel is approached, as in 8:1 (and cf. 20:1) by a group of elders, this time having come to 'enquire' of YHWH. That is, rather than simply receiving whatever word of YHWH Ezekiel might speak, here the elders engage in the traditional practice of using the prophet as mediator to convey specific questions to YHWH (cf. Judg 18:5). YHWH, however, refuses to co-operate in the enquiry because of the seriousness of the elders' idolatry (cf. 20:3—4). Remarkably, the elders are not condemned simply for idolatry, but for 'lifting up' their idols 'into their hearts' (v. 4, my tr.). This accusation is far from clear, but seems to focus on the depth of the elders' attachment to idolatrous images (cf. the Jerusalem elders described in 8:9-12, who maintained secret 'picture rooms' inside the temple itself). YHWH's only response to the elders' enquiry is to warn them to turn back from idolatry or suffer death at his hands (w. 6—8). When the idolater is 'cut off, an expression denoting sudden death as a punishment for sin, then the people will acknowledge YHWH (v. 8). YHWH goes on to say that if a prophet should in fact deliver a response to the idolater's enquiry, that response would be a deceitful one, planted by YHWH. The oracle thus serves as a warning to the prophet as well as a rebuke to the elders. Should a prophet persist in presenting the idolatrous elders' enquiry, which YHWH has already refused to hear, then that prophet would in fact receive a word in response, but the word would be an intentional lie sent by YHWH. YHWH would then destroy the prophet as well as the enquirer. YHWH's threat to entrap the people by sending deceitful oracles foreshadows the 'bad laws' of 20:25. Here and in ch. 20, however, YHWH's deceit and punishment of the people is not absolute, but preparation for his renewed rule over the covenant people (cf. 20:33, 4O~4J 11:20).
The second group of prophets (w. 10-16) predict only peace when in fact destruction awaits the people. These so-called 'peace prophets' are documented throughout the book of Jeremiah as a major presence in Jerusalem, a group whose message is understandably better received than are Jeremiah's predictions of disaster (Jer 6:14; 8:11; 14:13—16, el passim). These prophets, like the deluded prophets of w. 2—9, are also depicted via imagery contrasting their actions with Ezekiel's role as lookout on the city wall. In this case the people build a patently insubstantial wall, namely their hope of successful rebellion, and the prophets, whitewashing the mudbrick wall, validate the people's false hopes. YHWH counters by declaring that he will bring rain and wind, attributes of the Divine Warrior, and wash away the wall and the prophets with it. Only in their death will these prophets acknowledge YHWH, who will shower, not peace, but rage upon the city
(w. 13,15).
Finally, in w. 17—23 YHWH directs Ezekiel to prophesy against a group of women charged, like the men of w. 2—9, with making up their own prophecies and also with practising divination. The women sew items of fabric to be placed on the people's arms and heads, either as amulets or for divination. The women are further accused of 'profaning' YHWH by means of barley and bread (v. 19). The exact nature of the women's activities is debated; whether the grain represents a payment for divination or an offering, and if an offering, to what deity. Because the grains are able to 'profane' (Ml) YHWH, they were probably offered to him, but in a manner capable of profaning his name. Divination, a practice forbidden in Ex 22:18 and Deut 18:10, might have been understood to defile YHWH if performed in his name. The women who in Jer 44:17-19 report having offered cakes to the queen of heaven (probably Astarte) during this period may provide a parallel. Not only is this divination a forbidden practice; it also serves the opposite purpose from Ezekiel's own prophecy. While he is commissioned to warn the wicked and support the righteous (3:16-21), the female prophets' divination encourages the wicked while discouraging the righteous (w. 19, 22). If Ezekiel's authentic prophetic calling places his own life at stake (EZEK 3:16-21), how much more so the lives of these diviners who work at cross-purposes to YHWH. YHWH announces that he will tear off the female prophets' magical coverings and release the people whose lives have been captured by these false prophets (w. 20-1). Then, says YHWH, they will acknowledge him.
(14:12—23) Noah, Dan'el, and Job In the second half of the chapter YHWH addresses the question of individual responsibility for sin. The issue was touched on in ch. 9 when the righteous Jerusalemites were marked so as to escape the city's destruction (9:4; and see EZEK 18:1—30). The number of citizens to be spared was apparently quite small, as Ezekiel protests that YHWH is destroying the last remnant of Israel (9:8). Now the question arises of whether a few righteous individuals might not suffice to save an entire city (as proposed by Abraham in Gen 18:22—33) or at least members of their own family (as Abraham was able to do; Gen 19:29). YHWH therefore puts forward for consideration the hypothetical example of a land inhabited by three legendary paragons of virtue: Noah, Dan'el, and Job. Noah was the most (or only) righteous person of his generation (Gen 6:9), and was consequently spared along with his family in the Flood. Dan'el is known from the Ugaritic Epic of Aqhat (the biblical Daniel's name does not occur in Ezekiel), in which Dan'el is a king famed for his wisdom and righteousness (see ABD, 'Daniel, Book of). Job was 'blameless and upright, one who feared God' (Job 1:1), but his offerings on his children's behalf failed to save them. YHWH next posits a hypothetical land that has committed trespass (m'l, v. 13) against him, that is, defiled sancta (objects
The prophets currently in Israel are uniformly depicted by means of a negative comparison with Ezekiel, prophesying in Babylon. Whereas in his commissioning in 3:16-21 Ezekiel is posted on the wall to deliver YHWH's word, these prophets refuse either to build or to stand on the wall, and have received no word from YHWH. While Ezekiel must warn the wicked to repent and the righteous to stand firm, Israel's prophets re-
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forgive Jerusalem. The metaphor of the city as wife has deep roots in the ancient Near East. Capital cities were routinely considered goddesses, often the consorts of resident male deities and mothers to their inhabitants. The Israelite prophets continued to personify both Israelite and foreign capitals, but ordinarily presented them as debauched and unfaithful
dedicated to temple service and therefore holy; see ABD, 'Holiness, OT') or broken an oath sworn in YHWH's name (see Milgrom 1976). YHWH further posits that should the three aforementioned paragons of virtue inhabit this land, even they would be helpless to save their own children from YHWH's punishment of famine, wild beasts, sword, and plague. It is allowed to go without saying that the prospects for anyone saving the current generation are slim indeed.
(Galambush 1992; cf. Hos 1—4; Isa 1:21—6; 23; 54; Jer 2; el passim).
The scenario recalls YHWH's predictions in ch. 5 and 7 that he is about to bring these four levitically prescribed punishments against Jerusalem and Israel. The use of the technical term for trespass against sancta (m'l, translated 'acting faithlessly' in NRSV) suggests Jerusalem's own defilement of YHWH's sanctuary by idolatry and his name by treaty violation. The chapter's conclusion thus comes as no surprise: Jerusalem (which is patently not inhabited by Noah, Dan'el, or Job) will not be spared, whether for the sake of some few righteous citizens, or by the righteousness of those exiles whose children will now share in the city's doom (v. 21). YHWH adds the ironic note that some will in fact survive the city's destruction and be brought into exile. These will serve as consolation to the exiles, not because they were spared, but because their obvious wickedness will make it clear that YHWH did not destroy the city without reason (w. 22-3).
YHWH commands Ezekiel to inform Jerusalem of the accusation brought against her, and in w. 3—34 provides a 'biography' for his bride. Jerusalem, he says, is Canaanite, the daughter of an Amorite and a Hittite (v. 3; Jerusalem's Canaanite origins are well attested in OT: Jebusites, as per Judg 1:21; 2 Sam 5:6—10). The reference to Amorites and Hittites is best taken as in apposition to 'Canaanite' (and thus referring to the Hittites of Palestine (Gen 15:20), not those of Anatolia), an example of Canaanite peoples generally rather than a specific claim about the city's founders. As an infant Jerusalem was abandoned in a field, a common method in antiquity for disposing of unwanted children. YHWH finds her lying in the field, still covered with placental blood. His command for her to live apparently constitutes legal adoption (see Malul 1990), though he gives her no care until she reaches adolescence. When YHWH visits the girl again she has reached puberty; YHWH provides a graphic description of the still-naked and still-bloody girl's breasts and pubic hair
The Twisted Symbols ofjudah's Pride (15:1-20:44)
(v. 7). YHWH now covers and bathes the girl, entering a marriage covenant. The imagery is disturbing to the modern reader; YHWH's behaviour seems lecherous, even incestuous, and the reader, like the prophet, is enlisted as a witness to Jerusalem's perverse sexual history. YHWH adorns his new bride lavishly, and her clothing of linen and tahas, a material mentioned elsewhere only as a covering for the tabernacle, reflects the true significance of the city as bride: she is home to YHWH's holy of holies, the sanctuary in which YHWH's honour will be either maintained or defiled.
(15:1-8) The Useless Vine Ch. 15 ironically subverts the traditional metaphor of Israel as a luxuriant vine, lovingly tended by YHWH (cf. Isa 5:1-7; Gen 49:22; Jer 2:21). The chapter marks the first in a series of bitter parodies based on Israel's national symbols: Israel as a vine (here and in ch. 17), as the bride of YHWH (chs. 16 and 23), and as a proud lion (ch. 19). This deconstruction of Israel's national identity climaxes in ch. 20, where even the Exodus story is transformed into a history of Israel's degradation and YHWH's rejection. YHWH begins in 15:2 by posing a riddle to Ezekiel: how does the vine wood differ from any other wood? He continues with a series of rhetorical questions, proving that vine wood is distinctive only in its utter uselessness. Thus, this inferior wood serves only to be burned, or perhaps merely charred, a process rendering it even less useful than it had been initially. The figure of the vine wood's complete inutility patently contradicts Israel's self-styling as a fruitful vine. YHWH's comment on the further uselessness of charred vinewood is explained in w. 6—8 as a metaphor for Jerusalem which has now been partially burned by Babylonia. Like the charred vinewood, Jerusalem will be burned again. The punishment, says YHWH, will result from the people's trespass (m'l). v. 8, the defilement of holy objects or of the divine name already condemned in 14:13. (16:1-63) YHWH's Unfaithful Wife In Ezek 16 YHWH takes up the metaphor of Jerusalem as the bride of YHWH, declares her to be thoroughly unfaithful, and passes the death sentence upon her. Thus, as in the metaphor of the vine in ch. 15, so here too a symbol of national pride is transformed into a symbol of national shame. The chapter is divided into three sections: w. 1-43, a biography of Jerusalem; w. 44-52, an unfavourable comparison of Jerusalem to Samaria and
YHWH bestows perfect beauty upon his regal bride, but she has plans of her own. In w. 15—22 Jerusalem systematically takes YHWH's gifts—clothing, food, gold, even children—and uses them for idolatrous purposes, described in the metaphor as prostitution. The charge of child-sacrifice is supported by similar charges in Jeremiah (e.g. 7:31, and see EZEK 20:25—6). In addition to 'adulterous' relations with other gods, Jerusalem seeks liaisons with other nations, the sexually potent Egyptians and the Babylonians. The charge that Jerusalem's foreign alliances constituted infidelity to YHWH is rooted, not in the marriage metaphor, but in the metaphor of YHWH as king. Israel has entered a vassal treaty (see ABD, 'Covenant') with YHWH and is therefore forbidden to give loyalty to any other king. Here the competing kings are pictured as Jerusalem's lovers, copulating with YHWH's bride and thereby violating his sexual honour. Jerusalem, meanwhile, is portrayed as a 'perverted prostitute' who pays her clients; that is, she pays tribute to the foreign nations with which she consorts (v. 34). The sequence of events roughly corresponds to Jerusalem's political history. Jerusalem entered an anti-Assyrian alliance with Egypt in 705 BCE (v. 26), after which Sennacherib in 701 BCE awarded Judahite territory to Philistia (v. 27). 'Unsatisfied' by the Assyrians (v. 28), Judah became a Babylonian vassal in 605 BCE (v. 29), but remained
Sodom; and w. 59—63, in which YHWH promises at last to
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in w. i—10, but a point-by-point explanation in w. 11—21 becomes the occasion for YHWH to give his own perspective on the events described. Finally, in w. 22—4 YHWH provides a new ending for the story, an allegory predicting YHWH's restoration of Judah.
unsatisfied (v. 29), as witnessed by her numerous attempts at revolt.
In w. 35—43 YHWH announces his wife's punishment: exposure and stoning, common punishments for adultery in the Bible and ancient Near East (Hos 2:10 [MT v.i2]; Jer 13:22; and cf. Westerbrook 1990). The punishing agents, however, are not the husband or community as would be expected, but Jerusalem's former lovers. Here Ezekiel must shape the metaphor to suit historical reality. YHWH's rivals, the foreign nations, now become his agents in Jerusalem's destruction. In addition to being exposed and stoned, Jerusalem is hacked with swords and her houses burned (w. 40-1), actions reflecting actual warfare. This, says YHWH, will satisfy his rage, ease his jealousy, and leave him calm. The husband's visceral satisfaction over his wife's death is presumably appropriate in its ancient Near-Eastern context, and the vocabulary parallels that used elsewhere in Ezekiel to describe YHWH's satisfied rage (cf. 5:13). To the modern reader, however, the scene is horrifying, the more so because the wife-killing husband is God.
In the allegory of w. i—10 a great eagle takes the top off a cedar of Lebanon and transports it to another land. He then takes some of the local seed and plants and waters it until it grows into a luxuriant vine spreading towards him. When a second eagle arrives, however, the vine turns and grows towards him, and he in turn transplants and waters the vine. Ezekiel's original audience would have had no trouble following the story. The first eagle is Nebuchadrezzar and the head of the cedar (considered a royal tree) is Jehoiachin, taken to Babylonia. Meanwhile, some of the royal 'seed', Zedekiah, is planted in Jerusalem. Zedekiah initially shows loyalty to Babylon (growing in his direction), but when Psammeticus of Egypt arrives he abandons Babylon for Egypt (see EZEK B.2). Ironically, whereas Jehoiachin was depicted as the top of a cedar, Zedekiah remains a creeping vine (cf. ch. 15). YHWH asks rhetorically whether such a vine will survive or be pulled out by its planter and desiccated by the harsh 'east wind'.
In w. 44-58 YHWH describes Jerusalem's place within an entire family of sinful women (cf. Jer 3:6—11). Her Canaanite mother, says YHWH, hated her own husband and children, just as Jerusalem has hated hers. YHWH goes on to claim that Jerusalem is the second of three sister cities, of which Samaria is the eldest and Sodom the youngest. The anachronism of portraying Sodom as 'younger' than Jerusalem may reflect the former city's relative unimportance or may be an adjustment necessary to preserve Samaria as Jerusalem's immediate role model (cf. ch. 23). Compared with two infamously wicked cities Jerusalem is found to be the worst. Contrary to the account of Gen 19, here the sin of Sodom is described as neglect of the poor despite the city's prosperity (cf. Isa 1:1017), while Samaria is accused simply of'abominations' (v. 51). Both sisters, however, look righteous in comparison to Jerusalem. Surprisingly, YHWH goes on to say he will restore all three cities and their daughters (suburbs or dependent towns), but that Jerusalem will be shamed before her two sisters (v. 54). Just as Sodom had been a byword connoting wickedness in the past, so now Jerusalem serves as an infamous object-lesson to her neighbours (w. 56-7).
In w. ii—21 YHWH explains the oracle as depicting Nebuchadrezzar's capture of Jehoiachin and Zedekiah's wavering loyalty, again concluding with a series of rhetorical questions: Can Zedekiah succeed, breaking covenant and yet escaping? Now YHWH gives explicit answers to his questions. Zedekiah will die in Babylon, the land of the king for whose oath he had contempt by breaking covenant (w. 16,18; cf. 16:59). Indeed, says YHWH, it was 'my oath that he despised, and my covenant that he broke' (v. 19, emph. added), committing trespass (m% v. 20; cf. 14:13, et passim) against YHWH. It is YHWH whose honour has been defiled and he who will avenge it. Finally (w. 22—4), YHWH adds his own ending to the story: he himself will take a sprig from the top of the cedar and plant it on a high mountain of Israel. This plant will at once bear fruit (as the vine, Zedekiah, did not) and grow into a towering cedar (like Jehoiachin). What earthly kings attempted YHWH will accomplish, and Israel will thrive under an upright ruler of the Davidic house. If Israel's destruction vindicated YHWH's power before his own people (v. 21), Israel's restoration will demonstrate his sovereignty before the world (v. 24). This idyllic ending to the allegory, while unexpected in the midst of oracles of punishment, may none the less be original to Ezekiel, as it fits the pattern that will be repeated over the entire course of the book: YHWH will first destroy and then restore, both destroying and restoring in order that his sovereignty might be acknowledged (v. 24; cf. 20:1-44; 36:16-32). (18:1-30) On Individual Responsibility In this chapter Ezekiel responds to the Israelite tradition that 'the sins of the parents are visited upon the children' (cf. Ex 34:7; Jer 32:18), arguing instead that each individual is responsible for his or her own sins. The question of responsibility would have been crucial during the Exile, and Ezekiel has already touched on the subject in the commissioning in 3:16—21 where the relative responsibility of Ezekiel and his hearers is discussed, and in ch. 14, in which YHWH denies that one person's virtue might save another. The chapter is a rhetorical tour deforce formulated in response to a proverb current in Israel (see Jeremiah's
In w. 59—63 YHWH summarizes Jerusalem's sin and both his punishment and his restoration of the city. Here Jerusalem's sin is described simply as 'showing contempt for the oath by breaking covenant' (v. 59, my tr). All Jerusalem's sin fits under the rubric of covenant-breaking, but the specific charge of contempt for the oath introduces an issue that will be more fully explored in EZEK 17, namely, that in breaking his treaty oath to Nebuchadrezzar, Zedekiah has committed a trespass (mfl) against YHWH. T will deal with you as you have done', says YHWH (v. 59), that is, ignore his own covenant obligations to Jerusalem just as she has ignored hers to him. Yet, he goes on, he will ultimately establish an eternal covenant with Jerusalem. Although Samaria and Sodom will become her 'daughters', Jerusalem herself will be overcome with shame when at last she acknowledges YHWH (w. 61-3). (17:1-24) The Allegory of the Cedar In this chapter Ezekiel is instructed to 'propound a riddle', another in a series of extended metaphors. The metaphor is easily understood already
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person should be judged by their own actions—and announces that he will now judge his hearers, each according to their deeds. The rhetorical shift marks the climax of a speech that has progressed from discussion of multiple generations to evaluation of individuals within a generation, and finally to the current behaviour of the specific individuals at hand. 'Turn', says YHWH, 'from all your evil deeds ... Why would you die, O house of Israel?' (w. 30-1, my tr.). Whereas the people have implicated themselves by their own objections to YHWH's judgements, YHWH has proved not only his justice but Israel's guilt and the very real danger of punishment facing the people. Urging them to get themselves 'a new heart' (v. 31; note the contrast with 11:19 an(^ 36:26 in which YHWH himself must replace the people's heart), YHWH reminds them that he has no stake in their death, which now seems inevitable according to the standards he has just delineated. Like the wicked person of w. 21-2, however, YHWH's hearers face not simple condemnation but a decision. T have no pleasure in the death of anyone,' says YHWH (v. 32). 'Turn, then, and live.'
citation of it in 31:29) and presumably among the exiles as well: 'The parents have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge' (v. 2). The proverb deflects responsibility for the exile away from the current generation and into the past, a view of history shared by the editors of 2 Kings, who held both Manasseh (ch. 21) and Hezekiah (20:17—18) responsible for the Babylonian Exile. The proverb, whether used by those still in the land or by the exiles, serves simultaneously as complaint and reassurance; YHWH maybe punishing us for sins we did not commit, but at least we are not to blame for our condition. The prevailing tone is one of complacent self-pity.
YHWH responds with an oath, forbidding the proverb's use and announcing that only 'the person who sins shall die' (v. 4). He then (w. 5—20) describes a family of three generations: a righteous father, an evil son, and a righteous grandson. The righteous father, says YHWH, having kept the commandments, shall live; the violent, idolatrous son shall die bearing sole responsibility for his own death; the righteous grandson shall live, free from responsibility for his father's sins. Ezekiel's audience challenges this distribution of justice, asking, 'Why shouldn't the son suffer for the father's sin?' (v. 19, my tr). The objection reflects both the people's comfort with the tradition of retribution and their discomfort at the most obvious application of YHWH's words: if the exile does not reflect their parents' sins, it must reflect their own. YHWH, however, reiterates that if the son has done what is right, then he shall live; the person that sins shall die (w. 19/7—20).
(19:1—19) The Dirge for the Rulers of Israel In ch. 19 Ezekiel is instructed to sing a dirge for Israel's ruler (emending MT's nesi'e to sing, with LXX). Israelite prophets frequently employed the dirge (qind) form, with its distinctive 3-2 metre (cf. Am 5:2), addressing the dirge directly to the person being 'mourned', thus simultaneously predicting his or her downfall and lamenting it as an accomplished fact (cf. Ezek 26:17; 27:2, ct passim). This dirge has two sections, each describing the ruler's mother. In w. 2—9 she is presented as a lioness and in 10—14 as a vine> both common symbols for Judah and the Davidic dynasty.
YHWH next changes the terms of the argument, taking up in w. 21-4 the question of how a person is to be judged who turns within their own lifetime from wickedness to righteousness or from righteousness to wickedness. That is, instead of discussing retribution from generation to generation YHWH moves to the case of a single generation. Within a culture focused not on individuality but on tribal continuity YHWH's separation of the generations in w. 5—20 might well have raised the question of how and when, if not from generation to generation, YHWH did in fact parcel out retribution for sins (cf Job 18:19; 20:10; 21:7—13,19). In the specific context of the exile, however, the change in topic from cross-generational behaviour to sin and repentance within a single lifetime effectively ends the people's speculation about who sinned in the past and focuses the argument squarely on their own choices in the present. A wicked person, says YHWH, who repents, keeping YHWH's laws and statutes, shall not die but live (v. 21). YHWH's goal is not the death ofthe wicked but their repentance. A righteous person, however, who turns from righteousness to sin will be held responsible for their trespass (m'l, v. 24) and shall die.
The 'prince' addressed is probably Zedekiah, not Jehoiachin, as Ezekiel ordinarily calls Jehoiachin 'king' (melek) and Zedekiah 'prince' (nasi'). The dirge focuses on the prince's mother, probably the city of Jerusalem as seat of the royal family and 'mother' to her inhabitants (cf. Ezek 16:1—63) rather than on an actual or idealized queen mother. The dirge depicts the Judean royal house as lions, a tradition established in Gen 49:9. The mother lion raises a cub to maturity; he learns to hunt and, we learn, becomes a man-eater. This grotesque distortion of Judah's national symbol follows the pattern set in chs. 15—17. The luxuriant vine is worthless and charred (EZEK 15:1-8); the bride sleeps with every passer-by (EZEK 16:1-63); and the proud lion now devours human beings. The lion, having turned man-eater, is captured and led off to Egypt. The lioness now takes another cub and raises him to maturity, at which point he, too, becomes a man-eater. Indeed, this lion ravages cities (the difficult term 'widows' in v. 7 occurs in parallel with 'cities', and probably reflects application of this term to devastated cities; cf. Cohen 1973) and terrorizes the coutryside. Soon he, too, is apprehended and taken to Babylon (v. 9). The identity ofthe first lion cub is clear: Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, crowned by the people in 609 BCE but immediately deposed and deported by Pharaoh Necho II (610-595 BCE) is me only Judean monarch exiled to Egypt. The second cub is more difficult to identify; Jehoiachin and Zedekiah are both possibilities, but Jehoiachin is the more likely candidate. Jehoiachin had indeed been led before the king of Babylon, though he ruled only three months
The people complain in v. 25 that YHWH's conduct as set forth in this passage is 'unruly' (Id yittaken, my tr.), presumably because it does not conform to established standards governing sin and its punishment. YHWH responds that it is not his conduct but theirs that is unruly. Re-emphasizing the logic of punishing a righteous person who turns to evil but sparing a wicked person who turns to righteousness, YHWH repeats that it is not his conduct, in judging the people, that is unruly, but theirs (v. 29). The people's discomfort reflects only their suspicion that judged by these standards they deserve not only exile but death. In w. 30—2 YHWH abandons theoretical discourse about hypothetical behaviour—whether each
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repeating three times in two verses (5—6) that he took an oath (lit. raised my hand) declaring that he was their God and would bring them out of Egypt into their own land. YHWH demanded that his people discard their Egyptian idols, but his demands were ignored. Ezekiel's claim of Israel's initial election and subsequent rebellion while still in Egypt is unique, but consistent with strands in the Exodus narrative suggesting that the Israelites in Egypt were not acquainted with YHWH as their god and were reluctant to follow him, even in exchange for freedom (Ex 6:9; 14:11—12).
during which time he was hardly the international threat depicted here. Commentators who seek a literal queen of Judah as the two cubs' mother rather than the personified Jerusalem identify the second cub as Zedekiah because his mother, Hamutal, was also mother of Jehoahaz (2 Kings 24:17-18). The second half of the dirge (w. 10—14) is based, like chs. 15 and 17, on the vine as a symbol of Israel. Now the prince is told that his mother was like a vine, fruitful and lush, bearing boughs from which sceptres were made (unlike the useless wood of ch. 15). The vine climbed to a tremendous height, but was then uprooted, thrown to the ground, desiccated by the east wind, and then burned. Now, says YHWH, she has been transplanted in the wilderness and no bough remains from which to make a sceptre. As in w. 2—9, the mother is Jerusalem. Her strong boughs, made into sceptres, represent the Davidic dynasty. The proud city, however, has now been torn down, stripped, and burnt with fire. Her prominent citizens exiled, she has been 'transplanted' to Babylon. The figure could describe Jerusalem's condition following the Babylonian capture in 597 BCE or could look forward to devastation yet to come. The prophetic convention of 'mourning in advance' allows either possibility, though the references to the devastating east wind (v. 12) predicted in 17:10 and to a time when no Davidic ruler remains (v. 14) suggest that the dirge predicts Zedekiah's downfall and the destruction of Jerusalem.
YHWH, faced with Israel's rebellion, decides to destroy the people already in Egypt (v. 8). Upon realizing, however, that by breaking his oath he would profane his own name—and that in plain sight of all the surrounding nations—he instead leads Israel out into the wilderness, where he provides statutes and ordinances for Israel's benefit (w. 10-12). Israel shamelessly violates YHWH's statutes; YHWH again considers destroying them but again chooses not to profane his own name by doing so. Instead, he swears a new oath, namely, that he would not bring the people into the land (v. 15). This decision to reject the wilderness generation parallels the punishment decreed in Num 14, though the causes for YHWH's anger differ there. YHWH next commands the generation of the children not to emulate their parents, but to follow his statutes. The children also rebel, and once again YHWH considers destroying them but relents because of the danger to his own honour. Instead, YHWH devises a solution to the difficulty in which his loyalty oath has placed him. First, YHWH swears that rather than giving the people the land he will actually scatter them into exile in other lands (v. 23). YHWH then gives the people bad— even deadly—statutes. YHWH entraps the people by commanding them to sacrifice their firstborn to him, thereby justifying his destruction of Israel (w. 25-6). The logic is not entirely clear, but seems to argue that child-sacrifice to YHWH was such a grave offence that it justified YHWH's violation of his covenant with Israel. The historical data is incomplete, but supports Ezekiel's claim here and elsewhere (16:20—1; 23:39) that child-sacrifice was practised in Jerusalem during this period. The ambiguous wording of Ex 22:29 [MT v. 28] may reflect a period in which Israelite law demanded or at least permitted such sacrifices, and YHWH's passionately repeated denial in Jeremiah (7:31; 19:5; and 32:35) that he ever commanded (or even dreamt of commanding) child-sacrifice seems calculated to respond to worshippers' claims that YHWH had indeed commanded the sacrifices they offered. YHWH's description of the sacrifice in Ezek 20:25—6 serves as the ironic climax to a perverse retelling of the Exodus. Instead of sparing Israel's firstborn YHWH now commands their slaughter; in place of liberation he decrees new enslavement for the people.
(20:1-44) Israel's Perverse Exodus Ezek 20 opens with a date formula (v. i), the first since 8:1, dating the oracle to August 591 BCE, just over a year after the temple vision of chs. 8—n. As in 14:1 (and implied in 8:1) a group of elders has approached Ezekiel, hoping to enquire of YHWH. As before, YHWH refuses, this time by solemn oath (v. 3), to participate in their enquiry. Instead, he commands Ezekiel to judge them. YHWH proceeds by retelling the story of Israel's sojourn in and exodus from Egypt. The story forms a climax to the allegories in chs. 15—17 and 19, in which symbols of Israelite national identity are ironically recast into emblems of national shame. In ch. 20 the nation's founding myth, the Exodus narrative, undergoes an analogous subversion, becoming a tale of YHWH's endless rage against an Israel that cannot be ruled. The narrative is framed by YHWH's solemn oath in w. 5 and 31 that he will not allow the elders to enquire of him. The problem of YHWH's oath and the honour of his name, prominent throughout Ezekiel, forms the core of this twisted history of Israel.
The history of Israel is depicted as a repetitious cycle in which YHWH first acts on the people's behalf and then sets out laws for them to follow. The people, however, rebel against YHWH, who considers destroying them, but instead acts for his 'name's sake', that is, for the sake of his honour, bound by the covenant with Israel. The history begins in v. 5, on the day YHWH chose Israel. Remarkably, Israel's election is said to have taken place in Egypt. The earlier covenants with Abraham, Israel, and Jacob are not mentioned, suggesting either that Ezekiel deliberately changes the traditional story or, equally likely, that he is acquainted with an alternative version, still current in the period before the Pentateuch's canonization. YHWH emphasizes his early vow to Israel,
In w. 27—38 YHWH concludes his bitter historical survey by addressing the current generation of Israel. Despite his vow not to bring the people into the land (v. 15), YHWH here describes the behaviour of those whom he did in fact bring into the land of Israel. This apparently is the generation who received the 'bad laws' of w. 25-6, and the charge of childsacrifice is repeated in v. 31. The current generation, says YHWH, continue their parents' sins, and YHWH vows, as he did at the recital's beginning (v. 31; cf. v. 3), not to honour their enquiries. Nevertheless, Israel's involvement with
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flesh', from south to north. The image of YHWH wielding his sword recalls again the mythology of YHWH as Warrior, introduced in the vision of chs. 1—3. YHWH will destroy righteous and wicked alike, a startling inversion of the judicious discrimination promised in ch. 18 (and cf. Gen 18). Here, however, Ezekiel draws an image of cosmic war, in which 'all flesh', that is, all creation must be subdued before coming to acknowledge YHWH (cf. Gen 6:12-13). Th£ puzzling image of YHWH destroying people in order to gain their fealty is presumably not to be taken literally, but assumes a scenario in which 'all flesh' as a whole suffers divine retribution, after which 'all [remaining] flesh' acknowledges YHWH's sovereignty (cf. the analogous claims in Ex 14:17-18; Ezek 25:7, inter alia). As in 12:17—20, Ezekiel is instructed in w. 6—7 (MT w. 11—12) to act out the response to YHWH's actions, in this case moaning pitifully in order to provoke the people's curiosity and so provide further opportunity to warn them of the coming disaster.
YHWH is far from ended. On the contrary, any fantasy on Israel's part that they can now freely engage in idolatry is rejected. YHWH once again enters a solemn oath, swearing that 'with a mighty hand and outstretched arm', in rage he will at last rule over Israel (v. 33). Israel's joyful acclamation of YHWH's rule announced in Ex 15:18 now becomes the Warrior's conquest of his own people. In a reversal of the first Exodus YHWH will gather the people out of exile and judge them in the wilderness. Those who rebel against YHWH will be purged, but the rest included in YHWH's covenant (w. 37— 8; cf. Lev 27:32). In w. 39-44 YHWH portrays Israel's future after YHWH has established his reign. YHWH harshly dismisses those who persist in idolatry: 'Go serve your idols ... if you will not listen to me; but my holy name you shall no more profane with your gifts and your idols' (v. 39). Those continuing to practice idolatry will no longer defile YHWH's name in so doing, having been excluded from the covenant. This expulsion of the idolaters seemingly contradicts YHWH's insistence in v. 32 that he will never allow Israel simply to 'be like the nations ... [worshipping] wood and stone', and may mark v. 39 as a late addition to the book. Faithful Israel is described in w. 40—4, serving YHWH with acceptable offerings on his 'holy mountain', Zion. YHWH's sanctity (not, as before, his dishonour) will be revealed before the nations after he has vindicated his name (cf. EZEK 39). Indeed, YHWH will act, not for Israel's sake, but for the sanctity of his name (cf. 36:22). Israel will be overwhelmed with shame (cf. 16:59-63) as it acknowledges YHWH.
In 21:8—17 (MTw. 13—22) Ezekiel is commanded to deliver an oracle in the form of a poem describing a sharpened sword. Israel has despised the rod, the traditional punishment for disobedient children (Prov 13:24; Isa 1:5—6). The sword is presumably YHWH's own, and it is handed over to a 'slayer' (understood as Nebuchadrezzar). Ezekiel is to wail over Israel (v. 12; MT v. 17) but also to clap his hands together and to chop and slash with the sword (v. 14; MT v. 19), acting out the enemy's satisfaction (cf. 6:11; 25:6) as he slaughters the people. Israel's true enemy, however, is not the 'slayer' to whom the sword is given, but YHWH himself, who in v. 17
(MTv. 22) joins Israel's attacker in clapping his hands as he satisfies his rage against Israel.
The End Approaches (20:45-24:27; MT 21:1-24:27)
In 21:18-32 (MTw. 23-37) Ezekiel is commanded to erect a signpost designating two roads: one to the Ammonite capital of Kabbah and the other to Jerusalem. The signpost represents the decision currently faced by Nebuchadrezzar of which of these two capitals to attack. Nebuchadrezzar engages in divination to determine his course, shaking arrows, consulting teraphim, and inspecting a sheep's liver (v. 21; MT v. 26). The arrows apparently functioned like lots, first labelled and then shaken together in a quiver, after which one was drawn out. The exact use of teraphim, though attested in the OT (Gen 31:19; i Sam 19:13—16; Hos 3:4), is unknown. Hepatoscopy, divination based on the analysis of sheep livers, was widespread in the ancient Near East (see ABD, 'Omens in the Ancient Near East'). Jerusalem is chosen for destruction, v. 23 (MT v. 28) is difficult, claiming that some unspecified group ('they') will doubt the results of divination, having sworn oaths. Most likely, this describes the Babylonians' initial reluctance to believe that they are in fact to destroy Jerusalem, 'having sworn oaths', i.e. entered a covenant with Zedekiah. However, says YHWH, Israel's guilt will be remembered, an event that will result in their capture. YHWH then addresses the Jerusalemites in v. 24 (MTv. 29), repeating to them that their transgression (presumably their violation of the vassal oath with Nebuchadrezzar) will indeed become known and they will be taken.
(20:45-21:32; MT 21:1-37) Fire and Sword against the Land A series of four brief oracles all announce the impending destruction of Judah and Jerusalem. The description of YHWH's punishment as a raging fire in 20:45—9 (MT 21:1— 5) is followed by three oracles focusing on the sword by which YHWH will destroy the people. In 20:45-9 (MT 21:1-5) Ezekiel is commanded to set his face and prophesy against the forests of the Negeb ('Negeb' here refers to southern Palestine generally, rather than the modern Negeb). YHWH is sending a fire that will consume the green and the dry trees alike; that is, every tree. Ezekiel objects, pointing out that the people call him a 'metaphor maker' (v. 49; MT v. 5; my tr.; cf. NJPS, 'riddlemonger'). The prophet's complaint may be that people do not take his oracles seriously; Ezekiel is 'only' making metaphors, which will not come to pass. Such a complaint would be consistent with the people's earlier attitude towards prophecy expressed in 12:22 and with YHWH's observation in 33:31-2 that Ezekiel is treated as a mere singer of love songs. Alternatively, Ezekiel may be expressing the people's complaint that since he speaks only metaphors he cannot be understood.
The oracle of 21:1-7 (MT w. 6-12) seems to come in response to Ezekiel's complaint in 20:45—9 (MT 21:1—5), whether to enforce the seriousness of the prophet's words or to explain their subtlety. Ezekiel is instructed to prophesy against the sanctuaries of Jerusalem and the land ('adama, not 'eres) of Israel, announcing that YHWH himself is drawing his sword to kill both the righteous and the wicked, 'all
A brief oracle (w. 25-7; MTw. 30-2) is then directed specifically against the 'prince' (Zedekiah), whose downfall is foretold (cf. 17:24). A final note in v. 27 (MTv. 32) hints at a postexilic restoration of the Davidic dynasty, a promise made
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rulers prey like wolves upon the people (v. 27). The prophets embody the faults described in ch. 13, covering over reality with whitewash, seeing and divining messages YHWH never sent (v. 28). The people of the land (see EZEK 7:27) have oppressed the powerless (v. 29). No one has built up or stood in defence on the wall (see EZEK 13) to stave off the coming disasters. YHWH now claims that his rage has been poured out upon Jerusalem; Jerusalem's destruction is no longer a threat, but has already been set in motion.
explicitly in 37:24-5. Following the oracles against Judah and Jerusalem, the sword song of w. 9—12 (MTw. 14—17) is recapitulated in w. 28—32 (MTw. 33—7), but this time in an oracle addressed to Ammon, predicting that the Ammonites, too, will be destroyed. The oracle, which may be a later addition, recalls the divination performed in w. 18—22 (MTw. 23—7) in which Jerusalem was designated for the Babylonian attack. Ammon's reprieve was temporary; it will now be so utterly devastated as to be 'remembered no more' (v. 32; MT v. 37). In fact, Nebuchadrezzar destroyed Ammon shortly after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. The oracle against Ammon prefigures the Oracles Against the Nations in chs. 25-32, describing YHWH's destruction of a nation that was spared momentarily during Judah's destruction, but now will feel the full weight of YHWH's wrath.
(23:1-49) Oholah and Oholibah: YHWH's Faithless Wives Like ch. 16, Ezek 23 catalogues the behaviour of YHWH's unfaithful wife. Here, however, the conceit of 16:44—63 (also
used by Jeremiah, 3:6—10) that Samaria is Jerusalem's elder sister is developed at length. The two cities are portrayed as 'daughters of one mother' who spent their youth in Egypt, where they were sexually molested. The verb znh, used extensively throughout the chapter, should not be understood in its literal sense, 'to act as a prostitute', but as a pejorative describing any illicit sexual behaviour, and thus secondarily, as a metaphor for cultic infidelity to YHWH. The two girls, already accustomed to illicit sexual practices in their youth, become YHWH's wives and bear him children. The women's Egyptian origin and history of illicit behaviour predating YHWH's election accords with the account of Israelite origins provided in 20:5—7.
(22:1—16) Indictment of the Bloody City Ezekiel is called upon in v. 2 to indict Jerusalem for her abominations (cf. 20:4). A general announcement of the city's crime and punishment appears in w. 3—5, followed by a detailed list of accusations in w. 6—12, and the city's sentences in w. 13—16. All the crimes of the 'bloody city' are described in terms of bloodshed: social injustice (w. 6-7); cultic impurity (w. 8-n); and abusive financial practices (v. 12). The list of Jerusalem's wrongs resembles the list of sins committed by the evil man and avoided by the righteous in the legal test case of ch. 18. Jerusalem is accused of the entire gamut of social and cultic sins. Consequently, YHWH will scatter the people in exile, purifying Jerusalem but in the process defiling himself. The reading of the versions in v. 16, T shall be profaned', is almost certainly preferable to the MT's 'you (fern, sing.) shall be profaned'. The niphal form should probably be translated even more strongly as a reflexive: T shall profane myself. By exiling Israel YHWH can purify land, temple, and people, but the concomitant violation of his covenant oath defiles the divine name even as it vindicates and ultimately purifies it (cf. EZEK 16:59-60; 36:16-38).
The two sisters are given names: Samaria is Oholah and Jerusalem Oholibah. The names probably refer to the women's 'tents', that is, the cities' sanctuaries. Oholah ('she has a tent') represents the northern kingdom, with its own worship centres, and Oholibah ('my tent is in her') represents the southern kingdom, which contained YHWH's chosen dwelling in Jerusalem (cf. the renaming of the city as
YHWH samma, 'YHWH is There', in 48:35). Oholah was unfaithful to YHWH, becoming infatuated with the Assyrians and their gods, a reference to Samaria's alliance with Assyria beginning in 842 BCE. As in ch. 16, both foreign alliances and idolatry are considered 'infidelity', though here the emphasis is on the political liaisons. Idolatry is described as merely a side-effect of these alliances, while the strong and handsome foreigners are described with a tone bordering on envy. Egypt, which for centuries encouraged both Samaria and Jerusalem to revolt against their Mesopotamian overlords, is depicted as a constant temptation to the two women. Their early experiences of abuse are seen as addictive, creating a constant desire for repeated encounters with Egypt. Thus, Oholah is unfaithful to Assyria, having continued her sexual contact with Egypt (on whom the northern kingdom did in fact rely in Hoshea's 725 BCE revolt against Assyria), and YHWH hands Oholah over to her offended Assyrian lovers for revenge. The death of Oholah and her children recapitulates
(22:17-22) The Smelting of Israel The image of YHWH as smelter and refiner was used as early as Isa 1:21-5 to describe YHWH's purification of the corrupt city (and cf. Jer 6:27-30). This oracle, apparently delivered shortly before the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem (24:1—2), employs the image of a smelting furnace, in which metals are brought together and heated to the melting-point, to describe the populace crowded into the city, which is about to undergo the Babylonian attack (cf. the image of the city as a cooking pot in 11:3—7; 24:3—I3)- The metaphor, which aptly depicts the upcoming ordeal, is ironic, since YHWH announces at the outset that all the people have become dross (v. 18), the base metals discarded at the end of the process. They will be heated to the meltingpoint, but no silver will emerge. The recognition formula in v. 22 provides the oracle's only positive note; in their own destruction the people will recognize YHWH's wrath at work.
Samaria's destruction by Assyria in 722/20 BCE.
Oholibah (Jerusalem) witnesses her sister's fate, but instead of amending her ways becomes even worse than Oholah had been (w. 11—35). Oholibah continues to lust after the handsome Assyrians, but soon becomes distracted by etchings depicting Babylonians from Chaldea. Oholibah invites the Babylonians to her bed, but soon tires of them also. The description of Oholibah's liaison with Chaldeans is reminiscent of the Chaldean Merodach-Baladan's visit of 714 BCE,
(22:23—31) Jerusalem's Destructive Leaders YHWH condemns Jerusalem's offences as committed by various groups of leaders: princes, priests, rulers, prophets, and people of the land (cf. the similar list in 7:26-7). The princes (reading, with LXX, 'whose princes' for MT's 'a conspiracy of its prophets') are the ravening man-eaters described in 19:1—9. The priests have defiled YHWH's sancta and failed to teach his ways. The
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(the residents of Jerusalem) have been cooked and burned, then the pot itself must be purified in the fire. The gruesome metaphor aptly describes YHWH's double concern: the punishment of Jerusalem's sinful inhabitants and the purification of the holy city and its sanctuary. YHWH laments in w. 12—13 that previous attempts to purify the sanctuary have failed; only after his rage has been fully spent upon it will the city again be cleansed.
cited in 2 Kings 20:12-18 as the cause of the temple's destruction in 586 BCE. The following description of Oholibah's return to the Egyptians (w. 19—21), however, represents Jerusalem's illicit alliance with Egypt both before and after the Exile of 597 BCE. In retaliation YHWH will now enlist both Babylonians and Assyrians along with their allies to punish Oholibah's infidelity. Like ch. 16, so also ch. 23 is alarming to the modern reader. Sexually abused young women are labelled tainted, and their later sexual deviance punished by still further sexual violence against them.
Ezekiel's Wife's Death (24:15-27). YHWH now informs Ezekiel that 'the delight of [Ezekiel's] eyes' is to be taken away, in response to which Ezekiel is to refrain from mourning. Ezekiel relates this word to the people 'in the morning' and that evening his wife, the delight of his eyes, dies. The people ask for an interpretation of Ezekiel's sign-act and YHWH responds that he is about to profane his own sanctuary and kill the exiles' children in Jerusalem (v. 21). Ezekiel thus acts out both YHWH's and the people's loss. The use of Ezekiel's wife to symbolize the Jerusalem sanctuary recalls the personification of Jerusalem as YHWH's wife, as depicted in chs. 16 and 23, where the death sentence has already been passed upon her. With Jerusalem's destruction the people will suffer both the loss of the temple and the death of beloved children, yet they are commanded not to mourn. Ezekiel's sign-act, including the countermand against mourning (v. 22) implies that it is not only the prophet and the people but also YHWH who will stifle his natural grief over the city, knowing the justice of its fall. The sign-act simultaneously evokes both the intimacy of YHWH's loss and his implacable determination. With the exception of a simile in 36:38 recalling the temple flocks, Jerusalem is never again mentioned by name in Ezekiel.
In w. 32—4 Oholibah is sentenced to drink from Oholah's cup, i.e. to undergo her punishment (cf. Jer 25:15-19; Hab 2:16). YHWH then begins a new indictment (w. 36-49), now directed simultaneously against Oholah and Oholibah. Oholah's inclusion is unexpected within the terms of the metaphor (she was killed in v. 10), but may reflect the historical reality of displaced northerners present in Jerusalem and active in the cult. The crimes described in w. 36— 49 are primarily cultic, defined as adultery (n'p, the technical term for adultery, is used) and bloodshed. The women are said to have committed adultery with their idols, sacrificing their children to them. Moreover, the child-sacrifices were carried out in conjunction with worship in the Jerusalem temple (w. 38-9), thus defiling the sanctuary. YHWH then describes a scene in which foreign men were invited into the sanctuary (w. 39/7—42) and lavishly entertained by the women, probably a reference to Psammeticus's entourage (see EZEK B.2; EZEK 44:7), whose presence in the Jerusalem sanctuary simultaneously defiled the temple and violated YHWH's covenant. In v. 46 YHWH calls for the avenging Babylonians to advance, thus setting the stage for the announcement in 24:1—2 that the siege of Jerusalem has begun. The notice (v. 48) that Oholah and Oholibah will serve as warnings to 'all women' should be understood within the terms of the metaphor; other cities will be warned against rebellion.
Finally (w. 25-7), YHWH informs Ezekiel that after the city and temple have been destroyed a fugitive will bring him the news, after which the prophet's dumbness will be removed. The motif of dumbness connects the passage with Ezekiel's call in 3:24-7, creating a loose indusio and concluding the first half of the book. The prediction regarding the fugitive similarly creates a bridge to ch. 33, which relates the fugitive's arrival and marks the resumption of prophecies regarding Israel after the oracles against the nations in chs. 25-32.
(24:1—27) Jerusalem under Siege The Cooking Pot (24:1—14). The chapter opens with a date formula, January 588 BCE, the beginning of Nebuchadrezzar's siege of Jerusalem. Ezekiel is instructed to record the date, either to underscore its significance, or as evidence of his prescience. He then delivers an oracle in which the besieged city is figured as a pot on the fire (w. 3—14), after which he performs the sign-act of stifling his grief when his wife is stricken dead (w. 15-27).
Hope for the Future (25:1-48:35)
Oracles against Foreign Nations (25:1-32:32)
Collections of oracles against foreign nations appear in all three major prophets (cf. Isa 13—23; Jer 46—51) as well as some minor prophets (e.g. Am 1-2). Such oracles, delivered before an Israelite audience and announcing YHWH's judgement on enemy nations, served primarily as oracles of reassurance for Israel (see ABD, 'Nations'): YHWH could and would act on Israel's behalf to punish his people's enemies. In Ezekiel the oracles serve as a transition between the first half of the book (chs. 1—24), which is preoccupied with YHWH's judgement against Judah and Jerusalem, and the second half (chs. 33-48), in which promises of restoration predominate. Spanning the gap between the announcement in 24:1—2 that Jerusalem is under siege and the notice of the city's fall in 33:21, the oracles reveal the universal reach of YHWH's power. Having first gone forth against his own people, the Divine Warrior will not stop until all nations
Ezekiel is commissioned to recite a song for the exiles, in which a pot is filled with choice meat and water and then boiled (w. 3—5). The context of Jerusalem's siege makes the song's meaning self-evident: the residents of Jerusalem are currently being 'pressure cooked' within the city walls (cf. 11:3). YHWH next announces doom to the pot itself (w. 6— 13), that is, the destruction of the personified city rather than the death of its inhabitants. The 'bloody city' is described as a 'diseased' pot (v. 6). Whether the disease symbolizes mere corrosion or an actual infirmity such as the leprosy that infects clothing and houses in Lev 13:47—59 and 14:34—53, the pot is ritually unclean, and so the meat must be removed from it. YHWH identifies bloodshed as the source of Jerusalem's impurity, and he now exposes the shed blood and punishes the city for its crimes (cf. Lev 17:11—13; see ABD 'Blood'). In w. 9— 14 YHWH describes the pot's purification. After its contents
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come), but to the Israelites themselves. Israel will act as YHWH's agents in devastating Edom, after which they will 'know my vengeance' (v. 14), says YHWH.
have been brought to justice. The oracles thus place Jerusalem's destruction within the larger context of YHWH's authority over all the earth. Each of the oracles against a foreign nation includes YHWH's claim, 'You shall know that I am YHWH'; each nation in turn will be brought to acknowledge his sovereignty.
(25:15—17) Against the Philistines Like the Edomites, the Philistines are accused of 'taking vengeance' against Judah. The Philistines are not recorded in Jer 27 as participating in the anti-Babylonian alliance nor is their vengeance against Judah described, like Edom's, as an 'asam (see EZEK 25:12—14). It is therefore likely that the Philistines had continued as loyal Babylonian vassals (they had been conquered by Nebuchadrezzar as recently as 601 BCE) and had been rewarded for this loyalty with a gift of Judean territory. In any case, their treatment of Judah is described as vicious, and YHWH swears to take vengeance against them. The mention ofthe Cherethites in v. 16 probably refers to the Philistines' origins from the island of Crete (see ABD, 'Philistines'). After he takes vengeance on them, says YHWH, the Philistines also will acknowledge his sovereignty. (26:1-28:19) Against Tyre Tyre's Downfall (26:1-21). Ezekiel devotes nearly three chapters to oracles against the Phoenician city-state of Tyre. An island fortress located off the coast of Lebanon, Tyre was the immensely prosperous centre of a vast Mediterranean trade network. Although paying tribute to Babylon, Tyre had thus far avoided outright conquest by Nebuchadrezzar. Nevertheless, Tyre was among those plotting rebellion as per Jer 27 against even this nominal submission. Tyre's apparent exemption from the harshest consequences of Babylonian rule and its continued prosperity, both due to its commercially and strategically favourable location, seem to have singled Tyre out (along with Egypt) for Ezekiel's particularly harsh judgement.
Of the seven nations singled out in chs. 25—32, five (Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, Sidon), are known to have participated in rebellion against Babylon, while a sixth, Egypt, provided support for this rebellious activity. Ezekiel's concern not to defile YHWH's honour by a revolt violating 'YHWH's covenant' with Nebuchadrezzar (EZEK 17) is often considered sufficient justification for labelling all the rebellious nations enemies of YHWH and appropriate objects of his wrath. Two problems mar this interpretation. First, in their rebellion against Babylon, the foreign nations do not violate YHWH's covenant as Judah does, but covenants presumably sworn in the names of their own gods. Second, nowhere in chs. 25—32 are the foreign nations condemned for joining in rebellion against Babylon; rather, they are punished for their misconduct towards Judah and Jerusalem. Even as he orchestrates Jerusalem's destruction by Babylon, YHWH is shown avenging the scorn shown to his people (and, presumably, himself) by their lesser enemies, who gloat over the city's fall. (25:1-7) Against Ammon Ezekiel delivers a two-part oracle against Ammon (w. 3-5, 6-7; cf 21:28-32). In each, Ammon is accused of malicious glee at the temple's destruction and the exiles' deportation. Ammon, itself a Babylonian vassal, will therefore also be utterly destroyed by these 'people of the East'. Each section of the oracle concludes with the recognition formula; after being themselves vanquished, the Ammonites will acknowledge YHWH. Note that the reference to the temple's desecration (v. 3) requires that the oracle be dated to 586 BCE or thereafter. (25:8-11) Against Moab Moab is accused simply of considering Judah to be 'like all the other nations' (v. 8). The claim may represent a Moabite response to the destruction of the Jerusalem temple: the Davidide claim to YHWH's special protection of Zion (see ABD, 'Zion Traditions') has been proved false. As punishment for its gloating, Moab will be given along with Ammon to 'the people ofthe East' (v. 10). Particularly, the area of northern Moab (Beth-jeshimoth, Baal-meon, and Kiriathaim) whose possession was a subject of dispute between Moab and Judah, here referred to as 'the glory of the country' (v. 9), will now belong to foreigners. Having denied Judah's special status, Moab will lose its own 'glory'. Even its punishment will not be unique to it, but shared with Ammon, its neighbour. Then, says YHWH, the Moabites will recognize his sovereignty.
Ezek 26 consists of a four-part oracle in which the first two sections (w. 1—14) describe the city's destruction while the latter two (w. 15-21) describe the aftermath of Tyre's fall. The oracle opens with an incomplete date formula, placing the oracle sometime in 587/6 BCE. A date towards the end ofthe year would be appropriate since the oracle implies (v. 2) Nebuchadrezzar's successful capture of Jerusalem, and probably anticipates his siege of Tyre, begun around this time. Nebuchadrezzar maintained his siege for thirteen years before reaching a negotiated settlement (see Jos. Ant. 10.11.1).
The oracle opens quoting Tyre's satisfaction with Jerusalem's capture. The merchant city sees Jerusalem's destruction in strictly economic terms; Jerusalem's loss will become Tyre's gain. YHWH responds that he will hurl ships like so many waves against the island fortress. Tyre (Heb. sor) will be scraped down to the bare rock, a punishment that plays indirectly on the Hebrew sur, 'rock', after which Tyre will acknowledge YHWH's sovereignty (v. 6). YHWH continues in w. 7-14 with a more detailed and literal prediction of Nebuchadrezzar's siege ofthe city. After destroying Tyre's coastal dependencies, the Babylonian monarch will muster his impressive battery of horses, troops, and siege equipment. The city will be taken and plundered; the comparison between Tyre and a bare rock reappears to conclude the oracle (v. 14).
(25:12—14) Against Edom The oracle against Edom is especially vehement (cf. an additional condemnation of Edom in ch. 35). Edom is apparently singled out because, having joined with Judah in rebellion against Babylon (Jer 27:3), it then acted as a Babylonian ally, perhaps taking over Judean holdings in the Negeb (cf. Jer 49:7-22, Ob 1-14; but see the discussion in ABD, 'Edom'). The 'asam (grievous offence) referred to in v. 12 presumably refers to Edom's violation ofthe oath forming the anti-Babylonian alliance. YHWH thus hands Edom over, not to the Babylonians (whose newly loyal vassal they have be-
In w. 15—18 YHWH describes the horror ofthe coastlands and 'the princes of the sea' (v. 16), probably Tyre's coastal settlements and its Mediterranean outposts. Tyre's bereaved allies raise a lament (w. 17-18) over the ruin of the once-
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Israel. First (v. 24), Israel will cease to be provoked by these contemptuous neighbours. Second (w. 25—6), having punished Israel's neighbours, YHWH will then restore Israel to its land and his presence to Israel. As in w. 20-3, YHWH twice repeats his goal: that the nations will acknowledge his sovereignty. This first group of oracles against the nations thus fulfils the traditional role of reassuring Israel of YHWH's favour. At the same time the oracles reaffirm that Judah's current humiliation is taking place within the wider context of YHWH's self-vindication before all the world.
glorious city. Finally, in w. 19-21 YHWH explains Tyre's demise in cosmic terms. It is he who has vanquished the city, covering the maritime capital with 'the great waters' (v. 19) of chaos and bringing it down to Sheol. Thus, not only will Tyre 'never again be rebuilt' (v. 14); it will vanish and 'be no more' (v. 21).
The Shipwreck of Tyre (27:1—36). The whole of ch. 27 constitutes a single oracle, an extended allegory describing Tyre as a ship. Like the allegories against Judah in Ezek 15,16,17, and 19, so also in the case of Tyre Ezekiel employs stock symbols of national identity, ironically transforming them into symbols of national shame. The city, bordered on all sides by the sea, making its living by commerce, is depicted as a merchant ship, setting forth on a voyage. As Tyre enjoyed luxury goods from all corners of the world, so also the ship is fitted out with the finest materials from Senir, Lebanon, Bashan, Cyprus, and Egypt (w. 5-7). An international crew sails the ship, which is 'perfect' in its beauty. The ship trades with numerous lands, from Tarshish to Arabia, and carries a cargo of exotic wares. After lovingly describing the Good Ship Tyre's embarkation Ezekiel abruptly informs her that her rowers have brought her into deep water, where she has been shipwrecked (v. 26). Riches, crew, army, and cargo sink together into the sea. All the mariners on shore lament the great ship's utter devastation.