Part 115
1187 P H I L I P P I A N S
Timothy and Epaphroditus, Paul's Go-Betweens (2:19-30)
options is perfectly possible and can support the case for the verse being a transition within one letter, as is defended here, following Reed (1996). Either way, the second sentence in v. i is difficult, because the three main terms in it are all obscure, (i) To what do 'the same things' refer, which Paul speaks of writing? (2) What does he mean by saying that his writing is not 'troublesome' for him? (3) What does he mean by being 'a safeguard' for his addressees? (i) On the assumption of a plurality of sources, 'the same things' are the various themes that Paul frequently addresses. On the 'integrity view', it means primarily rejoicing (just commended for the twelfth time), and probably also the warning (v. 2) that Paul is about to express, as often before
This section introduces two of Paul's helpers, but tells us more about his affection for them than the reasons for their journeys. On Timothy see Acts 16:1—3; I7:I4~I5J 19:22; he is not named in the account of Paul's first visit to Philippi, but the Christians there know him (v. 22), doubtless from the time mentioned in Acts 20:4. Paul's praise of him as alone iso-psuchon (lit. equal-souled) echoes his wish that they should all be sumpsuchoi (2:2). Apparently speaking of his present circumstances, Paul excepts Timothy alone from a judgement more sweeping than he made in 1:15—17: 'All... are seeking their own interests, not those of Jesus Christ' (v. 21); he has urged the opposite attitude in 2:4. Timothy has 'served' (edouleusen, v. 22) 'the gospel' with Paul, like a son to him, both of them being slaves (douloi, 1:1) of Christ who took the form of a slave. As for Epaphroditus, Paul calls him 'brother' and uses two sun-words, 'fellow-worker' and 'fellow-soldier' (v. 25). He had come with a gift (4:18) as the Philippians' envoy (apostolos in the sense of saliah, the agent of a synagogue, and leitourgos). Dissectors of Philippians argue that Paul would not have left his thanks to the end. Yet his appreciation is certainly implicit in w. 25 and 30, where he uses leitourgia again in a 'non-liturgical' sense, for their subvention which Epaphroditus, at risk to his life, has brought. Admittedly his thanks are qualified; 'services that you could not give' (NRSV) is more literally 'your shortfall (husterema) towards me'. See further PHIL 4:10—19. The Philippians had heard of Epaphroditus' illness; Paul has sent him back to relieve their anxiety about him
(cf. 3:18). (2) Paul says that repeating this is not 'troublesome' for him, or something similar according to most interpretations. But the verb from which this adjective (oknlron) is formed primarily means 'to hesitate' or 'shrink'. Formulas using this word-group are common in Hellenistic papyrus letters in many contexts, e.g. of request or invitation: T say without hesitation...'or'Don't hesitate to ask...' (Reed 1996); polite, persuasive formulas used when a writer feels tact is called for, as Paul might well here. In contrast, to say that writing the same things is 'not troublesome' seems rather pointless. (3) For his addressees, he says, his repetition is a 'safeguard' (asphaks). Against what? The word negates ideas of stumbling or going wrong. Though it usually means 'safe' in a 'passive' sense (from danger, error, etc.), Paul applies it to his own action (calling for rejoicing) with reference to the effect he wants it to have on his readers, namely to stabilize and confirm them in faith and keep them from harm (what harm, we learn in v. 2). In conclusion, though the verse marks a transition, it need not be an unintelligibly harsh one: 'So go on, brothers [and sisters], rejoicing in the Lord; I don't hesitate to repeat this, while for you it is salutary.'
(w. 25-8). He wants them to receive Epaphroditus with joy and hold people like him in honour (v. 29);hehopes shortly to send Timothy for more news and then soon to come himself (w. 19-24).
What lies behind these dealings? (See PHIL A.3.) Peterlin (1995), analysing passages in Philippians and other letters in sociological categories, sees a community of house churches, differing in social and financial status and not all equally enthusiastic about regularly supporting Paul. Epaphroditus, he suggests, was well-off and willing to discharge a leitourgia, but not popular with all. This is a credible picture of relationships within the community but it neglects relevant external factors. As for grounds of dissension, when Paul saw serious trouble he usually spoke out plainly. The hints of discord or the grounds for suspecting criticisms of Paul in Philippians cannot compare with the evidence in 1-2 Corinthians. Clearly he is anxious for the Philippians' unity; but he seems to see the trouble as healable by recalling them to a right mind and renewed joy in Christ (cf. PHIL 4:8).
v. 2, the question of continuity arises again: there seems to be a sudden leap from gentleness to anger. Yet how harsh this feels depends on how one word is translated. The threefold 'look' (blepete) has often been taken as 'beware of (as NRSV). But the latter sense normally requires a preposition not used here; without it, the probable sense is 'look hard at'. The verse is still a warning, and the strong language and its objects still have to be explained, but the tone now sounds less shrill. On a stylistic analysis
(cf. Reed 1996: 84-8), the triple imperative balances the three imperatives in the three previous verses: 'receive', 'hold in honour', and 'rejoice' (2:29, 30; 3:1). The first three are addressed to friends; the second three refer to people regarded as enemies. A parallel occurs in 3:17-19. The transition here remains arresting, but it can be seen to be bridged.
Second Exhortation on Discipleship (3:1-4:1)
(3:1—2) Transition These verses are widely held to belong to different letters (see PHIL D.2 and most commentaries), v. i, the first phrase, 'Finally' (to loipon, lit. for the rest) is often a closing formula but equally can be a mere link like 'so'. The imperative chairete can mean 'farewell' but can equally remain a real imperative, 'rejoice' (as NRSV). Those who see w. 1—2 as containing the end of a letter and the start of a fragment will take the first option in each case, but the second pair of
(3:2—11) Paul's ' Transvaluation of Values' through Christ Whatever personal tensions there are within the community, Paul wants to draw their minds back to Christ as he did in ch. 2, but this time by telling them his own story, how he 'emptied himself of secure pride so as to be with Christ, and how his only aim now is to follow the 'upward call' to the end. Judaism is where he started, but non-Christian Judaism would hardly be familiar to this church formed
P H I L I P P I A N S Il88
his converts would know well. v. 10 corresponds to 2:6—9 at the turning-point from descent to ascent. "To know Christ', implies intimate, experiential knowledge, cf. 1:9; this is why Paul does not keep the order of Christ's crucifixion and exaltation, but interweaves them, just as the power of Christ's resurrection, the sharing (koinonia) of his sufferings, and becoming like him in his death are experienced as interwoven in Christian prayer, liturgy, and life. As Christ was in the form of God and took the form of a slave (2:6—7), so Paul wants only to be 'con-formed' (summorphizomenos), moulded into that morphe. (The vocabulary recurs in 3:21.)
mainly of Gentile converts. Yet they are being troubled by people urging circumcision, contrary to the Jerusalem decision (Acts 15) not to impose it on Gentile converts and Paul's efforts to uphold this. This can account for Paul's starting-point in v. 2 and (to some extent) moderate the shock ofhis strong language. He maybe quoting expressions thathe had used on previous occasions (cf. 3:18) to raise his converts' morale by mocking at opponents. The first two could be turning back terms used by the 'enemy'; the third (katatoml) is a sarcastic play on 'circumcision' (peritome), changing the prefix to one implying destruction. It is clear that circumcision is the issue, but not an attack on Jewish Christians as such, provided they do not deny that Gentile converts are true Christians and heirs to the promises to Israel, v. 3, Paul recalls his teaching on the 'true circumcision' through faith in Christ (Rom 2:25-9); now he adds the charismatic experience of Gentile Christians 'who worship in the Spirit of God'. He wants them to remain content as they are; but he does not explain why circumcision has been urged on them. He uses his regular antithesis of 'flesh' and 'spirit', but after 3:1 there is no more anger like that in Galatians. The suggestion of Tellbe (1994: 116—20; PHIL 8.3) is plausible: all circumcised Jews could enjoy the exemptions granted by Rome to Judaism as a permitted religion, even if some were now also Christians; but uncircumcised Gentile Christians, even though recognized by Jewish Christians on the basis of Acts 15, could not. If they refused to take part in the imperial cult (surely important in a proud colonia), Paul's converts would be 'disloyal citizens' and incur persecution, as they already had (1:29). The Jewish Christians offer a way out: join us and live at peace. They might insist that it would involve no infidelity to Christ; but Paul could only see it as undermining his whole work of extending membership of God's people on the sole basis of faith in Christ crucified.
(3:12—16) Following the Upward Call with Paul v. 12, Paul's upward way (from v. n) corresponds to 2:9-11, but glory is far ahead; to 'attain the resurrection' is an object of humble hope, desire, and effort. Paul knows that he has not 'obtained' (elabori) this or 'been made perfect' (as NRSV fn., cf. PHIL 3:15) 'but I press on' (dioko, lit. pursue; last used ofhis former zeal in persecution, 3:6), 'to grasp it (katalabo), as I have been grasped by Christ Jesus' (my tr.). Though the words are different, the image stands in striking counterpoint to harpagmos in 2:6; NRSV obscures this by using 'make [one's] own', w. 13-14, Paul repeats the verb, merging his accounting metaphor into that of running a race, a cliche of popular ethics that he has used before; 'straining forward' (epekteinomenos) renews the image in 'eager expectation' (PHIL 1:20). See further Pfitzner (1967: 134-56). 'The goal' (skopos; its verb skoped occurs in 2:4 and 3:17) is anything aimed at, but 'prize' (brabeion) belongs to athletics. The aim and the prize are pursued in response to 'the upward call' (as NRSV fn.) of God in Christ Jesus.
v. 15, this completes Paul's own downward-upward 'story', which corresponds to 2:6—11; now he turns to his addressees, and first to 'those of us ... who are mature' (teleioi, lit. perfect). At v. 12 he has just disclaimed the related verb for himself. The mystery cults used these terms to refer to grades of initiation, and Paul could on occasion draw on that vocabulary for a metaphor (e.g. 4:12); Gnostic sects used it systematically. Koester (1961-2) and others find hints of Gnostic opponents here and elsewhere, but such theories go beyond exegesis. Neither is there need to posit charismatics who have got above themselves, as in Corinth, where Paul refers, perhaps with irony, to 'the perfect' (i Cor 2:6). Here Paul returns to his major theme of a Christlike mindset (phrondn); he is leading up to his concluding appeals in 4:2 and 4:8. He has held up the supreme model in 2:5—11 and told his own story; he seeks to persuade, not to bludgeon. He invites any who may 'think differently' to be attentive and receptive to God's interior revelation. 'This is not the language or mode of polemics' (Fee 1995: 353).
w. 4-11, this may be why Paul leaves the circumcision issue, to tell (doubtless retell) his personal story. He is a Jewish Christian, once proud of his birth, observance, and zeal (w. 5—6; cf. Acts 26:4—11). But he has undergone a complete 'transvaluation of values', which in w. 3-11 he expresses by a series of keywords with changed applications. He recalls his former confidence in Jewish practice; we have seen at 1:6, 25, and 2:24 that he now bases this only on Christ. His righteousness was once based on the law (v. 6); now, solely on his faith in Christ (v. 9). In w. 7-8 Paul plays on an accounting metaphor of gain (kerdos and verb kerdaino, cf. 1:21) and loss (zemia and verb zemioumai); his assets have changed places by his new reckoning. Indeed, the metaphor of gain and loss, though quite different from that implicit in 2:6—8, corresponds in effect to Christ's regarding his divine status as 'no prize to be clung to' (oukh harpagmon) and, instead, 'emptying himself (cf. Fee 1995: 314-15). The allusion continues in Paul's hope 'that I may gain Christ and be found in him' (w. 8—9), as Christ was found in solidarity with the human race (2:7); when finally 'the books are opened', Paul hopes to be acknowledged as Christ's, because he has renounced all his assets to trust totally in him. What he now calls them (skubala, 'filth') recalls the invective of v. 2. v. 9 succinctly summarizes Paul's teaching on justification (Fee 1995: 319-26), which
(3:17-4:1) Citizens of earth and heaven In 3:17-19 Paul holds up examples and counter-examples. Obviously he has told his own story to invite imitation, but in calling the Philippians to be his 'fellow-imitators' (sum-mimetai) he puts himself beside them, as in 3:15; Christ, not Paul, is the model. Secondly, he tells them to 'observe' (skopeite) those who live according to the 'example (tupos) you have in us'; here speaks a teacher, not one demanding a personality-cult. In contrast, in w. 18-19
1189 PHILIPPIANS
Final Exhortation, Thanks for Support, and Conclusion
Paul renews past warnings against 'many' whom (as his urgent tone shows) he regards as a serious threat. Their 'end is destruction' (apoleia)', in 1:28 this fate awaits opponents who are probably persecutors, but Paul's tears suggest a group within the church. They are 'enemies of the cross of Christ', yet nothing marks them as Jewish Christians. 'Their god is their belly' might refer to converts who, on the dietary issues discussed in i Cor 8, allow themselves too much liberty. 'Their minds are set (phronountes) on earthly things' and 'their glory is in their shame'—these phrases are enigmatic, but they could apply to Christians who, in face of the state cult and social pressures, chose to enjoy the sense of civic glory but with the shame of compromise, taking part in meals connected with public sacrifices and, in Paul's view, reducing Christianity to one among other acceptable philosophies.
(4:2~23)
(4:2-3) Last Appeal for Harmony As already noted, recent exegetes find hints of disunity, and perhaps of different causes, in many passages (PHIL 8.3), but 4:2 is the first place where Paul comes to naming names. Yet even here the trouble between Euodia and Syntyche is not defined more than as a failure 'to be of the same mind' (to think, phronein, the same). Garland (1985: 172—3) sees the whole letter as leading up to this; Peterlin (1995) constructs a total picture, defining the roles of episkopoi, diakonoi, and 'co-workers' (sunergoi, 2:25; 4:3); the two women are diakonoi, leaders of two house-groups in conflict, probably over material support of Paul. In contrast, Fee (1995: 385-400) after a survey of theories concludes that none is proven; we know neither the cause of the quarrel, nor the identity of the 'loyal companion', nor of the Clement named here, nor whether Lydia (Acts 16:14) was still there (perhaps identical with one or other of the women, or the 'companion'). The clearest indications of trouble in Philippians point to persecution and the temptation of Jewish Christianity (Tellbe 1994), but there is no hint of these as the issue in 4:2. One thing seems clear: the quarrel is serious and worries Paul; if 2:1—5 is related to it, it seems to have divided the community. (4:4-9) Last Call to Joy, Peace, and 'Right Thinking" in Christ Yet whatever the trouble is, Paul seems confident that the cure is to recall the Philippians to the charismatic joy of their first coming to faith, exactly as he reminded their neighbours in Thessalonica how 'in spite of persecutions you received the word with joy inspired by the Holy Spirit' (i Thess 1:6). His constant insistence on joy is not mere cheerfulness; this and following Christ with a right mind are the keys to Paul's strategy towards the Philippians. In w. 4-7 he invites them to share the spirit of his initial greeting and prayer for them, with a few new touches, v. 5, 'Let your gentleness
If something like this was the case, v. 20 follows appositely: it is right to want to be good citizens, 'but our citizenship (politeuma) is in heaven'. Politeuma recalls the related verb in 1:27 and reinforces the case for taking it in civic terms, though many have understood both words more loosely in terms of way of life. The noun (often rendered 'commonwealth') refers to the state of which one is a citizen, either directly or by citizenship of an enfranchised colony, as Philippi was of Rome. Paul valued Roman citizenship and readily appealed to it at need; but just as humankind, created in God's image, has authority only by that title, so has any state. Hence for Christians (as also for Jews), God's politeuma is primary. Thus Paul's contemporary Philo,
speaking of the patriarchs as 'sojourners on earth', says that heaven is their native land, in which they have their citizenship (politeuontai, Philo, Conf. Ling. 78-9), and a second-century apologist says exactly the same of Christians (Letter to Diognetus, 5). The heavenly politeuma is not merely an ideal; Christians actually live in two orders, of which the earthly is under the judgement of the heavenly. They are related not only 'vertically' but also eschatologically; 'it is from there that we are expecting a Saviour (soter), the Lord Jesus Christ'. 'Saviour' contrasts with the 'destruction' facing the 'enemies of the cross', as soteria and apoleia are contrasted in 1:28. But soter was also a title used in the ruler-cult; applied to Christ it makes a higher claim for him, just as 'Christ is Kurios' does over against the emperor. 3:21 winds up the parallelism of chs. 2:1-18 and 3 with many significant echoes. 'He will transform [metaschematisei, schema, 2:8] the body of our humiliation' (cf 'humility', 2:3 and 'he humbled himself, 2:8, all from the same root tapeinos 'that it may be conformed [sum-morphon, cf. morphe, divine and then human, 2:6-7]to me body of his glory [doxa, cf. 2:11 and in contrast just above, 3:19], by the power [energeia, cf. the twofold use of the related verb at 2:13] that also enables him to make all things subject to himself. To savour how these echoes work, and then to see how 3:21 virtually sums up i Cor 15:20—8 and 2 Cor 3:18—5:10, is better than any commentary, but Fee (1995: 381—4) is good. 4:1 concludes the main exhortation: 'Therefore... stand firm in the Lord in this way'; for the rest, it overflows with words of love and joy, among which one (epipothetoi, beloved) echoes Epaphroditus' yearning in 2:26.
(epieikes) be known to everyone': most versions have something similar. But the basic sense of epieikes is 'seemly', decent or equitable; the phrase could be a last word on good citizenship, much as in i Pet 3:16. 'The Lord is near': in joy or suffering, or if the latter leads to death, all the nearer, v. 6, 'Do not worry about anything': as Paul has demonstrated regarding liberty or captivity, life or death (and is about to add, plenty or hardship). The basis is a perfect trust in God, expressed in prayer like that in 1:3-11 and here, which brings peace as in v. 7. Paul sums up his appeals for a right mind in Christ in w. 8—9, now using a synonym as in 3:13. Few versions do justice to the heightened solemnity of tone (reminiscent of 2:1-4) and of vocabulary, which (like 2:6-11) includes several words beyond Paul's usual range. Neither there nor here need this point to a different author, despite the fact that both the rhetoric and the content of v. 8 are typical both of popular (especially Stoic) philosophy and of Hellenistic Judaism. This somewhat troubles Fee (1995: 413-19), but it need not (cf. PHIL E). Paul could harness this language to his gospel when he found it appropriate. In v. 9, as in 3:17, he reminds his pupils of what they have learned from him; he speaks with no arrogance but as a true teacher.
P H I L I P P I A N S 1190
Dalton, W. (1979), The Integrity of Philippians', Bib. 60: 97-102. Dodd, C. H. (1952), According to the Scriptures (Welwyn: Nisbet). Eaton, J. (1979), Festal Drama in Deutero-Isaiah (London: SPCK). Engberg-Pedersen, T. (1994), 'Stoicism in Philippians', in idem (ed.),
(4:10-23) Paul's Attitude to Gifts Received and Last Greetings The section composed of w. 10—19 takes up from that in 2:19—30, completing the rondo pattern in the letter
(PHIL F); the last appearance of several keywords also marks the overall indusio: rejoice, v. 10; be concerned (phronein), v. 10; be humbled (tapeinousthai, obscured in NRSV), v. n; share
Paul in his Hellenistic Context (Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark). Fee, G. (1992), 'Philippians 2:5-11: Hymn or Exalted Pauline Prose?',
BBR2: 9-46.
(koinonos words, but now in a financial idiom), w. 14, 15; gospel, v. 15; glory, v. 20. A simple reading may find behind this and 2:19-30 no more than a simple story, to which Paul refers with modest and undemanding gratitude; but there are hints of more complicated feelings (Peterlin 1995: 209—16). The Philippian church has supported Paul generously since the beginning (w. 15-16). Paul is, and wants to appear, duly grateful, but in the embarrassment of need (chreia, 2:25; v. 16) he has to speak of shortfall (husterema, 2:30; husteresis, v. n; NRSV conceals this by a bland paraphrase both times). But again, he wants not to seem demanding (v. 17); hence his assurances that he has learnt to be content with whatever he has (w. 11—13). Here Paul shows the same equanimity as in 1:18 and 22; perhaps with a touch of mock solemnity, he uses the Stoic word autarkls ('self-sufficient'; NRSV 'content', v. n) and a metaphor from the mystery cults (lit. I am initiated into everything, v. 12). But then he fears that he may seem to be indifferent to the support which he actually needs. 'Mirrorreading' runs the risk of straying into imaginative fiction; but Paul's words here, almost as much as in 2 Corinthians, do suggest that he is facing several lines of criticism. Finally he stops trying to explain, and turns to praising their gift by describing it (by a metaphor already used in 2:17) as a sacrifice pleasing to God (v. 18), and praying that God will meet all their needs. The passage ends with a doxology. We do not know how successful this letter was in restoring harmony. No evidence remains to the contrary, in contrast with what i Clement reveals about Corinth some years after Paul's letters.
(1995), Paul's Letter to the Philippians, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans). Garland, D. E. (1985), The Composition and Unity of Philippians',
NovT 27:141—73. Herron, T. J. (1989), "The Most Probable Date of the First Epistle of
Clement to the Corinthians', Studia Patristica, 21, ed. E. A. Livingstone (Leuven: Peters). Hooker, M. (1978), 'Philippians 2.6—11', in E. Ellis and E. Crasser
(eds.), Jesus und Paulus, 2nd edn. (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht). Hoover, R. W. (1971), The HARPAGMOS Enigma: A Philosophical
Solution', HTR 64: 95-119. Jeremias, J. (1963), 'Zu Phil ii 7: 'EAYTON EKENflSEN', NovT 6:
182-9. (1965), The Servant of God in the New Testament', in The Servant of God, SET 20 (London: SCM), 97—9. Koester, H. (1961—2), The Purpose of the Polemic of a Pauline Frag-
ment (Philippians III)', NTS 8: 317-32. Lake, K. (1912-13), (ed. and tr.), The Apostolic Fathers I-II, LCL (Lon-
don: Loeb). Lightfoot, J. B. (1879), Saint Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians, 4th edn.
(London: Macmillan). Lohmeyer, E. (1928), Kyrios Jesus: Eine Untersuchung zu Phil. 2, 5—11
(Heidelberg: C. Winker). Malherbe, A. J. (1988), Ancient Epistolary Theorists, SBLSBS 19
(Atlanta: Scholars Press). Martin, R. P. (1983), Carmen Christi: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Inter-
pretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship, 2nd edn.
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans). Meeks, W. A. (1983), The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the
Apostle Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press). Miller, E. C. (1982), TIoXLTS'USO'Os in Philippians 1.27: Some Philolo-
The letter closes by sending usual affectionate greetings and mentioning the emperor's household (v. 22), a hint (as 1:13) of successful influence on Paul's part, perhaps through his Praetorian contacts.
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W. W. Gasque and R. P. Martin (eds.), Apostolic History and the Gospel
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans), 264—76. O'Brien, P. T. (1991), The Epistle to the Philippians: A Commentary on
the Greek Text, NIGTC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans). Peterlin, D. (1995), Paul's Letter to the Philippians in the Light of
Disunity in the Church, NovTSup 79 (Leiden: Brill). Pfitzner, V. C. (1967), Paul and the Agon Motif, NovTSup 16 (Leiden:
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70. Colossians J E R O M E MURPHY-O CONNOR, OP
ters are far from insignificant (Kenny 1986: 80), and the influence of co-authors and secretaries can no longer be ignored (Murphy-O'Connor 19950: 34). There is no standard of Pauline style to which doubtful letters can be compared.
A. Colossae. 1. The sparse unexcavated ruins of what had been a large and prosperous Hellenistic city are located in the valley of the river Lycus 12 miles east of Denzili in Turkey.
3. Paul, we are told, is presented as the peerless, transcendent apostle. This is not in fact the case. The language of Colossians is certainly universalist, e.g. 'the gospel which you heard, which has been preached to every creature under heaven, and ofwhich I, Paul, became a minister' (1:23; cf. 1:6, 28), but the lack of the article before 'minister' shows that Paul does not consider himself the unique agent, and the hyperbole is precisely paralleled by i Thess i:8, both as regards tense and extension. Paul had to stress his universal, but not exclusive, responsibility in writing to a church that he did not found directly (2:1). It is also asserted that Colossians gives Paul's sufferings a vicarious value, whereas in the authentic letters they are viewed kerygmatically. This argument has no foundation. It is due to the mistranslation of a key verse; see COL 1:24. The identification of the gospel as 'the mystery' (1:26—7; 2:2> 4-3) is a Pauline paradox, since the whole point is that it is no longer a secret. It does not, therefore, convey a different perspective on revelation.
Seleucid promotion of its neighbours Laodicea and Hierapolis in the third pre-Christian century ended Colossae's virtual monopoly of the wool production of the valley. None the less the cyclamen purple (colossinus) fleeces of Colossae (Pliny,
Nat. Hist. 21.51) continued to rival the glossy black wool of Laodicea (Strabo, Geog. 12.8.6). They were the mainstay of the local economy. Access to international markets was facilitated by the location of the cities on the great 'common highway' linking Ephesus (120 miles west) with the Euphrates (ibid. 14.2.29). The population was mainly pagan but in 213 BCE, in order to enhance commerce and trade, Antiochus III installed 2,000 Jewish families from Mesopotamia (Josephus, Ant 12.148—53). By 62 BCE the amount of the temple tax confiscated by the Roman governor (20 pounds of gold) reveals that there were at least 11,000 adult male Jews in the Lycus valley
(Lightfoot 1904: 20).
2. The Lycus valley was evangelized by Epaphras (4:13), a native of Colossae (4:12), who had been commissioned by Paul (see COL 1:7). Paul's appreciation of the contrast between his own arrival in Philippi and Thessalonica, where he had to start from scratch each time, and his experience in Corinth (Acts 18:2—3) and Ephesus (Acts 18:19; J Cor J6:i9), where Prisca and Aquila furnished him with a well-established base, helped him to the realization that travellers returning home would be the most effective apostles. They started with built-in advantages: they did not have to look for work, they were known and trusted, they had networks of family, friends, and acquaintances, who could be guaranteed to listen, at least initially. Most, if not all, of the converts made by Epaphras were pagans (1:21; 2:13).
4. The Christology of Colossians can be seen as fundamentally different from that of the authentic letters only if it is assumed that Paul was in full agreement with everything that appears in Colossians. In fact the situation is parallel to that of i Corinthians where Paul quotes Corinthian statements with which he is in flat disagreement. The cosmic dimension, which is most visible in 1:15—20, does not represent Paul's thought. It is quoted from a Colossian hymn, which Paul edits severely to incorporate his own vision of Christ (see COL 1:1520). His adversaries 'had done their best to give Christ a prominent place in the realm of cosmic speculation. What they had not done, and the editor now proceeds to do, is to recognize his earthly activity' (Barrett 1994: 146). Contrast 1:19 with 2:10, and note the stress on the crucifixion (1:20; 2:14). The vision of the church as 'the body of Christ' (i:i8a; 2:19) is simply a more graphic statement of the union of believers with Christ and each other (Gal 2:20; 3:27-8). The distinction between the individual Jesus Christ ('the head') and his 'body' was imposed on Paul by the circumstances at Colossae. It does not appear in i Cor 12:12-27 or R°m 12:4-5 because the position of Christ was not an issue in those churches.
3. The volcanic springs and underground rivers alerted Strabo to the unstable character of the Lycus valley, 'if any country is subject to earthquakes, Laodicea is' (Geog. 12.8.16). A major earthquake hit in 60 CE (Tac., Ann. 14.27.1). Both Laodicea and Hierapolis were rebuilt, but Colossae never recovered; note the silence of Pliny (Nat. Hist. 5.105). Its long slide into oblivion terminated in the ninth century CE when the site was definitively abandoned.
B. Authenticity. 1. There is no consensus regarding the authorship of Colossians. The case against authenticity has been most comprehensively argued recently by Schenk (1987) and Furnish (1992), but the reasons they assemble—style, conception of Paul's role, Christology, eschatology, and literary dependence—are not compelling.
5. It is claimed that the realized eschatology of Colossians is incompatible with the future eschatology of the authentic letters. On only two occasions, however, is the resurrection of believers presented as a past fact (2:12; 3:1), and in context this is nothing more than a vivid expression of their passage from 'death' to 'life' (2:13; cf. Rom 6:11). Standard Pauline future eschatology appears in 1:22-3,
2. Style was once thought to be the definitive argument against Pauline origin (Bujard 1973), but when analysed in a more sophisticated way it appears that Colossians is perfectly at home among the accepted letters (Neumann 1990: 213). Moreover, the stylistic variations between all the Pauline let-
2&'> 3:4> 6, 24~56. The charge that Colossians is the work of a secondary imitator, because it conflates phrases from Romans, 1—2 Corinthians, Galatians, and i Thessalonians, exaggerates the im-
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law of God.' There is no evidence that this attitude towards religious experience was systematically propagated at Colossae.
port of verbal reminiscences, while at the same time failing to provide a justification for the proposed redactional technique in only parts of Colossians.
Some of the converted Gentiles must have been God-fearers, who brought it with them from the synagogue, and proposed it as a supplement to the teaching of Epaphras.
C. Date of Composition. 1. Of the six who send greetings to Colossae, five also salute Philemon (see COL 4:10-14). The names of Timothy (1:1; Philem i) and Onesimus (4:9; Philem 10) appear in both letters, as does that of Archippus as one of the recipients (4:17; Philem 2). Opponents of the authenticity of Colossians claim that its author borrowed the personalia from Philemon in order to give Pauline colouring to Colossians, but cite no evidence to show that this was a normal tactic to get a forgery accepted—it was not considered necessary by the author of Ephesians—and fail to explain the changes in order and qualifications. Hence, Colossians must be dated to the same imprisonment as Philemon 4:10, 18; Philem i, 9, 23.
2. This reconstruction implies that the problem with which Paul had to deal at Colossae was in no way similar to the situation he had faced in Galatia. There he had to counter a direct attack on his authority, and a vision of Christianity which in practice gave the law greater importance than Christ. Here he has to deal with a fashionable religious fad without intellectual depth, whose proponents floated in a fantasy world. His concern is to restore a sense of reality, to set the feet of the misguided on solid ground. They grasped at shadows. He had to show them that Christ was substance (2:17). The approach adopted by Paul in Galatians would have been completely inappropriate at Colossae. Understandably, therefore, the themes and terminology typical of Galatians are lacking in Colossians.
2. This incarceration took place at Ephesus (i Cor 15:32; 2 Cor 1:8) in the years 53-4, rather than at Rome in the early 6os (contra Dunn 1996: 41). When in Rome all Paul's attention was focused on Spain (Rom 15:24, 28), but Philem 22 and Phil 1:26; 2:24 reveal plans to visit Colossae and Philippi. The action of Onesimus is explicable only if Paul was in the vicinity of Colossae (Lampe 1985). The speed of the contacts between Paul and Philippi (Phil 2:25—30) exclude Rome as the place of imprisonment.
(1:1—2) Greeting Prior to his break with Antioch (Gal 2:11—14; Acts 13:1-3) Paul had been secure in his ecclesial identity
(cf 1-2 Thessalonians). Subsequently he did not represent any church (1:25), and had to identify himself as a Christcommissioned missionary. The formula used here is a simplification of that which he adopted in Gal 1:1. The selection of Timothy from among the many with Paul (Col 4:7-14) for mention in the address suggests that he was co-author of the letter (Murphy-O'Connor 19950: 16—34).
3. Assumptions regarding Paul's theological development cannot be given any weight in this discussion (against Bruce 1977: 411—12). Even if we could be absolutely sure of the precise chronological order of the letters, it would mean little. The letters are not homogeneous segments of an ongoing research project, each one building on its predecessor, but reactions to specific problems, in which what Paul says is conditioned by the needs of the recipients, and by his own estimate of what will be an effective response.
Rather than address the church as such (cf. 1-2 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1-2 Corinthians) Paul writes to its members as fellow-believers (cf. Rom 1:7; Phil 1:1). 'Saints' does not imply personal holiness. It reflects the usage of OT where the 'holy' is that which is 'set apart for God' (Lev 11:44). Exceptionally, 'saints' is interpreted (the kai is explicative; BDF 1442(9)) by 'loyal', because some at Colossae, e.g. Archippus (cf. COL 4:17), had been led astray by false teaching (2:8).
D. The False Teaching. 1. Hooker's (1973) view that there was no systematic false teaching at Colossae does not really account for the language of 2:8—23. Paul is reacting to a doctrinal problem, which has been described in at least forty-four different ways (Gunther 1973: 3—4)! There is a useful survey of the more notable opinions in O'Brien 1982: xxx-xxxviii. A decisive breakthrough was made by Francis's (Francis and Meeks 1973:163—207) lexicographical work on tapeinophrosyne and embateud in 2:18, which provided a basis for an understanding of the genitive in 'worship of angels' as subjective. His outline of Jewish ascetic mysticism, which is the socioreligious framework of his hypothesis, has been developed thoroughly by Sappington (1991). The polemic material in 2:8, 16-23 contains both direct and indirect references to the content, function, and medium of revelation, as well as to the prerequisites for its attainment. Sappington (ibid. 170) concludes, 'the Colossian error is strikingly similar to the ascetic-mystical piety of Jewish Apocalypticism. The errorists sought out heavenly ascents by means of various ascetic practices involving abstinence from eating and drinking, as well as careful observance of the Jewish festivals. These experiences of heavenly ascent climaxed in a vision of the throne [of God] and in worship offered by the heavenly hosts surrounding it. It seems that these visions also pointed to the importance of observing the Jewish festivals, probably as evidence of submission to the
The opening greeting of the Pauline letters normally mentions a double source of divine benefactions, 'from God our/ the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ'. The absence of the second element here may be due to the mention of'in Christ' in the first part of the verse (Aletti 1993: 46).
(1:3-8) Thanksgiving In all Pauline letters, with the exception of Galatians, i Timothy, and Titus, the address is followed by a report on how Paul has thanked God for the recipients. When the formula T give thanks to the gods' appears in contemporary letters it is never a banal convention and always evokes what is upmost in the writer's mind (Schubert 1939: 173).
Similarly in Paul. The thanksgiving is designed to win the favour of the readers—and so parallels the rhetorical exordium—but the compliments carefully reflect Paul's assessment of the state of the community, and reveal his concerns (Murphy-O'Connor 19950: 55-64).
The length of the thanksgiving here is disputed, but even those who extend it to 1:14 (Moule 1968: 47), or even 1:23
(Aletti 1993: 49), consider 1:3—8 a subsection in which Paul
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(Kasemann 1964: 160). The key sentence is 1:12, which is then explained in 1:13—14 (cf. Acts 28:16). The combination of two virtual synonyms, 'the share ofthe portion', is common in the Essene hymns (Kuhn 1968:117), which also attest a use of'saints' encompassing both angels and believers (iQS 11:7— 8; Benoit 1982). The Colossians have already been empowered to live in the realm of light where God's holiness is experienced. The implication is that the ascetic practices and visions advocated by the false teachers are unnecessary. 1:12— 14 is the key to understanding 2:13—15 (Sappingtoniggi: 203). In i Thess 5:5 Paul contrasted the past and present of believers in terms of 'darkness' and 'light' (cf. Rom 13:12). His use of 'power' here in conjunction with 'darkness' is meant to evoke the societal constraints which promote the inauthentic behaviour of non-believers; all are 'under the power of sin' (Rom 3:9). Deliverance is the transferral to an alternative environment identified as 'the kingdom ofthe son of God's love' (1:13; cf. i Cor 15:23—8). The genitive of quality is a Semitism ('beloved'; cf. BDF §165), but Paul chose the expression (contrast 1:7; 4:7, 9, 14) in order to give prominence to 'love', which stands at the beginning ofthe process of salvation (Rom 5:8). In the form displayed by Christ it is the basic characteristic ofthe believing community (2:2; 3:11—14; cf. Gal 3:27-8: i Cor 13:2). The vague 'redemption' is clarified by 'the forgiveness of sins'. The formula is found in Paul only here (cf. 2:13; 3:13), and has a liturgical ring. By incorporation into Christ ('in him') in baptism (cf. Acts 2:38) the structures ofthe world are replaced by new values.
notes the reasons for his gratitude (Lohse 1968: 40; O'Brien 1982:7). Paul's knowledge of the believers at Colossae depends on the report of Epaphras (1:4, 8), who had been deputed by Paul to evangelize the Lycus valley (1:7). The NRSVreading 'on your behalf is to be rejected (cf RSV, NJB). While the quality of its witnesses might seem worthy of confidence, the reading is excluded by the titles given to Epaphras (Abbott 1897: 200). In particular 'servant of Christ' suggests a duly authorized missionary (cf. 2 Cor 11:25; PhilI:I)- Note that Tychicus is given the same titles (4:7), and he is certainly Paul's representative. The fact that Epaphras was imprisoned (4:12-13; Philem 23), whereas Epaphroditus of Philippi was not (Phil 2:25), indicates that the authorities understood Epaphras to be Paul's agent.
Among the virtues of the Colossians Paul singles out their Christian confidence, and their love which reaches out to all (Philem 5), virtues which are inspired by their hope of a guaranteed heavenly reward (i Thess 1:3). The Colossians had been made aware of their assured future by the preaching of Epaphras (1:6-7), which was anterior to the false teaching. The qualification of the gospel as 'the word of truth' (1:5; cf. Gal 2:5, 14) is intended to underline its reliability (Ps 119:43) by contrast with the 'empty deceit' (2:8) of the false teaching. The sterility and parochialism of the latter is indirectly stigmatized by the universal creativity of the word of God (i Thess 2:13; i Cor 1:18; Rom 1:16; cf. Isa 55:10—11), a dynamic force changing the world as it is transforming the Colossians (3:16). Their experience corroborates the true understanding of the message; the 'grace of God' is not merely a favourable attitude on the part of the divinity but tangible benefaction. It is typical of Paul that he evokes love a second time (1:8); the fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22), it is the very being ofthe believer (i Cor 13:2). This is the only mention ofthe Holy Spirit in Colossians.
(1:15-20) The Christological Hymn Note the change in the layout ofthe Greek text in Nestle-Aland, 27th edn. (1993). It is generally recognized that Paul here offers a corrected version of a hymn in circulation at Colossae (3:16; cf. Eph 5:19). Many efforts have been made to recreate the original form of this hymn, but none has won significant support (Schmauch 1964: 48—52; Benoit 1975). The multiplicity of hypotheses, however, underlines the reality ofthe problem, not the futility ofthe quest. No serious exegesis is possible without a decision regarding tradition and redaction. In my view the ordered repetition of formal features recommends the reconstruction of two four-line strophes:
(1:9-11) Prayer for the Future Having complimented the Colossians, Paul now reveals his attitude towards them (cf. 2:1). They have been the object of his constant concern, but his status as a prisoner (4:10) has meant that he can only pray for them. He begs God that they may know his will, that they may do good works, and that they may persevere. It is the responsibility of believers to discern what God demands of them (Phil 1:9-10). There is no longer a law to dictate their actions. The emphasis on 'wisdom,' 'understanding', and 'knowledge' as divine gifts with a purpose beyond themselves is designed to counter the false teachers' insistence on ascetical practices as prerequisites (2:16, 21-3) for visions which were an end in themselves (2:18). Paul does not exclude contemplative knowledge of God (i:ioc), but it must be accompanied by fruitfulness in 'good works' (i:iob; cf. Eph 2:10; Jn 15:16). A permanent lifestyle, different from that of those who belong to the world (2:20; 2 Cor 4:7-11; Phil 2:14-16), and resistant to cowardice and a desire for vengeance, is made possible only by the power of God. His 'glory' is his visibility in history (1:27), which can only be a display of'might' (1:11; cf. Eph 1:19).
(v. 150) i Who is (the) image ofthe invisible God (v. 15/7) 2 Firstborn of all creation (v. i6a) 3 For in him were created all things (v. i6f) 4 All things through him and to him were created. (v. i8fc) i Who is (the) beginning (v. i8c) 2 Firstborn from the dead (v. 19) 3 For in him was pleased all the Fullness to dwell (v. 2oa) 4 And through him to reconcile all things to him.
The first lines of each strophe begin with 'who is', and the second lines with 'firstborn'. The third lines commence with 'for in him', which is followed by a verb in the passive ('were created/was pleased'), whose subject is a universal ('all things/all the Fullness'). The fourth lines contain three identical expressions, 'all things', 'through him', and 'to him'. So many correspondences must be intentional. They are the result of careful planning to achieve perfect balance between
(1:12—14) Conversion There is in fact no break in the sentence, but the importance of the contents merits a special heading. In order to motivate the thanksgiving ofthe Colossians Paul describes the crucial change in their existence in terms and images drawn from the liturgy of baptism
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commit sin and transgress the law' (i Enoch 106:13—14; cf. 2 Apoc. Bar. 56:11—13). Manifestly only good angels can be effective mediators with God, but how are mere terrestrials to know which is which? Paul allows the Colossians to draw their own conclusion regarding the futility of the exercise.
the two strophes. No one who had made such an effort would destroy the elegance of his or her creation. In consequence, the elements which break the pattern (w. iSbcde, 17, i8ad, 2obc) must have been added by another hand. It is theoretically possible that such redactional activity had taken place before Paul incorporated the hymn into his letter. It is more probable, however, that the additions were made by Paul, because identical retouches appear in the hymn in Phil 2:6ii (Murphy-O'Connor 1995/7).
Parallel to the addition of'death on a cross' in Phil 2:8c, Paul here insists on the brutal modality of Christ's achievement by inserting, 'making peace by the blood of his cross' (v. 2ob). Whereas the traditional teaching that Paul received mentioned only the death of Christ (Rom 1:3—4; 4:25J 8:34; 10:8— 9; i Cor 15:2-7; Gal 1:3-4; I Thess EIO), he typically stresses the 'blood' of Christ (Rom 3:25; 5:9; i Cor 10:16; 11:25, 27)- With the exception of the gospels and Heb 6:6; 12:2; Rev 11:8, he alone in the NTuses 'cross' and 'crucify' (cf. 2:14).
The basic theme of this hymn is the mediation of Christ, first in creation, then in reconciliation. The titles in the first two lines of each strophe evoke the figure of Wisdom— 'image' (Wis 7:26), 'beginning' and 'firstborn' (Prov 8:22; Sir 1:4)—who was present with God from eternity (Wis 9:4, 9), and participant in creation (Prov 3:19; 8:30; Wis 8:5; Sir 1:9; 24:9; Ps 104:24). These titles are the reason why Paul could not simply repudiate the hymn; they were rooted in the revelation of his people. The titles are justified by the third and fourth lines of each strophe, which are introduced by 'because'. All efforts to determine in what precise sense Christ can be said to be both the instrument and the end of all creation have failed. That ambiguity, not clarity, was intended is underlined by the plethora of unsatisfying explanations of the indwelling 'Fullness' (v. 19). Only in 2:9 do we discover that 'Fullness' is a surrogate for God, who is said to 'dwell in' both people (T. Zeb. 8:2; Jub. 1:17; i Enoch 49:2—3; cf 2 Cor 6:16) and places (LXX Ps 67:17). No Jew would have understood either as meaning intrinsic divinization. It is simply a way of speaking about divine favour. What the Colossians would have understood is an open question, as is the exact manner in which Christ can be both the instrument and end of reconciliation. In what possible sense can all creation, which includes inanimate beings, have offended Christ, thereby creating the need for reconcilation?
Paul's choice of the verb 'to make peace' probably has less to do with any supposed animosity between heavenly beings, or between celestials and terrestrials, than with the internal situation of the Colossian church, whose unity had been compromised (cf. 2:2; 3:15). The theme of unity is fundamental to the additions in w. 17 and i8a. The former sums up the first strophe, by parodying it. 'He is before all things' echoes the ambiguity of'firstborn' (temporal? qualitative?). The assertion that 'all things hold together' in a human being (v. 17/7) gives an impression of unity whose precise meaning evaporates on inspection. Lightfoot (1904: 154) perfectly catches the spurious profundity of the expression by commenting 'He impresses upon creation that unity and solidarity which makes it a cosmos instead of a chaos'. How exactly is this achieved? 'The action of gravitation... is an expression of His mind'!
Paul becomes completely serious in his introduction to the second strophe. The church must be characterized by the organic unity of a living 'body' (v. i8a). The insight is but an extension and clarification of'you are all one person in Christ Jesus' (Gal 3:28 = Col 3:11). The distinction between 'head' and 'body' does not appear in i Cor 12:12-27 or R°m 12:4-5 because the supremacy of Christ was not questioned at Rome or Corinth. In this instance 'head' would appear to mean both 'superior' (2:10) and 'source' (2:19). The cosmic dimension of the original hymn has been reduced to ecclesiology.
Paul saw the hymn as a perfect example of 'beguiling, persuasive speech' (2:4). Formal perfection clothes an abstract vision of a cosmic Christ. The phrases are redolent of profundity, but yield no unambiguous understanding of Christ's person and mission. The hymn could be sung or recited by all Colossian Christians in the belief that they were articulating a mystery beyond their comprehension. Initiates, on the other hand, could debate endlessly the questions that still test the ingenuity of exegetes, or develop an interpretation only remotely related to the letter of the text, e.g. the creative power of God, once thought of as Wisdom, is now thought of as Christ (see Dunn 1980: 187—94).
(1:21—3) The Thesis of the Letter These verses both sum up what has been said, and enunciate the major themes of the letter in inverse order. Thus they function as the rhetorical partitio (Aletti 1993:120). w. 21—2 evoke the past, present, and future of the Colossians. The passive voice 'having been alienated' must be taken seriously (v. 21; cf. 1:13; Phil 2:15); the Gentiles had inherited their polytheism and their acceptance of the false values of a corrupt society. To extricate them from this situation divine intervention was necessary, but it was not an act of glorious triumph (v. 22). 'Body of flesh' distinguishes the individual Jesus from incorporeal beings, but also hints that his death was the result of something happening to his body, the violence of the crucifixion (v. 2ob). Reconciliation is presented as a past achievement, but this does not imply a realized eschatology, since its conditional aspect is immediately made clear ('provided that', v. 23).
In addition to the truth of the titles given to Christ, Paul had a second reason to retain the hymn. It could be turned against the false teachers. By inserting v. i6b-e Paul restricts the meaning of 'all things' (v. i6a) to intelligent beings, and makes it explicit that the angelic powers are inferior to Christ who, according to the premiss of the hymn, brought them into existence and to whom they are ordered. The ineffable names of the spirit powers are drawn at random from Jewish tradition (details in Schlier 1961). There is no intention to describe grades of the celestial hierarchy (Lightfoot 1904: 150). Paul further diminishes the attractiveness to the Colossians of such powers by inserting i:2oc. Like humans (1:21; 2:13; 3:7, 13), angels also need reconciliation; 'some of the angels of heaven transgressed the word of the Lord, and behold they
The Colossians have been given the opportunity (1:12; cf. Gal 5:1) to appear guiltless at the final judgement. How
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of the world' as the basic components of the material universe—earth, water, air, and fire. This is certainly the best-documented meaning in contemporary literature, but to make sense here it has to be understood metaphorically of
precisely they must comport themselves is outlined in 3:1-4:1. More fundamentally, however, they must remain committed to the salvific vision conveyed by the gospel they initially accepted (1:5-6). The alternative against which they are warned is the theme of 2:6-23. The hyperbole of'preached to every creature under heaven' (v. 23/7) echoes that of i Thess 1:8, and the lack of the definite article before 'servant' underlines that Paul is not the sole apostle. 1:24-2:5 develops Paul's own understanding of his service of the mystery.
(i) the basic factors in human existence, which for Paul were Law, Sin, Death, flesh, or (2) the planets which exercise control over humans and determine the calendar; such astral beings are associated with angels. Neither of these usages is attested at the time of Paul.
The function of the genitive 'of deity' (v. 9) is to explain 'Fullness', which 1:19 had left unspecified (Lohse 1968: 150; BDF §§165, 167). As in 1:19, 'indwelling' here does not mean divinization. 'Bodily' has been interpreted in at least five different ways (Moule 1968: 92—3). The two most probable are 'really' (as opposed to seemingly; cf. v. 17) and 'in physical form'. The two are not incompatible. Divine favour and salvific action are concentrated exclusively in the humanity of Christ. Necessarily, therefore, he is the sole source of fulfilment, and he has authority over all spirit forces (v. 10; Grudem 1985).
(1:24-2:5) Servant of the Mystery The NRSV offers a widespread mistranslation of 1:24/7, which has given rise to a series of false problems to which a variety of answers have been proposed, some of which are used to deny Pauline authorship of Colossians (Kremer 1956). A literal translation, which respects the order of the words, simplifies the matter considerably (Aletti 1993: 135): T complete what is lacking in the sufferings-of-Christ-in-my-flesh' (cf. Gal 2:20; 2 Cor 4:10— n). There is no reference to the individual Jesus Christ. Paul's sufferings are those of Christ because Paul is a member of the body of Christ (cf. Phil 3:10), and because Paul's sufferings reveal the present reality of grace as those of Christ did (2 Cor 4:10-11). Paul has no choice but to struggle on until all have heard the gospel (cf. Rom 15:19; 2 Tim 4:17). He is a minister of the church (1:25), not in virtue of a human commission (1:1; cf. Gal i: i), but in virtue of the stewardship entrusted to him by God in order to further the economy of salvation (i Cor 4:1; 9:17). The 'word of God', which Paul preaches in word and deed, is now described as 'the mystery' (1:26; cf. Eph 3:1—9). Divinely ordained future events (for the background see Brown 1968), which for the false teachers were still a secret to be penetrated laboriously, in fact have already been made plain, not merely to a group of initiates, but to all believers. 'Glory', the brilliance of God's action in history, is the antithesis of secrecy. The content of the mystery is Christ precisely as present among the believers, no longer in Jerusalem, to which they must trek (Isa 60:1—7), but where they are (Aletti 1993: 143). Hence all attention must be focused on him as the source of authentic, certain knowledge (2:3). The acquisition of such knowledge is not a matter of asceticism. They must be 'instructed by love' (against NRSV; cf. Spicq 1958—9: ii.2O2—8) in order to penetrate the riches of wisdom and knowledge hidden in Christ (2:2), who 'loved me, that is, gave himself for me' (Gal 2:20; BDF §442(9); cf. 1:22).
What has already been achieved for the Colossians should be a cause of thanksgiving (v. 7). To drive this home Paul employs a series of five vivid, dramatic images (w. 11—15), in
which attempts have been made to find traditional material
(Lohse 1968: 160; Wengst 1972: 186-94). Th£ results have been inconclusive. Through Christ the whole body of flesh
(and not a mere symbolic token), i.e. the entire framework of habits and desires opposed to God, has been removed (v. n; cf. v. 18). This is true only in theory; it must be made real in practice (cf. Gal 5:13-24). The active faith of the recipient is necessary for baptism to be a dying and rising with Christ (v. 12; cf. Rom 10:9). The realized eschatology of'you were coraised' (cf. 3:1) must be read in the perspective of the future eschatology of 1:22, 27; 3:4, 6, 15-16. It is simply a more graphic version of'God made alive' (v. 13). 'Life' and 'death' are used here in their existential sense of the presence and absence of virtue (cf. 2 Cor 2:16; Philo, Fug., 55). With vivid imagination Paul presents humanity as having defaulted after signing an agreement to obey the will of God. The bond thus became an accusation (v. 14). God, in his generosity, forgave the fault and cancelled the debt.
The moment when this happened—'nailing it to the cross'—was the crucifixion of Christ. The image is not totally consistent, and the metaphor must not be pressed too hard. For other interpretative options see O'Brien (1982: 121-6). A new image, whose antithesis appears in 2 Cor 2:14, is introduced in v. 15. God (the emperor) awards a Roman triumph to Christ (his victorious general), who, having stripped angelic beings of their power, led them in a procession that normally ended in executions (Hafemann 1986: 18-39). Some explain the sudden appearance of'principalities and powers' by identifying them as the angels who recorded the transgressions of humanity. In this case the 'handwriting' would be the book of life (Ps 56:8; Isa 65:6; i Enoch 81:2-4; Sappington 1991: 20823). The mention of spirit powers, however, could have been occasioned by the situation at Colossae to which Paul now turns.
(2:6-23) Warning against Errors The original commitment of the Colossians was to the Christ as Jesus the Lord (2:6; Lightfoot 1904: 174). Jesus is the truth of Christ (Eph 4:21). His historicity is fundamental to salvation. The believers must not permit themselves to be returned to the domain of darkness (cf. 1:13) by accepting merely human speculation which, despite the claims made for it, in fact regresses to the basic religious perspectives common to (fallen) humanity ('elements of the world', 2:8), e.g. the need for asceticism in order to advance in religious knowledge (v. 20; GAL 4:3); see Sappington (1991: 169).
'Elementary teaching' (Heb 5:12) appears to be the best sense in this context of a term, stoichdon (element), which has a wide variety of meanings according to the framework in which it is used (for a survey see Bandstra 1964: 5—30). Many scholars, however, prefer to understand 'elements
The 'therefore' introducing v. 16 implies that the direct polemic against the false teachers (w. 16—23) stems from the doctrinal base established in w. 9—15. The reality of Christ highlights the insubstantial nature of the proposed alternative
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must be seen if the gospel is to spread (1:6; cf. i Thess 1:6—8; 4:12; 2 Cor 3:2,18). 'Whatever in you is earthly' (3:5) is literally 'the members on the earth'. Paul identifies the parts of the body with the sins they commit (cf. Rom 6:13,19; 2 Apoc. Bar. 49:3). The admonition does not parallel Mt 5:29—30. Lists of vices characteristic of unredeemed pagan humanity (Wis 14:22—9) have already appeared in i Thess 4:3-6; Gal 5:19-21. The first five mentioned here (5:5) can be related to sexuality, thought the lastmentioned has a wider extension. The connection between greed, the original sin (Rom 7:7), and idolatry is axiomatic in Judaism (cf. T. Judah, 19:1). Pagans are simply 'those who covet' (Pal. Tg. on Ex 20:17; ^. Sabb. 1463). The second five vices (5:8) all involve intemperate speech that makes genuine communication impossible. The social consequences of lying (5:90) are even more disastrous. Without trust there can be no community.
(v. 17), which was rooted in 'a quest for higher religious experience through mystical-ascetical piety' (Carr 1973: 500). In addition to strict observance of the Jewish calendar (v. 16; cf. Isa 1:13-14; Ezek 46:4-11), the false teachers demanded fasting and/or the exclusion of certain foods (v. 21). They believed that obedience won God's favour, and that asceticism purified the person (v. 23). Together these two constituted the 'humility' (v. 18), i.e. mortification, that was the prerequisite for revelatory experiences (Sappington 1991: 163). The NRSV translation of v. i8a should be abandoned in favour of'Let no one condemn you, delighting in humility and the angelic worship [of God], which he has seen upon entering' (O'Brien 1982: 134). In visions the adept 'entered' the heavenly world (Francis and Meeks 1973: 163—207), and participated in the worship offered by the angels assembled around the throne of God (Isa 6; Ezek i; i Enoch 14). It was to this other world that the false teachers had relegated Christ.
To the Galatians Paul had said 'you have put on Christ' (Gal 3:27; cf. Rom 13:14). The image of putting on a person is without parallel in antiquity, and owes its origin to the convert's assumption of a new environment by entering the church, which is the body of Christ. The insight is developed here in a contrast between 'the old man' and 'the new man'
This claim to religious superiority is brutally dismissed by Paul as overweening conceit rooted in silly ideas concocted by a fleshly intelligence (v. i8fc). This fundamentally egocentric attitude is the antithesis of the sharing that characterizes the Body of Christ and, in consequence, separates those who persist in it from Christ, the only source ('head'; cf. i Cor 11:3) of the Body's vitality (v. 19). The being of a Christian is to 'belong' to Christ (i Cor 3:23).
(5:9/7-10). Both are primarily social concepts. The 'new man' is the sphere 'where' (3:11) the divisions which characterize society ('the old man') no longer exist (Gal 3:28). Just as society dictates the behaviour of its members, so the believing community is the source of authentic moral knowledge. The goal of the ongoing renewal of the 'new man' is a type of knowledge characterized by creativity. This can only be a knowledge born of love (Phil 1:9—10; contrast Rom 2:17—18), which empowers the other not only to see but to act. The community, which is Christ (3:11), exemplifies the ideal of his self-sacrificing love, and enables the members to pattern their lives on his example (2 Cor 5: 14—15). Instead of the contempt that produced the divisions typical of society—Jews despised pagans, who looked down on barbarians (i.e. anyone who did not speak Greek), who spurned Scythians as the epitome of human degradation (cf. 2 Mace 4:47; 3 Mace 7:5)—the believers must make Christ present in the world by exhibiting those virtues 'which reduce or eliminate friction: ready sympathy, a generous spirit, a humble disposition, willingness to make concessions, patience, forbearance' (Moule 1968: 123). Forgiven by God they must forgive. Loved by God they must love. Unless sheathed in love no virtue can be perfect (3:14; cf. Spicq 1958—9: i. 268—75). L°ve alone excludes pretence. Others (details in Schmauch 1964: 80—2) translate 'the bond of perfection' and understand the genitive as purposeful ('the bond that leads to perfection') or objective ('the bond that produces perfection'). These are less satisfactory, because for Paul there is no perfection beyond love (i Cor 13).
What the Colossians enjoy (cf. 1:12—14; 2:11—15) is n°t definitive. It can be lost. Through death in Christ (v. 12) they have been freed from the religious perspectives of fallen humanity
(v. 20; cf. v. 8), but they will return to a state of slavery if they again accept the values and standards of society (Gal 4:8—11). The emphasis on ascetic practices associated with Judaism (cf. LXX Isa 29:13) is due to the situation at Colossae (w. 21-2), but the principle is of wider application (Gal 5:1, 13). Such practices might appear to exhibit spiritual strength and superiority, but in fact they indulge the egocentricity of fallen humanity because they are 'self-imposed' (v. 23).
(3:1—4:1) How the Colossians Ought to Live Having brought out the implications of dying with Christ (2:20—3), Paul now spells out the consequences of rising with Christ (3:1-4). If believers have been raised, then their concern must be with 'above' not with 'below'. The contrast is inspired by the characterization of the practices of the false teachers in 2:23, and appears to forget that these were only means to reaching 'the things that are above' (cf. 2:18). For Paul, however, the central figure in heaven is Christ, whose authority is emphasized by his position at God's right hand (Ps 110:1; i Cor 15:25).
'Do not set your minds on things that are on earth' (3:2; cf. Phil 3:19), if taken literally, would negate the ethical directives which follow. Such imprecision regularly caused confusion in Paul's communities, e.g. his insistence that Christians were totally free of the Mosaic law permitted the Corinthians to conclude that they could do what they liked (cf. i Cor 6:12; 10:23). Paul's intention here was not to exclude involvement with society (cf. i Cor 5:9—10), but to prohibit acceptance of its values (cf. Rom 8:5-6). Believers no longer 'belong to the world' (2:20). By contrast with the glorious revelation at the parousia (3:4) of the intimate union between Christ and believers (cf. Gal 2:20; Phil 1:21), their new life can be considered 'hidden' (3:3), but this is relative, because the action of grace
Fully aware of the tensions within the church at Colossae, Paul expresses a wish that peace may reign there. In society peace is often no more than an uneasy truce to be abandoned the moment an advantage presents itself. The Colossians should be grateful that they are not in that situation. Authentic peace, which is defined by reference to the self-sacrifice of Christ, is first a subjective attitude which then results in a community of love (3:15; cf. i Cor 7:15; 14:33). In a living body the hand cannot be at war with the foot. According to i Cor 6 7,
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members who sue one another are in fact suing themselves— a ridiculous situation.
What is said to slaves stands out from the other admonitions both quantitatively and qualitatively (3:22—5). It is unlikely to have been inspired by the case of Onesimus (4:9), or by agitation among Christian slaves at Colossae (Aletti 1993: 254). Rather it reflects Paul's habitual attitude towards slaves who accepted Christianity. Within the community he took it for granted that they would show and share the love that was its most characteristic feature, but he made no effort to change the social order. Paul does not demand that Onesimus be manumitted, but that he be received 'no longer as a slave, but more than a slave, a beloved brother' (Philem 16; cf. i COR 7:17-24). Paul's sole concern here is that slaves should not obey orders to the letter while their hearts raged, and hate corroded their spirits. The internal tension had to be resolved in order to permit the transforming effect of grace to become visible (4:5-6). The witness value of the comportment of believers was always a major concern (cf. i Thess 1:6-8; 4:12; 2 Cor 4:10—11). The warning of a future judgement (3:24—5) underlines the seriousness of Paul's concern.
The ideal community is not merely an absence of antagonism. There is a much more positive dimension (3:16). The expression 'word of Christ' is unique, but synthesizes a number of concepts found earlier in the letter; 'the word of the truth, the gospel' (1:5) is 'the word of God' (1:25), which is
'God's mystery, that is Christ' (2:3). Its power within each one (1:6, 10) must find socially beneficial expression. The emphasis on 'teaching and admonishing' was demanded by the presence of false teachers at Colossae, who taught some believers the hymn that Paul quotes in 1:15-20. In practice 'yourselves' means 'one another' (NRSV; cf. 3:13) but heautous (cf. i Cor 6:7) was chosen to underline that believers are organically unified in a single 'body', and thereby to remind them that their source of life is Christ (2:19). Theological development is part of the natural evolution of the community. In consequence, it must (a) be homogeneous with the gospel that brought the community into being (1:6), and (b) take place in a public context. 'Psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs' suggest the liturgical assembly, in which inspired insights into the mystery of Christ (i Cor 14:26) were proffered for the consent of the community (i Cor 14:16; cf. iThess 5:21— 2). Such community singing must be an expression of gratitude to God (3:i6c), but so too must every other human activity
Christian masters also have obligations to their slaves (cf. Sir 7:20-1, 31-3). They are not required to love them or to free them, but to treat them 'justly' and 'fairly' (4:1). The terms are related as 'knowledge' and 'discernment' in Phil 1:9. In each case the first deals with the obvious and clear, whereas the second comes into play when a sure feeling for what is appropriate is required.
(3:17). It is made possible in, through, and by Christ; thus it must mirror his comportment. But Jesus was sent because of God's fatherly concern for humanity (1:12), and so in the last analysis gratitude must be directed to God.
(4:2—6) Concluding Exhortations As Paul had given thanks (1:3) and prayed for the Colossians (1:9), so now they must do likewise (v. 2). The prayer in question is primarily petition
Generic directives are followed by three pairs of reciprocal admonitions dealing with the relations of wife—husband, child-father, and slave-master (3:18-4:1). The nature of the socio-religious matrix in which such household codes were formulated has occasioned vigorous debate (Balch 1992), whose inconclusiveness is the inevitable consequence of the wide variations within the form. Conscious of a tradition of sensible social management, Paul formulates a series of guidelines designed to persuade the Colossians to leave the mystical world of visions and angels, and to return to the real world where the fabric of daily life was woven from a multitude of interpersonal relations, of which the most basic were the three pairs listed here (Aristotle, Politics, I.i253b7). The only really distinctive feature is the motivation by reference to the Lord, which here means Christ (Aletti 1993: 249). The social distinctions, which are fundamental to these admonitions, can be reconciled with the abolition of such distinctions in 3:11 only on the assumption that not all members of a family were converted to Christianity.