Part 121
2&> not all violators of Torah were subject to the death penalty. The generalization rests on cases involving blasphemy (Lev 24:14— 16) or idolatry (Deut 17:2—5). Deut 19:15 requires 'two or three witnesses' for any conviction; Deut 17:6 applies the requirement to the death penalty imposed for idolatry, v. 29, the a fortiori argument recalls the warning at 2:2—3. F°r 'spurning
(11:1—3) Introductory Remarks on Faith The first three dense and allusive verses provide a programmatic introduction to the chapter. They suggest the complexity of faith as both intellectual and moral, and of faith's objects as both transcendent and eschatological. v. i, a formal definition, like Plato's definition of medicine (Symp. i86c) or Plutarch's of curiosity (On Curiosity, 6.5180), introduces the chapter. The word translated 'assurance' in the NRSV is the same (hypostasis) used of God's 'very being' at 1:3 and of the steadfastness of the addressees at 3:14. A subjective meaning is not attested. Although there may be a hint of the ethical sense, it is difficult to construe with the following phrase. Philosophical connotations are probably at the forefront. The homilist thus defines faith in terms of its ultimate object, the 'reality of things hoped for', the content of God's promises. Similarly, the word translated 'conviction' (elegchos) has objective connotations. Faith is thus defined, in terms of the actions that it inspires, as the 'proof of things unseen'. Those invisible things are both the objects of future hope and the transcendent realities, God and his exalted Son, that guarantee hope. Rom 8:24 similarly connects hope and things unseen, v. 2, this programmatic verse defines the aim and method of the chapter. The word translated 'receive approval' in the NRSV (emarturethlsan) means more literally 'received testimony'. It was by virtue of their faithfulness that the ancestors were recorded in Scripture. Cf. 11:4, 5 for examples of this 'testimony', v. 3, the first element of the catalogue is distinctive, although it appropriately begins the temporal sequence by referring to creation. For creation in similar catalogues, see Sir 43; 2 Mace 7:28. The verse suggests that faith plays a role in the reception of scriptural truth; it produces 'understanding'. Creation by God's word recalls Gen 1:3 and related accounts (Ps 33:6; Wis 9:1; Jn 1:1—3; Heb 1:3; i Clem. 17:4). The creation of the visible from the invisible, resembling other formulas for creation (2 Mace 7:28; 2 Enoch 24:2; Rom 1:20; 4:17), denies the autonomy of the natural world.
the Son of God', see 6:6. The notion of'outraging the Spirit' recalls warnings about the 'sin against the Spirit' (Mk3:2g; Lk 12:10). v. 30, the first quotation is from Deut 32:35, cited in the same form in Rom 12:19. Th£ second citation is from either Deut 32:36 or Ps 135:14. v. 31, falling into God's hands (cf. 2 Sam 24:14; Sir 2:18) can be positive, but, when divine judgement is involved, it can be 'fearful', as was the theophany at Sinai (cf. 12:21). v. 32, encouragement begins with a call to remember the 'hard struggle' of the past. Ch. 12 further develops the athletic image. For the language of being 'enlightened', see 6:4. v. 33, the repeated mention of'abuse' (cf. 11:26; 13:13) suggests a component of the addressees' experience. Paul too experienced theatrical 'exposure' (i Cor 4:9) in the persecutions that he suffered. Those who are 'sharers' or 'partners' in a heavenly calling (cf. 3:1) must also share in the community's suffering, v. 34, compassion on 'those in prison' characterized early Christians; cf. Mt 25:36; Phil 2:25; i Clem. 59:4. 'Plundering of possessions' could involve judicial seizure, as at Polybius 4.14.4, or acts of mob violence. Exhortation to accept such tribulations 'cheerfully' was traditional; cf. Mt 5:12; Lk 6:22; Rom 5:3; 2 Cor 11:21—30; Acts 5:41; i Pet 4:13. v. 35, the virtues interwoven in the last verses of the chapter, 'confident boldness', 'endurance', and 'faith', summarize the ethos inculcated by Hebrews. Here 'boldness' is directed more towards the external world than towards God; cf. 3:6,4:16, and 10:19. Th£ final chapters reinforce the expectation of a just 'reward' for such behaviour; cf. 10:36; 11:6, 26; 12:2, n. v. 36, exhortations to 'endurance' are common in early Christian sources; cf. Rom 2:7; 5:3; Lk 8:15; 21:19; ^ev 3:I°J ] Clem. 5:5. Concern with this virtue pervades the final chapters; cf. 11:27; 12:2, 7; 13:13. To do 'the will of God' is the heart of covenant fidelity; cf. 10:9; 13:21. w. 37—8, a composite citation melds Isa 26:20 ('a little while') and Hab 2:3—4, in its Greek form. The original prophecy records a vision of judgement to be visited upon Israel. It is that judgement that 'will not delay'. The Greek translation renders the verse as a prediction of one 'who is coming', facilitating construal of the text as a prediction of Christ's second coming, v. 38, Paul cites Hab 2:4 at Gal 3:11 and Rom 1:17 as part of his arguments contrasting faith and 'works of the law'. Our homilist, remaining closer to the prophetic text, contrasts faithful endurance and 'shrinking back', v. 39, the exhortation ends on a positive note, as at 6:9.
(11:4—7) Tne Primordial Heroes v. 4, the first examplar performed an 'acceptable sacrifice' (Gen 4:4) and died a martyr's death (Gen 4:8). The notion that Abel 'still speaks' derives from Gen 4:10 where his blood cries out, but here the speaking 'by faith' suggests that Abel offers an example to be followed. Heb 12:24 wiU further play with the image, v. 5, Gen 5:24 reports that God took Enoch, presumably in death. Jewish tradition (e.g. Sir 44:16; i Enoch, 12:3; 15:1; 2 Enoch, 22:8; 71:14; Philo, Mutat. 38; Jos. Ant. 1.85; 3 Enoch) interprets removal as translation to heaven, an understanding reflected in the LXX, cited here. That Enoch 'pleased God' rests on Gen 5:22; the addressees will be summoned to do likewise (13:16). v. 6, two conditions for those who 'approach' (cf. 4:16; 7:25; 10:1, 22) God help define faith's cognitive content. Insistence on God's existence is a common Jewish tenet (e.g. Wis 13:1;
(11:1-12:3) A Celebration of the Faithful The list of faithful heroes resembles in scope and details many reviews of Israel's history (8^44—50; i Mace 2:49—64; 4 Mace 16:16—23; 18:11—13; Wis 10; Philo, Virt. 198-205). It also resembles lists of examples of a virtue, such as Philo's treatment of hope (Praem. 11—14). Th£ chapter abundantly displays the techniques of
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patriarchs; cf. Gen 28:13; Ex 3:6; Mt 22:32; Mk 12:26-7. Th£
Philo, Opif. 170; 2 Esd 7:23; 8:58). Belief in divine providence focuses on God as one who rewards; cf 2:2; 10:35; Il:26. The image of the 'seeker' is common in the Psalms (14:2; 34:10; 53:2; 119:2); cf. Am 9:12, cited in Acts 15:17. v. 7, Noah's story (Gen 6:8-9:17; Sir 44:17) highlights characteristic themes. He believed in the 'unseen' event of divine judgement. That he 'condemned' the world may allude to traditions that he preached repentance (i Clem. 7:6; Sib. Or. 1.125-36; Si/re 43). What follows intensifies the connection between faith and 'being an heir'.
heavenly 'city' that God prepared receives a fuller description at 12:18-24.
v. 17, like the first (11:4) and last (12:1-3) examples, faith involves sacrifice. The most poignant episode of Abraham's story is the Aqedah (Binding) of his son Isaac (Gen 22:1—14). The episode captured the imagination of Jewish (Wis 10:5; Sir 44:20; i Mace 2:52; 4 Mace 16:18-20; Jub. 17:15-18; Jos. Ant. 1.222-36; Philo, Abr. 167-207) and Christian (Rom 8:32; Jas 2:20—3) interpreters, v. 18, recollection of the promise of Gen 21:12 emphasizes the horrific challenge of God's request, v. 19, as in w. 10 and n, the homilist explains Abraham's motives in terms of a belief that he advocates. The phrase 'figuratively speaking' suggests not simply that the recovery of Isaac from the altar was a metaphor, but that the whole episode prefigured Christ's deliverance from death, v. 20, Gen 27:27-40 records Isaac's blessings of Jacob and Esau. v. 21, Gen 48:8-22 records Jacob's blessing on Ephraim and Manasseh. Gen 47:31 notes Jacob's action in 'bowing in worship' at the head of his bed. The Greek translation, cited here, renders 'bed' as 'staff. The action indicates that Jacob's blessing is connected with his fidelity to God. v. 22, the reference to Joseph's prophecy (Gen 50:24) introduces the following section. His request to transfer his bones (Gen 50:25) hints at hope for their future. (11:23-8) The Faith of Moses v. 23, for similar appeals to Moses, see Sir 45:1—5; Acts 7:20—34. Moses as a faithful servant appeared at Heb 3:1—6. For his infancy, see Ex 2:1—10. Philo (Vit. Mas. i.io-n) and Josephus (Ant. 2.218) expand on the episode. The detail that his parents 'did not fear' is unbiblical and stands in tension with the notice that the Hebrew midwives were afraid (Ex 1:17, 21). Hebrews intimates what the addressees' attitude should be. After this verse some MSS refer to the slaying of an Egyptian (Ex 2:11-12; cf. Acts 7:24). v. 24, as Abraham rejected the security of his earthly homeland, Moses rejected his princely status; cf. Ex 2:10. A romance by Artapanus, preserved in Eusebius, Praep. Evang. 9.27.1-37, significantly embellished this portion of Moses' story, v. 25, Moses' choice of suffering over pleasure interprets Gen 2:11—15, where he identifies with the Israelites. The language recalls the story of Herakles' choice of a life of toil (Xen. Mem. 2.1.21-34), which exhibits a similar parenetic intent, v. 26, as with other heroes (w. 10, n, 19), the homilist explains the motivation of Moses. How Moses might have understood his sufferings to be 'for the Christ' is obscure. Perhaps as a visionary (v. 27) he foresaw the Messiah's coming and acted accordingly, v. 27, Ex 2:15 reports the departure of Moses; cf. Acts 7:29. Thathe encountered God 'face to face' appears at Ex 33:11; Num 12:8; Deut 34:10; 8^45:5. v. 28, for the celebration of the first Passover, see Ex 12:1-28. (11:29-40) The Faith of Prophets and Martyrs v. 29, attention shifts to groups within ancient Israel and the survey moves more rapidly. For crossing the Red Sea, see Ex 14. v. 30, Josh 6 recounts the fall of Jericho, v. 31, for Rahab and the spies, see Josh 2:1-21; 6:17. v. 32, the judges are listed out of scriptural order. For Gideon, see Judg 6—8; Barak, Judg 4—5; Samson, Judg 13—16; Jephthah, Judg 11—12. David and Samuel occupy i and 2 Samuel, v. 33, for 'shutting the mouth of lions', see Judg 14:6; i Sam 17:34-5; Dan 6:19-23. v. 34, for quenching fire, see Dan 3 and the LXX addition, Pr Azar 26—7, 66. 'Strength out
(11:8-22) The Faith of Abraham Appeals to Abraham and the other patriarchs were common in Jewish and early Christian literature; cf. Sir 44:19—21; i Mace 2:52; 4 Mace 16:20; Wis 10:5; Acts 7:2—8; Rom 4; Gal 3:6—9. v. 8, Abraham 'set out' from Ur of the Chaldees to Canaan; cf. Gen 11:31-12:4. His 'inheritance' was something unseen and hence unknown, v. 9, Abraham's time in Canaan further illustrates the alienation that faith can produce. Cf. Gen 17:8; 23:4, for Abraham as sojourner in Canaan. The traditional connection with Isaac and Jacob suggests the communal context of faith, v. 10, an interruption to the story suggests the content of the promised inheritance. The city on 'foundations' recalls scriptural images of Jerusalem (Isa 54:11; Ps 87:1). Like Philo (Leg. All. 3.83; Somn. 2.250), the homilist redefines the ideal city as the heavenly reality to which Christians aspire (12:22). Description of God as 'architect and builder', found in Hellenistic Jewish sources (Philo, Opif. 146), echoes the Platonic image of the divine Craftsman (Tim. 28A-2gA). v. n, Gen 17:15-18:15; 21:1—7 relates Isaac's conception and birth. The reference to Sarah appears variously in ancient witnesses. In some, she is the subject of the sentence; in others, more likely original, she is associated with Abraham. In either case, her prominent involvement in the process renders the image of the faithful community more inclusive. Abraham's belief that God 'who promised' (cf. 6:13) is faithful echoes the homilist's own (10:23).v-12> Paultoo (R°m 4:I9) described the aged Abraham as 'good as dead'. Abraham's rescue from a metaphorical 'death' parallels the actual deliverance of Enoch (11:4) and foreshadows the resurrection; cf. w. 19,35. A scriptural phrase (Gen 22:17; cfDan 3:3^) describes the ultimate results of Isaac's birth.
v. 13, Heb 6:15 remarked that Abraham did receive the promised progeny. As 4:1 made clear, other promises remained unfulfilled. The patriarchs in Canaan resembled Moses outside the promised land (Deut 32:48; 34:4); they could see the object of their hopes only 'from a distance'. For 'foreigners and sojourners', see Gen 23:4; 47:4, 9; Lev 25:23; Ps 39:12; i Chr 29:15; Eph 2:19; i Pet 1:1; 2:11. Similar imagery in Greek sources describes the human condition 'on the earth', in exile from the heavenly home, cf. Plato, Ap. 4iA; Phd. 6iE, 678; Philo, Quis Heres, 82, 267. v. 14, the 'confession', particularly in Gen 23:4, provides grounds for holding that even in the land of Canaan the patriarchs were seeking their homeland elsewhere. The argument parallels the elimination of Canaan as the true 'resting place' of God's people at 4:7-8. v. 15, a contra-factual argument (cf. 4:8; 7:11; 8:7; 10:12) precludes the identification of Haran as the desired destination, v. 16, with Canaan and Haran eliminated, the homeland must be heavenly. God is frequently styled the God of the
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earthly discipline with the true benefit of divine discipline, which produces 'holiness'; cf. 10:14. vIJ> me contrast of temporary pain and long-term gain is proverbial; cf. Prov. 23:13-14; Wis 3:5; Diog. Laert. Lives of the Philosophers, 5.1.18. For the 'fruit of righteousness', see Am 6:12; Prov 11:30. 'Peace' and 'righteousness' frequently appear together; cf. Isa 32:17; Ps 85:10. v. 12, the image of'drooping hands' and 'weak knees', derived from Isa 35:3, comports with the athletic imagery of w. i—3. v. 13, Prov 4:26 in Greek supplies the image of 'straight paths'. The promise to 'be healed', echoing Prov 4:22, ends the admonition on a positive note.
of weakness' may allude to Gideon (Judg 6:15), Samson (Judg 16:17), or heroines such as Esther and Judith, v. 35, i Kings 127:17—24; 2 Kings 4:18—37 record resurrections. Eleazar (2 Mace 6:18-31) and the seven youths (2 Mace 7) endured martyrdom hoping for resurrection, v. 36, chains and imprisonment evoke Jeremiah; cf Jer 20:2; 29:26; 37:15. v. 37, Zechariah was 'stoned' (2 Chr 24:21). Christian sources (Tert. Scorp. 8; Hippol. On the Antichrist, 31) attribute the same fate to Jeremiah. The Martyrdom of Isaiah 5:11-14 reports that he was 'sawn in two'. The 'skins of sheep and goats' recalls the distinctive mantle of Elijah and Elisha; cf. i Kings 19:13 (LXX); 2 Kings 2:13-14 (LXX). v. 38, 'deserts' are the home of Elijah and Elisha (i Kings 19:4; 2 Kings 2:8). 'Caves' sheltered judges (Judg 6:2), prophets (i Kings 18:4; 19:9), and rebels (2 Mace 10:6). 'Holes in the ground' appear in Scripture (e.g. Ob 1:3; Zech 14:12), but not as homes for heroes, v. 39, the note that the heroes were 'recommended' repeats the theme that they 'received testimony' (11:2). Like the patriarchs (11:13), they did not attain the 'promise' of eschatological salvation, v. 40, that salvation, 'something better', is the 'heavenly city' of 12:18-24. To enter that realm requires being 'made perfect', which is only possible through Christ's sacrifice; cf. 7:19; 10:10, 14. Although such perfection is available with the inauguration of the new covenant, its effects extend to the heroes of the old.
Final Advice about Life in the New Covenant (12:14-13:17)
(12:14-17) Transitional Admonition v. 14, the call to 'pursue peace' is common in Jewish homiletics; cf. Ps 34:14; T. Sim. 5:2; m. 'Abot, 1:12; Mt 5:9; i Pet 3:11, citing Ps 34:14. For the connection of sanctity and seeing God, see Mt 5:8. v. 15, the 'root of bitterness' recalls Deut 29:18, a warning against apostasy from the covenant community. Such behaviour could involve detestable idols (Deut 29:17) through which many could be 'defiled', v. 16, for Esau's sale of his birthright, see Gen 25:29-34. Based upon his marriage to the Hittites Judith and Basemath (Gen 26:34), Jewish tradition (Jub. 25:1—8; Philo, Virt. 208; Gen. Rab. 65) portrayed him as lewd and 'immoral', v. 17, what the addressees 'know' is Gen 27:30-40, the story of Esau's attempt to reverse Isaac's blessing of Jacob. The detail of Esau's weeping embellishes the biblical story; cf. Jub. 26:33; JosAnt. 1.275. That he found 'no place for repent-
(12:1—3) Faith's Author and Perfecter The catalogue of heroes culminates in the paradigmatic case of one faithful to God in the face of suffering and rejection, Jesus, v. i, The metaphor of a cloud for a group is classical (Homer, Iliad, 4.274). They are 'witnesses' both as spectators of life's athletic contest and as those who testify to God's fidelity. To 'lay aside every weight' furthers the athletic imagery. The description of sin as 'clinging closely' connotes hostility. To depict the moral life as an athletic contest is a homiletic commonplace; cf. Acts 20:24; J
ance' reinforces the earlier warnings (6:4-8; 10:26-31); cf. Deut 29:20. (12:18-29) Sinai and the Heavenly Jerusalem Visions of eschatological realities ground the ethical exhortation, v. 18, marvellous phenomena evoke divine theophanies. 'What can be touched' recalls the palpable darkness of Ex 10:21. 'Fire... darkness ... tempest' all characterized the events at Sinai; cf. Deut 4:11. 'Gloom' is a poetic term embellishing the biblical description, v. 19, the 'trumpet' recalls Ex 19:16; the 'voice' is from Deut 4:12. For eschatological trumpets, see i Thess 4:16; i Cor 15:52; Mt 24:31; Rev 8:2. For the frightened plea, see Ex 20:19; Deut 5:25. v. 20, the prohibition of Ex 19:12—13 was a cause of fear. v. 21, the reaction of Moses to the golden calf (Deut 9:19) expresses his terror at Sinai, v. 22, 'Mt. Zion', in Jerusalem, is the place of God's presence; cf. Ps 2:6; 48:1; Isa 8:18; i Kings 14:21; i Mace 4:37. Mountain and 'city' are frequently associated; cf. Mic 4:1; Joel 2:32; Am 1:2. Speculation about a 'heavenly Jerusalem' was a part of apocalyptic literature; cf. Rev21:2-7. F°r me phrase 'living God', see 3:12; 9:14; 10:31. 'Innumerable angels' are present at theophanies (Deut 33:2; Ps 68:17—18) and in the heavenly court (Dan 7:10; iQS 11:8). Their 'festal gathering' recalls the joyous 'sabbath celebration' of 4:9. v. 23, the 'assembly of the firstborn' are the fellow heirs of the 'firstborn' Son; cf. 1:6, 13; 3:1. Being 'made perfect' now characterizes the presence in the heavenly assembly of those who have been cleansed (10:14) and who share Christ's exalted status (2:10). v. 24, for Jesus as 'mediator' of the covenant, see 8:6; for his blood, see 9:14. The 'better word' is his message of true and lasting remission of sin; cf. 9:14; 10:16-18. For an allusion to Abel's blood crying out, see 11:4. v. 25, the transition to a renewed warning is
Cor 9:24-7; Gal 2:2; Phil 2:16; 2 Tim 4:7. v. 2, Jesus, the 'pioneer' (cf. 2:10), is also the 'perfected of faith, who has completed the course and thereby provided 'perfection' for others; cf. 2:10; 5:8—9; 7:28; 10:14). The ambiguous preposition translated 'for the sake of (anti) could mean 'instead of. The goal-oriented character of Jesus' conduct is suited to the image of the race and to the theme of reward; cf. 10:34; 11:6, 16, 26. For the 'shame' of death on a cross, see Cicero, Contra Verrem, 1.5.62; Gal 5:11; Phil 2:8. An allusion to Ps 110:1 concludes the references to the text; cf. 1:3, 13; 8:1; 10:12. v. 3, Jesus' followers must accept hostility and dishonour as did he; cf. 10:33; !3:I3-
(12:4-13) A Homily on Endurance v. 4, the imagery shifts from racing to the 'struggle' of boxing. For a similar image, see Sen. Ep. 13:2. w. 5—6, the homilist cites Prov 3:11—12 in its Greek form. v. 7, sapiential literature frequently offered advice on educational discipline; cf. Prov 5:12; 13:24; 15:32; Job 5:17; Sir 22:6; 23:2. Such advice could then be construed as a principle of theodicy: suffering was meant for human education; cf. Prov 6:23; 2 Mace 6:12-17; 2 Cor 6:9; Eph 6:4. v. 8, suffering is particularly required for those who share the status of the Son; cf. 5:7—9. v. 9, an analogy between human and divine fathers uses a solemn liturgical epithet, 'Father of spirits'; cf. 2 Mace 3:24; Dan 5:14; i Enoch 37:2-4; iQH 10:8; Rev 22:6. v. 10, the analogy contrasts the 'seeming' benefits of
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attention turns to the ethical implications of participation in Christ's sacrifice as the homilist introduces a cultic image based on Lev 16:27. The bodies of the animals sacrificed on the Day of Atonement are burnt, and hence not available for physical consumption. More significantly, the burning takes place 'outside the camp', v. 12, the parallel to the death of Jesus reflects traditions about the locale of his crucifixion (Jn 19:17— 20 and perhaps Mt 21:39; Lk 20:15).v-13. the application of the latest sacrificial image reinforces the appeal to accept the reproach and 'abuse' of being Christian; cf. 10:33; 11:25—6; 12:2. v. 14, Christians thus are like Abraham, expecting the final coming of the heavenly Jerusalem; cf. 11:10; 12:22. v. 15, Lev 7:11—18 designates 'sacrifices of praise' as a specific form of offering, communion sacrifices offered with unleavened bread, but the phrase comes to be used as a metaphor for prayer; cf. Ps 50:14,23; 107:22. The latter meaning seemstobe in view here, where the sacrifice is specified as 'fruit of lips' (Prov 18:20; Hos 14:3; Ps. Sol. 15:3; iQS 9:4—5. Thanksgiving psalms in particular 'confess' the Lord's name; cf. Ps 44:8; 54:6; 99:3. v. 16, the language of sacrifice is applied to moral behaviour at Rom 12:1-2; Phil 2:17; i Pet 2:5. With such worship (cf. 12:28) one can, like Enoch, please God; cf. 11:5— 6. v. 17, for a similar call to obey leaders, see i Pet 5:5. Herm. Vis. 3.9.10 displays an analogous concern for the account that a leader would have to render; cf. 4:12-13.
abrupt. The call to 'see' recalls 3:11; the a fortiori analogy resembles 2:1—4. The 'one who warns from heaven' is probably God, whose speech has been heard throughout Hebrews, v. 26, Hag 2:6 in Greek predicts a cosmic earthquake, a regular feature of the coming Day (10:25); cf- ] Enoch, 60:1; 2 Esd 3:18; Sib. Or. 3.675; Mt 24:29; 27:51. The image of universal destruction recalls Ps 102:26—7, cited at 1:10—12. v. 27, an exegetical comment focuses on the adverb 'yet once more', better translated 'once, for all time'. Used also for Christ's definitive sacrifice (9:26—8), the word implies not an alteration but a definitive 'removal' (cf 7:12; 11:5) of the created order. 'What cannot be shaken' are those abiding realities, the heavenly 'rest' (4:11) and the 'heavenly city' (12:22; 13:14). v. 28, expectation of an eschatological 'kingdom' rests on texts such as Dan 7:18 (LXX). For Jesus, the reign of God began within his own ministry (Lk 11:20). For Hebrews, God's eschatological rule, inaugurated at least in a preliminary fashion by Christ's exaltation, requires 'thanks' in a community of worship; cf. 13:15. v. 29, the passage concludes with an adaption of Deut 4:24, part of a warning to remember the covenant and to shun idolatry; cf. Ex 24:17; Deut 9:3.
(13:1-17) Concluding Exhortations v. i, for 'mutual love', see Rom 12:10; i Thess 4:9; i Pet 1:22; 2 Pet 1:7. v. 2, for encouragement to 'hospitality', see Mt 25:35; Rom 12:13; J Tim 3:2; Titus 1:8; i Pet 4:9. Various scriptural figures 'entertained angels'; cf. Gen 18:2-15; 19:1-14; Judg 6:11-24; 13:3-23. v. 3, the addressees had a history of supporting prisoners; cf. 10:34. v. 4, Christians regularly advised chastity; cf. i Cor 5:1—13; Eph
(13:18-25) Benediction and Epistolary Postscript v. 18, petitions for prayer are common in epistles; cf. i Thess 5:25; 2 Thess 3:1; Rom 15:30; Col 4:3; Ign. Trail. 12:3; Eph. 10:1; 21:1. Paul at 2 Cor 1:12 makes a similar appeal to his 'clear conscience', v. 19, for the hope to come 'very soon'; cf. i Tim 3:14. v. 20, similar benedictions appear in many epistles; cf. i Thess 5:23; 2 Thess 3:16; 2 Tim 4:22; Rom 15:33; i Clem. 640. The reference to bringing 'back from the dead' is the most explicit description of the resurrection in a text that deals primarily with Christ's exaltation. There were, however, allusions to resurrection at 11:12,19. The epithet 'great shepherd' is unusual in Hebrews and may reflect such traditions as Jn 10:11,14; Herm. Vis. 5.2.1; Herm. Sim. 10.1.1. The 'blood of the covenant' is a motif firmly rooted in Hebrews; cf. 9:14, 22-3; 12:24. v. 21, for similar doxologies, see Phil4:20; Rom 16:20; 2 Tim 4:18; i Pet 5:11; i Clem. 64/7. v. 22, 'word of exhortation' is apparently a technical term for a homily (Acts 13:15). v. 23, news and travel plans often appear in letters; cf. 2 Tim 4:20-1; Philem 22; Col 4:7—8. 'Timothy' is probably Paul's companion; cf. Acts 16:1—3; I7:I4~I5; ! Tim; 2 Tim. v. 24, for personal greetings, see i Thess 5:26; 2 Thess 3:17; Phil 4:21-2; 2 Tim 4:19, 21; Rom 16:21-3; Col 4:10-18; i Pet 5:13-14. v. 25, a wish for grace or peace constitutes the standard epistolary farewell; cf. i Thess 5:28; 2 Thess 3:18; Philem 4:23; 2 Tim 4:21/7; Philem 25; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:23; Col 4:18/7; i Pet 5:14/7; i Clem. 65:2.
5:3—5; i Thess 4:3—7. v. 5, 'Love of money' was generally viewed unfavourably; cf. Mt 6:19-21, 24-34; Lk 12:22-34;I Tim 6:10; Jas 5:1-5. Exhortations to 'be content' were commonplace in classical moralists; cf. Epict. Diss. 1.1.27; Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 10.1. For God's promise not to forsake his people, see Deut 31:6,8; Josh 1:5. v. 6, the response to God's promise is a prayer of trust, Ps 118:6 (LXX).
v. 7, references to 'leaders' frame the next block of exhortations; cf. 13:17. The addressees are to 'consider' them, as they did Jesus (12:2). For other calls to 'imitate' leaders, see i Cor 4:6; 11:1; i Thess 1:6; 2:14; 2 Thess 3:9; i Clem. 5:2-7. v. 8, the concise formulation of the eternal presence of Christ parallels Ps 102, cited at 1:12. v. 9, warnings against 'strange teachings' are conventional in second-generation Christian literature; cf. Col 2:8; Eph 4:14; i Tim 1:3-7. The opposition of'grace' and 'food' hint at ill-defined controversies, perhaps over Jewish dietary observances, Jewish or philosophical ascetical practices, or various forms of sacral dining, v. 10, to whatever the practice criticized in v. 9, the homilist poses the alternative of the Christians' 'altar', probably an allusion to the 'once for all' sacrifice of Christ on the cross. To that sacrifice priests of the old cult have no access. Access is now expressed in terms of the 'right to eat' of the sacrifice. The homilist may suggest that Christians have a sacrifice from which they do have the 'right to eat', i.e. the eucharist. Yet he may simply use a metaphor for access to the true, spiritual sacrifice of the high priest, v. n,
For further reading see Bibliographical Guide.
76. James R A I N E R R I E S N E R
wisdom literature, parallels to James can be found not only in the OT and Jewish writings, but also in Near-Eastern and Graeco-Roman wisdom traditions. The book of Proverbs is cited and Sirach probably and the Wisdom of Solomon possibly alluded to, but the strongest allusions are to the words of Jesus and other early Christian traditions. James's combination of wisdom, ethics, and eschatology resembles the Enochic tradition (i Enoch, 92-105) and the thinking of the Essene community of Qumran (Davids 1982: 51-4; Penner 1996), especially in a very fragmentary Sapiential work (4Qi»J)-
A. Language and Text. 1. James is written in good, but not elegant Greek. The author has composed short sentences rather than long and beautiful periods. Paranomasia and other Greek speech forms show that the letter is not simply a translation from a Semitic original, but it cannot be proved that the author used the LXX. The high occurrence of Semitisms (Mussner 1987: 30-2) cannot be explained by the use of traditional material only. Of special interest are parallels to the Hebrew Dead Sea scrolls. Bilingualism was widespread in first-century Palestine, even the scribe of the great Isaiah scroll from Qumran (iQIsa) was fluent in Greek. Apparently the author of James was also a bilingual Palestinian Jew.
C. The Religious Teaching. 1. Wisdom Theology. The letter grows out of the OT and intertestamental wisdom traditions. God who created the world will also bring it to eschatological completion in a new creation. The work of God in creation, salvation, and new creation forms a unity mediated by divine wisdom.
2. Claims that a scrap of papyrus from Qumran (7Q8) contains Jas 1:23-4 have been disproved (RevQ 18 (1997), 307-24), by showing it to be part of i Enoch 103 in Greek. Fragments of James are preserved in three papyri of the third century P20, P23, and P100). The whole letter is included in the fourth-century codices, Sinaiticus (N) and Vaticanus (B), the latter attesting the best text-form. The text of James is not so well preserved as that of other NT documents, which might partially be explained by its rather complicated canonical history.
2. Christology. James can speak about Jesus in the same way as he speaks about God (Karrer 1989). Jesus is not only the promised Messiah (christos) but also Lord (kyrios). Apparently, the author does not reveal all that he knows about Jesus (Mussner 1987: 250-3), but the letter may even see in him the incarnation of God's pre-existent wisdom. The teachings of Jesus are treated as the ultimate revelation of wisdom.
B. Literary Genre and Subject-Matter. 1. James is an encyclical letter to an unknown number of Greek-speaking (Jewish) Christian churches. Starting with the Letter of Jeremiah (Jer 29; cf 2 Mace 1—2; 2 Apoc. Bar 78—86; Par. Jer. 6:17—23) there was a tradition of Jewish letters to the Diaspora (Tsuji 1997; Niebuhr 1998). Early form-critics assigned James to the literary genre of the Hellenistic diatribe (Dibelius 1976), but it is doubtful that this is more than a literary style (Baasland 1988). There are some parallels to synagogal homilies, but also to the structure of the Manual of Discipline (iQS) and the annexed Rule of the Congregation (iQSa) from Qumran (Beck 1973). Formal parallels exist also to Christian catechetical traditions and writings (connected with baptism?) such as the Matthean Sermon on the Mount or the Lukan Sermon on the Plain, i Peter, and the Didache. The use of an elementary narrative mashal form (1:23—4; 2:2> I5~I7)> not attested in the earlier wisdom literature but in the Jesus tradition, is a rather ancient feature.
3. Eschatology. The letter anticipates the Second Coming of Christ in the near future who is pictured as judge like the Son of Man in the Enochic and the Synoptic traditions. This expectation implies belief in the resurrection of Jesus.
4. Anthropology. Portraying the eschatological goal as human perfection, the author is not a perfectionist or illusionist. He sees clearly that believers can do wrong and need repentance and forgiveness. Following the Jewish idea of the 'evil inclination', for James sin is not only an act of human decision, but a cosmic power.
5. Soteriology. Since it seems quite unsure that James reacts directly against the theology of Paul (Johnson 1995: in— 16) the letter should primarily be understood on its own terms. The OT as interpreted and supplemented by Jesus is the 'perfect law'. But salvation cannot be obtained by a fulfilment of this law alone, since the members of James's community are also prone to fail. God's forgiveness is necessary, but how it is mediated is only hinted at. Spiritual rebirth by God's free will and word, baptism in the name of Jesus, submission to God, prayer and repentance all play their part (Konradt 1998). There might be allusions to Jesus' vicarious suffering as the
2. In the opening paragraph on temptation (1:2-18), James already introduces most of the other main subjects of his letter. That the 'word (logos) of truth' (1:18) must be obeyed is the theme of 1:19-27. The practical 'testing of faith' (pistis, 1:3) is treated at length in 2:1-26. The ethics of speech (1:19-21, 26—7) is a very important subject (Baker 1995), especially in the admonition for teachers (3:1—12). That wisdom (sophia) and humility (tapeinosis) belong together (1:5, 9-10) finds its exposition in 3:13-4:12. The apocalyptic admonition of the rich (1:10—n) continues in 4:13—5:6. What 'endurance' (hypomone, 1:3—4) means in practice is explained in the last part of the letter (5:7-20). As it is typical for the internationality of
Servant of the Lord, but James concentrates on the warning that there is no relation to God without an elementary ethical commitment to human beings. With his emphasis on loving God and one's neighbour inspired by Jesus' double commandment James comes near to the Pauline 'faith working through love' (Gal 5:6), but he lacks Paul's deep theological definition of faith. For James belief in the existence of God
JAMES 1256
and, using oJder terminoJogy (cf. i Cor 12:9; 13:2), beJief in his miracuJous power is aJso faith. PauJ's stress of the sovereignty of God has a certain paraJJeJ in James's emphasis on the ejection of the poor and humbJe.
early church the letter was believed to be authentic it was also ascribed to this James.
2. Many scholars put forward serious doubts against the authorship of James (Popkes 1986; Pratscher 1987; Konradt 1998), but with our deeper insight into the Hellenization of Judaea the argument of Greek language and style has lost much of its force. An encyclical Greek letter to the Diaspora could have been composed with the help of a secretary, as Jerome thought (PI 23. 639). Some scholars try to distinguish between an earlier version by James himself and a later edition by a rhetorically skilled writer (Davids 1982; Martin 1988). There are similarities between the vocabulary of James and Luke-Acts (Davids 1982: 49). That the letter does not refer to the Gentile mission and to problems of ritual law could be explained by an early date.
6. Ethics of Speech. In an age of ideoJogy and media propaganda it is appropriate to remember that disputes and even wars often start with words. The truJy wise know to govern their tongue.
7. Poor and Rich. Today the Jetter attracts theoJogians from the Third WorJd since in foJJowing the teaching of Jesus, James is very criticaJ of the rich. Nevertheless, salvation is not guaranteed by bad material circumstances but is obtained by loving God and one's neighbour.
8. Testing and Suffering. Believers must make a difference between temptations caused by their own evil desires and God's testing especially through oppression and persecution. Suffering should create anticipated eschatological joy.
3. Some further observations may strengthen the case for authenticity. Obviously, the family of Jesus shared traditions of a pre-Qumranic non-sectarian Essenism (Sacchi 1993; Boccaccini 1998) that originated in the movement of the pious and often poor hasidim (Betz and Riesner 1994: 1437). The letter shows some proximity to the Enochic literature and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs which originated in such circles. Later James and his community lived near the Essene Quarter of Jerusalem (Riesner 1993; 1998/7), which enhances the significance of the letter's parallels to the Dead Sea scrolls (Mussner 1987). James 'might well have formed a bridge between Galilean Christian Nazirites and the Qumran Covenanters' (Adamson 1989:20), but an identification of the author with the Qumran 'Teacher of Righteousness' is fanciful. Besides Q, Matthean and Markan Jesus traditions (Hartin 1991) there is also knowledge of the Lukan special tradition (Davids 1982: 47-9) that was probably handed down by Jewish Christians gathered around the relatives of Jesus in Jerusalem and Judea (Riesner 1994). The letter is marked by a certain Judean local colour (Davids 1999). The Enochic flavour connects James, the Lukan special tradition, and Jude, also ascribed to a brother of Jesus.
9. Prayer. There are two main functions of prayer, namely to ask for wisdom and to obtain healing. Prayer should connect the believer with God and meet his elementary needs without guaranteeing material wealth. The author lived with Jesus' promises on prayer.
10. Judaism. The Jewish character of James is so strong that in former times some schoJars hypothesized an onJy secondariJy Christianized Jewish document (similarly Ludwig 1994). But this overlooks how strongly James is embedded in Jesus' teaching (Deppe 1989) and early Christian tradition. If rather early, the letter might have been read also to some synagogue congregations not yet decided about the new Messianic faith (Schlatter 1932: 62). James is an interesting example of Jewish—Christian dialogue. The letter shows the deep roots of the Jesus movement in the OTand also in Jewish Wisdom and Apocalyptic without denying its own identity, that of belief in the Messianic fulfilment.
D. The Author. 1. The simple presentation of a certain 'James' as author in the prescript (1:1) may already point to the most famous bearer of this name in NT times, 'James, the brother of the Lord' (cf. Jude i). In the fourth century Helvidius made James out to be a blood brother of Jesus and Jerome considered him a cousin, but the second-century tradition thought of a step-brother stemming from an earlier marriage of Joseph (Bauckham 1990: 19-32). James did not follow Jesus (Jn 7:5) and was converted only by an appearance of the risen Lord (i Cor 15:7). As a representative of the family of Jesus he was the leader of an influential group in the primitive Jerusalem community (Gal 1:19; Acts 1:13). When after the persecution of Agrippa I (41-4 CE) the twelve left Jerusalem, James became the only leader (Acts 12; Gal 2:9). The interfering of Jewish Christians close to him in the mixed community of Antioch (Gal 2:11-14) ™ight be due to a widespread Jewish belief that Syria was part of a greater Holy Land and subject to its special regulations (Bockmuehl 1999). Such a belief can also explain the sending of an encyclical diaspora letter. Although being himself a conservative Jewish Christian at the Apostolic Council of 48 CE (Acts 15) James consented to the inclusion of Gentile Christians without total obedience to the Torah (Hengel 1985; Bauckham 1995). At the instigation of the high priest Ananus he died in 61 CE as a martyr for his belief in the messiaship of Jesus (Jos. Ant. 20. 200). Wherever in the
E. Date and Place of Composition. 1. If the letter is pseudepigraphic it must have been written after the death of James in 61 CE or more probably after the destruction of Jerusalem and the dispersion of its Jewish Christian community in 70 CE. Then parallels to such writings as i Peter, i Clement, and the
Shepherd of Hermas are to be taken as signs of common socio-economic problems in Christian communities at the turn of the first to the second century (Frankemolle 1994). Under the pseudepigraphy hypothesis the letter could have been composed almost anywhere in the Roman world where Greek-speaking Christians were living, but some prefer Syria (Konradt 1998).
2. At the present time the authenticity hypothesis is gaining new defenders (Stulac 1993; Johnson 1995; Bauckham 1999), according to whom the letter was written from Jerusalem, where James resided, either before or after the Apostolic Council of 48 CE. Following earlier voices (Zahn 1906: 125-8; Mayor 1913) it is argued by some that the letter should be dated early (Moo 1985: 33—5; Penner 1996: 276— 7). It could have been addressed to dispersed Jewish Christians (cf. Acts 8:1-3) between Alexandria, Antioch, and Cilicia
(Geyser 1975) when rumours were heard that in circles of the
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G. Outline. Following Luther many thought that the letter has no good order, but today most discover a careful structure. If one pays attention to such formulas as 'my brothers [NRSV and sisters]' or 'listen' (RS V behold) and to such Jewish devices of composition as catchwords or symbolic numbers (3, 5, 7) the following structure seems possible:
Greek-speaking 'Hellenists' (Acts 6-7), to whom Paul later belonged (Acts 11:19—26; 13:1), obedience to God was rendered superfluous by faith. There are some striking parallels with i Cor 1-4. Could both James and Paul be reacting against Jewish Christians with former ties to Essene, Therapeut, and Baptist circles (i Cor 1:12; 3:4—6; cf. Acts 18:24)? The instigators of the persecution seem to be the rich and politically influential (2:6-7). This fits better the time until the middle of the 403 (Riesner 19980: 108-36), when the Jewish Christians were oppressed by the Sadducean oligarchy (MaynardReid 1987) and Jewish kings such as Agrippa I (Acts 3—9; 12). After the second half of the 403 persecution was instigated rather by Zealot movements (cf. Acts 15:1; 23:12-22).
Prescript (1:1) Joy in Temptations (1:2—18) Hearing, Speaking, Doing (1:19-27) The Love Command and Dead Faith (2:1—26) Ethics of Speech for Teachers (3:1—12) The Wise and Humility (3:13—4:12) Warning to the Rich (4:13-5:6) Patience until the Coming of the Lord (5:7-20)
F. Canonicity. 1. The parallels between James and i Peter are to be explained not by literary dependence but by the use of common Jewish-Christian material. At the turn of the first to the second century James was possibly known to Clement of Rome and the Roman Shepherd of Hermas, two writers heavily indebted to Jewish Christian traditions. At the end of the second century Irenaeus of Lyons, who was a native of Asia Minor, seems to have used James, but there is no trace of the letter in Tertullian's works. According to Eusebius (Hist. Ecd. 6.14.1) Clement of Alexandria wrote a commentary on all the Catholic Epistles at the turn of the third century, although in his preserved works James is not clearly cited. But at the beginning of the third century Clement's pupil Origen explicitly cited Jas 2:26 as scripture (PG 12. 1300). In the first half of the fourth century Eusebius wrote that formerly the authenticity of the letter was strongly disputed, although in his time it was read in most of the churches (Hist. Ecd. 2.23.25; 3.25.3). Probably the Jewish Christian origin of James had complicated its acceptance.
The overall structure—first some sort of beatitude (1:2, 12), then reprimand of the rich (4:13—5:6), then final exhortations
(5:7—20)—resembles the Sermon on the Plain (Lk 6:20—49).
Prescript (1:1)
The prescript uses the common short form of the Hellenistic letter (cf. Acts 15:23; 23:26). The sender is introduced as 'James a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ'. As in the prescripts of Paul's (Gal 1:3; i Cor 1:3, etc.) and other NT letters (2 Pet 1:2) God and Jesus are put on the same level. In a Jewish environment this could cause the accusation of ditheism. In the first sentence of the letter the writer does not hide his faith in Jesus as the 'Christ'. The Greek christos translates the Hebrew masiah, 'the anointed', the Jewish king of the end-time promised by the OT The addressees are 'the twelve tribes in the Dispersion (diaspora)', referring either generally to the Christians as the wandering people of God (cf. i Pet 1:1) or, as is more probable, to scattered JewishChristian communities outside Palestine. The prescript ends with the typical Greek formula of greeting (chairein).
2. The letter is not included in the Muratorian Canon, compiled around 200 CE in Rome possibly by Hippolytus. But this can be due to the fragmentary nature of the list, since Hippolytus seems to have known James. The letter was part of the canon lists of Athanasius of Alexandria (367 CE), Innocent of Rome (405 CE), and the North African provincial synods of Hippo (393 CE) and Carthage (419 CE), but possibly already of the lists of the synods of Laodicea (360 CE) and Rome (382 CE).
Joy in Temptations (1:2-18)
(1:2—4) From Trials to Completion The unusual imperative to enjoy 'trials' (peirasmoi, v. 2) is explained by the fact that 'the testing of faith' can 'produce endurance' (v. 3). This idea with close parallels in Rom 5:2/7-5 and i Pet 1:6-7 might have been part of early Christian baptismal instruction, ultimately going back to the teaching of Jesus (Mt 5:11—12; Lk 6:22—3). From
3. Luther expressed severe doubts about its canonicity as James seems to contradict Paul's doctrine of justification by faith (Rom 3:20, 28; 4:16; cf. Jas 2:24). This position is still strongly defended (Lautenschlager 1990; Klein 1995). Together with other disputed writings (Hebrews, Jude, and Revelation) Luther placed the 'epistle of straw' at the end of his famous German translation of the NT from 1522. However, the letter was accepted without reservations by Calvin and the
endurance results, as 'full effect, that you may be complete [tdtios, RSV perfect]' (v. 4), a goal that connects James with the Dead Sea scrolls (tamim, iQS), Paul (i Cor 2:6; Phil 3:15; Col 4:12) and Matthew's Gospel (Mt 5:48; 19:21). In James as in Qumran and the rest of the NT completion is understood to be eschatological.
Reformed churches. In 1548 the council of Trent affirmed the canonicity and expressed its doctrine of justification in terms of James. The Common Declaration on Justification by the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches from 1998/9 tries to bring together the different NT perspectives. James is part of the NT of the Orthodox churches, but was included in the
(1:5-8) Prayer for Wisdom That completion is still in the future is illustrated by the admonition to ask for more wisdom (v. 5). The phrasing reminds one of Jesus' logion about asking and receiving (Mt 7:7; Lk 11:9-10) and his promise of wisdom in times of trial (Lk 21:15). That God gives 'simply (haplos) and without grudging' (own tr.) has its background in the Qsaying, Mt 7:7—8; Lk 11:13. m contrast to God human beings can be'double-minded' (dipsychos) even in prayer (v. 8). At this
Syriac Bible only since the fifth century. This seems astonishing in view of the influence of Jewish-Christian traditions in Syria. Apparently, the letter was sent to a very limited number of Greek-speaking communities.
JAMES 1258
James are the Petrine (i Pet 1:23) and the pre-Johannine traditions (Jn 1:12—13). The 'word of truth' (v. 18) should not be restricted to the OT (cf. Ps 119:43) or OT law. The idiom has no real Jewish parallels but is attested in NT texts about conversion (2 Cor 6:7; Eph 1:13; Col 1:5; cf. 2 Tim 2:15). Possibly, in letters arguing with Christians under a certain Essene influence 'word of truth' is a designation for mission preaching (including elementary ethical instruction). Already Philo and the romance Joseph and Asenath, both in contact with Egyptian Essenic-Therapeutic circles, describe conversion as a coming from death to life and truth, implying the forgiveness of sins. When believers are called 'first fruits', this is the cultic language of offering (Ex 23:16; Lev 27:26; Deut 14:23, etc.) and may be a hint at Jesus' vicarious death and resurrection (cf. i Cor 15:20).
point James apparently coined a new Greek word for a Palestinian-Jewish anthropological idea. That such a person is 'unstable in all his ways' (RSV) reminds one of the two-ways tradition (cf Mt 7:13—14) that is already attested in Qumran
(iQS 1:8 etc.) and became prominent in early Christian ethical teaching (Did. 1:1). That one should ask 'in faith never doubting' (1:6-7) is also inspired by Jesus'teaching (Mt 21:21-2; Mk 11:23-4).
(1:9—11) The Lowly and the Rich The raising up of the lowly and the bringing low of the rich and mighty (w. 9—10) is an important motif of the Lukan special tradition (Lk 1:48, 52; 14:11; cf. Mt 23:12). That (rich) men 'disappear like a flower' (w. 10—n) is already proverbial in the OT (Isa 40:6—7; Ps 103:15; cf. 4QiSj; Mt 6:30; Lk 12:28 and Mt 13:6; Mk 4:6) and here expressed in a quite Semitic way.
(1:12-15) God and Temptation Beatitudes on those who 'endure temptations' are frequent in Jewish apocalyptic (Dan 12:12 Theod.; Ex. Rab. 31:3) and the Jesus tradition (Mt 5:3— n; Lk 20:22), v. 12 being possibly an unknown beatitude of Jesus (Adamson 1976: 68). The denial that God is the author of temptation (v. 130) may correct a certain interpretation of the Lord's Prayer (Mt 6:13; Lk 11:4; cf. i Cor 10:13). Tempting someone to do evil is against the character of God (v. 13/7; cf. Sir 15:11-12). Like Augustine (PI 38.453), the author seems to see in the testing of the faith of Abraham and Job something different. Although James believes in the involvement of demonic powers in temptation
Hearing, Speaking, Doing (1:19-27)
(1:19-21) Quick to Hear, Slow to Speak 'You must understand this, my beloved' (v. iga) marks a new section. The Semitic formulated proverb (v. 19/7) has many parallels in wisdom literature (Sir 5:11; Eccl 5:1, etc.) as has the following theme 'slow to anger' (Eccl 7:9). Anger does not produce the divine standard of 'righteousness' (v. 20). Speech ethics has the negative aspect of getting rid of all false speech (v. 2ia) and the positive one 'to receive [RSV] with meekness the implanted word (logos emphutos)' (v. 2ib), an idiom reminding one of the explanation of the parable of the sower in its Lukan form (Lk 8:13; cf. i Pet 1:23). This enhances the possibility that as with 'the word of truth' (1:18) we have here an abbreviated term for the early Christian paradosis including the words of Jesus. Similar language is used in connection with mission preaching (Acts 1:14) and baptism (Col 3:8). A pre-Qumranic prayer (4QjO4) earlier expressed the hope that God would 'sow' his word inwardly into man. The seed metaphor stresses the life-giving power of God's word. That the 'implanted word' has 'the power to save your souls' (v. 2ic) may allude to Jesus' teaching about his words as the criterion of eschatological salvation (Mk 8:35-8; Lk 9:24-6).
(3:15; 4:7) here he stresses human responsibility (v. 14; cf. i Enoch 98:4). The use of the term 'desire' (epithumia) is near to the psychological-ethical discussion in Qumran and the Rabbis (Kirk 1969-70; Marcus 1982) about the 'evil inclination' (ycscr ha-ra') and not to Gnostic speculation about the evil of materiality. The personification of human desire giving birth to sin and death has its background either in Gen 3 (cf. Rom 7:7—12) or Prov 7:22—3. The triad 'desire, sin, death' (v. 15) forms a strong contrast to 'temptation, endurance, life'
(V. 12). (1:16-18) God's Perfect Gift The admonition in w. 16-17 recapitulates some motives of the 'epitome of exhortation' in 1:2-15. Th£ first part of v. 17 may be the quotation of a pagan proverb in hexameter form, but an allusion to a word of Jesus (Mt 7:11; Lk 11:13) is also possible. The 'perfect gift' (v. rja) should not be restricted to wisdom (cf. 1:5), but characterizes all that God is doing. The designation of God as 'Father of lights' (v. 17/7), that is the creator of the stars, is only found in a document from a wider Essenism (As. Mas. 36, 38, cf. T. Abr. 7:6; CD 5:17—18; iQS 3:20). In contrast to human beings God does not waver and this is shown (as in Qumran) with an allusion to the majestic, regular movements of the stars. What kind of celestial phenomenon could be meant by the changeable shadow (v. lye) is unclear, but comparable language is found in 4:14. In sharp contrast to human behaviour in 1:15, God performs a new creation by spiritual birth from his 'free will' (v. 18, own tr). This idea has an antecedent in the apocalyptic preaching of John the Baptist (Mt 3:9; Lk 3:8), is clearly attested in the Jesus tradition (Mt 18:3; Jn 3:3, 5), and is common to all important strata of NT Christianity (i Cor 4:15; Rom 12:2; Eph 1:5; Titus 3:5; i Pet 1:3; Jn 3:3-8; i Jn 3:9; 4:7). The idea appears often in baptismal texts, very close to
(1:22-5) Doers, not Merely Hearers of the Word This admonition (w. 22-3/7) resembles Jesus' parable of the building of a house, stressing the importance of not only hearing but doing his word (Mt 7:24—7; Lk 6:47—9; cfOrigen, Horn, in Gen. 2.16). The use of mirrors as illustration (w. 23/7-4) was common in the religious and philosophical teaching of the ancient world. The idiom 'the perfect law... of liberty' (v. 25; cf. 2:15) is crucial for every general understanding of James. The strongly Semitic expression 'hearer of forgetfulness'
(own tr.) argues against a Stoic background. As 'the royal law' in 2:8, 'the perfect law' should be understood as the OT law as interpreted and completed by Jesus (cf. Mt 5:17, 48). There might be a traditio-historical connection (Riesner 1997: 362-4) between Jas 1:21 ('meekness', 'saving the souls') and v. 25 ('law of freedom'), Jesus' invitation to bear his 'yoke' (i.e. law) as 'rest for your souls' (Mt 11:28—30), Paul's 'law of Christ'
(Gal 6:1-2) that makes free (cf. Gal 5:1) and the pre-Johannine Amen-saying about the freedom from sin (Jn 8:34-6). Mention of the 'law of freedom' in Qumran (iQS 10:6, 8, n) is disputed (cf. Ex 32:16), but similar language is found in Philo
(Omn. Prob. 45).
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i, and esp. Lk 10:25—0) and thus made it the law of the Messiah-King and his kingdom (basileia). For James the law is indivisible (v. 10; cf. Mt 5:18—19; Lk 3:9). The order of the commandments (Ex 20:13-14; Deut 5:17-18) on adultery and murder is (against Mt 19:18; Mk 10:19) me same as in Lk 18:20. To act against the poor (v. 9) is like murder and is judged by the law as such (v. n; cf. Jer 7:6; 22:3; Sir 34:26; T. Gad, 4:6-7). When the law is again called a law of freedom' (v. 12) it is stressed that it is the law of Moses as interpreted, supplemented, and altered by Jesus (cf. 1:25). That 'mercy' is the criterion of judgement (v. 13) echoes Jesus' beatitude on the merciful (Mt 5:7). (2:14-17) Faith and the Needs of the Poor Here the writer for the first time introduces his conviction that faith (pistis) without works cannot save (v. 14), because such a faith is 'dead' (v. 17). 'Having works' is here defined as fulfilling the elementary claims of human behaviour. Someone pronouncing a blessing on brothers and sisters who lack both clothes and 'daily food' (cf. Lk 11:3) without helping them in their basic needs (w. 15—16) would be unmerciful and sin against the teaching of Jesus (Mt 25:35-6; cf. i Jn 3:17). In the primitive community of Jerusalem there was a 'daily distribution' for the needy (Acts 6:1).
(1:26-7) Pure Religion 'Religion' (threskeia) is denned primarily in ethical and not in ritual terms (v. 26). The quality of speech is the criterion for what is in the human heart (cf Mt 12:34; Lk 6:45). To remain 'unstained by the world' (v. zjc) here means an ethical dualism (cf. i Enoch 48:7; 108:8; Apoc. Abr. 29:8; T. Iss. 4:6) and not a material one as in Gnosticism. To 'care for orphans and widows' (v. 2jb) is a common command in the OT (Deut 14:28; Jer 5:28; Sir 4:10, etc.) and was practised with great care in the primitive community of Jerusalem (Acts 6:i—6). The 'pure and undefiled' religion (v. 270; cf. Philo, Leg. All. 1.50) is addressed to 'God, the Father'. To call God three times 'Father' (1:17, 27; 3:9) is unusually often in a Jewish writing and might echo Jesus' regular address to God.
The Love Command and Dead Faith (2:1-26)
(2:1—4) No Faith with Favouritism In James 'faith' is closely bound to ethics, but this does not imply a low Christology. Jesus is called the 'Christ' (v. i), fulfilling the OT and Jewish Messianic hope, but much more also. In view of the close parallel in i Cor 2:8 (kyrios its doxes) 'glory' is to be seen as modifying 'Lord', meaning 'the Lord of glory' (v. i). This designation may allude to Jesus' transfiguration (Lk 9:32; cf. Jn 1:14). The term is found in i Enoch 22:14; 25:3> 27:3> 5> 75-3 referring to God, but in 63:2 it may refer to the (pre-existent) 'Son of Man' (cf. 63:11). He is also called the 'Lord of Wisdom' (63:2), whose 'mystery' was not recognized by the kings and other powerful men (63:2—4). The messianic 'Son of Man' is in possession of the glory of God that Adam, the first man, had lost (Apoc. Mas. 20-1; cf. Gen 2). Thus Jesus' designation as 'Lord of glory' may hint at his pre-existence and the fact that he was not recognized although God's glory was revealed in him. The Jewish-Christian background of the letter is shown by the reference to the sitting order (Riesner 1995: 207-8) of a synagogue building (synagogl, v. 2). The assembled community in James is not called 'synagogue' but by the more theological term 'church' (ekklesia, 5:14). The poor man is humbled by being given a bad place, whereas the rich receive seats of honour (w. 2-3). Biased judgement of the poor (v. 4) is criticized by the OT (Lev 19:15), and also by Jesus (Lk 18:6). Concern for the poor is one of the main subjects of the Lukan special tradition. (2:5-7) P°or and Rich The address 'listen my.. .brothers' (v. 5») is also found in James's speech at the apostolic council of Jerusalem according to Acts 15:13, but nowhere in the rest of the NT. Obviously, v. 5/7 reminds the readers of Jesus' blessing on the poor as heirs of the kingdom of God (Mt 5:3, 5; Lk 6:20), although the basilda is not promised to the poor generally but to those 'rich in faith and loving God' (own tr.). The writer points to the experience of his readers: whereas they dishonour the poor, they themselves are brought to court by the rich (v. 6; cf. Lk 18:3). The rich also 'blaspheme the excellent name that was invoked over you' (v. 7). Since this cannot be the name of God it must be the name of Jesus invoked in baptism (cf. Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; Herm. Sim. 9.16.3). v. 7 forms another curious parallel to the speech attributed to James in Acts 15:17. (2:8-13) Love as the Royal Law Loving 'your neighbour as yourself (Lev 19:18) is called the 'royal law' (nomos basilikos,
(2:18—20) No Faith without Works An imaginary interlocutor poses a question that is used by the writer to advance his argument: 'But someone will say, "You have faith and I have works'" (v. i8a). Since it would be illogical for an adversary to claim that he has deeds whereas James has faith, the probable meaning (Dibelius 1976:156) of the objection is that faith and deeds can be separated since God has distributed them separately among different people. But according to James the sheer belief in the existence of the one God (cf. Deut 6:4) has no more saving power than the trembling belief of the demons in God's supreme power (v. 19). There seems to be a play on the two related meanings of the Greek verb ddknumi, 'to show' and 'to demonstrate'. Since for the writer faith without the practical proof of works is only an intellectual assent without personal commitment nothing can be 'shown' by it. But works can be 'shown' and by them someone's faith is demonstrated (v. i8fc). So he repeats his conviction that 'faith without works is barren' (v. 20; cf. 2:17). (2:21-4) The Example of Abraham In Jewish tradition the binding of Isaac (2:21; cf. Gen 22) was the capstone of a series of testings of Abraham (i Mace 2:52; Jub. 17:17; 19:8; m. ''Allot 5:3, etc.) and his final declaration as 'righteous' because of his acts of mercy (T. Abr. A 1.17; Tg. Ps.J. on Gen 21:33). Since Paul also in the context of justification and works (Rom 4:3) refers to the same scripture (Gen 15:6) many suppose a direct
(polemical) reaction on James's side (v. 23). But the terminological parallels can be explained by both authors referring to the Jewish tradition (Konradt 1998: 241-4). James uses this tradition as self-evident without arguing against Paul's new interpretation of Abraham's example apparently not known to him. For a direct connection one has to assume that the rather intelligent author of James did misrepresent the teaching of Paul. Paul argues against justification by 'works of the law' (erga nomou, Gal 2:16; 3:2, 10; Rom 3:20, 28; cf. 4QMMTcol. 27; 4QFlor 1:6—7), that is acceptance of circumcision, purity, feasts, and other ritual regulations as a condition of salvation.
2:8). Jesus had already declared this OT command and love for God as the summary of the whole law (Mt 22:37-9; Mk 12:30-
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James has nothing to say about the ritual law but writes about elementary moral obligations (erga). Of course, James could react against a misunderstood liberalistic Paulinism, especially if the letter is rather early and written without firsthand knowledge either of Paul himself or of his letters. But James seems to be arguing not at all against a theological position but against an unchristian lifestyle. He faced problems similar to those of Paul in Corinth (i Cor 1-4!), not like the disputes in Galatia. One should not misrepresent James, v. 24 does not read 'man is justified by works alone'. For James faith is 'active along with... works and faith [is] brought to completion by the works' (v. 22). There are obvious terminological differences: whereas James could speak of a 'dead' or 'barren' faith (without works), for Paul faith without any sign of new life would not be faith at all.
(3:106-12) No Double Talk This is an important consequence of the concept of integrity contrasted with 'doublemindedness' (1:8). The image of plants producing appropriate fruit (v. I2») is common in Stoicism, but a very near parallel can be found in the words of Jesus (Mt 7:16; Lk 6:44). The last sentence (v. I2b) formulates a condensation of the first image of salt and sweet water springs (v. n) so common side by side on the edges of the Jordan rift valley.
The Wise and Humility (3:13-4:12)
After strongly warning the teachers the admonition for them continues in a more positive way. Its background might be the example of the 'meekness' (3:13) of Jesus, the incarnate Wisdom (Mt 11:28—30; cf. Jas 1:21). The idea that wisdom is given to the humble has also a close parallel (Hoppe 1985: 139—45) in Jesus' logion about the revelation to infants (Mt 11:25; Lk 10:21).
(2:25—6) The Example of Rahab Even a problematic person such as this prostitute was proved righteous by risking her life to help the people of God (v. 25; cf. Josh 2:1-15). Th£ maxim of 2:17, that faith without works is dead, is repeated (v. 26). One can say that 'James, like Paul, is repeating what Jesus said. Paul repeats Mt 5:3, James repeats Mt 7:21-7. Paul is representing the beginning whereas James is representing the end of the Sermon on the Mount' (Jeremias 1954—5: 371).
(3:13—18) The Meekness of Wisdom As in Paul (i Cor 1—4) the criterion of wisdom, coming from above or below (v. 15), is ethical, especially the avoidance of strife (v. 16). The description of the 'wisdom from above' (v. 17) reminds one in some way of Paul's description of love in i Cor 13:4-7. Even closer are the parallels in the lists of virtues in the Qumran Manual of Discipline (iQS 4), Paul (Gal 5:22—3), and the Matthean beatitudes (Mt 5:3-10). At the end (v. 18) there might be an intentional echo of Jesus' beatitude on the peacemakers (Mt 5:9). (4:1-3) Passions as Cause of Wars 'Conflicts and disputes' have their origin not only in social circumstances, but are also traced back to the war within human beings (v. i). For Christians prayer should precede all human aspirations (v. 2), but even Jesus' promise on prayer (Mt 7:7-8; Lk 11:9-10) can be misused 'to spend what you get on your pleasures' (v. 3).
Ethics of Speech for Teachers (3:1-12)
The leading role of'teachers' (didaskaloi) is part of a JewishChristian background (Zimmermann 1988: 194-208). The writer ('we') belongs to this class (v. i) but he warns that 'not many... should become teachers' because of their special responsibility in view of God's coming judgement (cf. Lk 12:48). Although the whole letter is an admonition to become 'perfect' the writer himself confesses to 'many mistakes' (v. 2) showing his realistic and honest anthropology.
(4:4—6) Grace to the Humble The antagonism between 'friendship with the world' and being an 'enemy of God' (v. 4) is like the ethical dualism in the Enochic literature (i Enoch 48:7; 108:8), Qumran (Jub. 30:19—22), and i Jn 2:15—17, but a parallel can also be found in the Jesus tradition (Mt 6:24; Lk 16:13). v5 may introduce a citation from an unknown work (NRSV), but it is also possible to translate the verse (cf. 4:11) as two rhetorical questions: 'Does scripture speak in vain? Does the spirit which he made todwell in us crave enviously?' (Johnson 1995: 280—2). Apparently,pneumarefers neither to the Holy Spirit nor to the human spirit but to a type of good inclination given by God (cf. T. Dan, 5:1—3; T.Jos. 10:2— 3; T. Ben. 6:4). The Greek noun phthonos, 'envy', was never connected with God. In fulfilling the promise of Scripture and the right human desire God gives a 'greater gift' (v. 6, own tr.) which should be identified with the wisdom (cf. 3:13—18) he will grant to the humble. This is argued by a citation of Prov 3:34 in a specific text-form found also in i Pet 5:5. The whole context of Prov 3:19-35 forms the background of Jas 3:13-4:10. (4:7-10) Humble before God This imperative section has a clear structure. There are three couplets of imperatives (w. 7/7—9), framed by two other imperatives with the subject of submitting oneself to God (w. ja, 10), thus forming a fivefold structure. Submission to God and resistance to the devil makes Satan flee (4:4; cf. Lk 4:13). The idea of'drawing near to God' (v. 8) is expressed in cultic language (Ex 19:22; 24:2; Deut 16:16; Ps 122; 145). The imperative to 'mourn' (v. 9)
(3:20—3) The Tongue like a Horse's Bit The controlling power of the tongue over the whole person (Sir 14:1; 20:1—7; Prov
10:19; Eccl 5:I) is illustrated by this example (cf. Ps 32:9).
(3:4-50) The Tongue Like a Ship's Rudder As with the previous example there are many parallels not only in Greek but also in Jewish Hellenistic literature (especially in Philo). Probably both illustrations had already become proverbial.
(3:56—6) The Tongue as a Fire Fire in scrub and brushwood is a common phenomenon in Palestine. 'World of iniquity' (v. 6) forms a Semitic construction (i Enoch 48:7; cf. Lk 16:9, n; 18:6). Outside the words of Jesus only here is the termgehenna for 'hell' used. At its source is the Hinnom (Aram, gehenna) Valley, cursed by Jeremiah (7:31-4), and encircling the southwestern hill of Jerusalem (i Enoch 26-7), where James, the brother of the Lord, and his community resided.
(3:7—100) The Untamed Tongue The writer expresses a deep anthropological scepticism: wild beasts can be tamed, but not the human tongue (w. 7-8). It is full of death-dealing poison
(Ps 139:4; cf. iQH 5:26-7). The criticism of blessing God but cursing man has many OT and Jewish parallels, but Jesus' admonition seems especially close (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). The connection between the belief in man being created in the image of God and the prohibition of cursing man is part of the Jewish ethical tradition (Mek. to Ex 20:26; Gen. Rab. to 5:1; Slavonic Enoch 44:1; 52:126; cf. Lk 6:27—8).
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expression has become almost technical in early Christian documents (i Thess 2:19; 4:15; 5:23; i Cor 15:23; Mt 24:3, etc.).
may echo Jesus' woe against the rich (Lk 6:25). v. 10 seems to be a rather clear allusion to the logion of Jesus concluding the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector (Lk 18:14; cfLk 14:11; i Pet 5:6). So, perhaps, here 'grace' (4:6) may include not only the gift of wisdom, but also the forgiveness of sins. (4:11-12) God as Only Lawgiver and Judge The letter's three important motifs, not to speak evil against or judge a brother (cf Mt 7:1-2; Lk 6:37-8), and to be a doer of the law, are summarized (v. n). No human being can be the final judge since this is the privilege of God (cf. Rom 14:4) who gave the law (v. 12).
(5:7—9) The Example of the Patient Farmer There could be an allusion to Jesus' parable of the growing seed (Mk 4:26-30), directed against Zealot aspirations to create a pure community. 'The early and the late rain' (v. 7) points to a SyroPalestinian background, 'the precious fruit of the earth' to rather small farms with short rations. In the OT (Joel 4:13) and in the Jesus tradition (Mt 13:30, 39; Jn 4:35) harvest is a picture for God's judgement, which in James is seen in the near future (v. 8). Against the tendency to judge others once and for all the community members are reminded that God will judge them according to their own standard (v. 9). The warning against 'judging' (krindn) forms an important motif in the Synoptic tradition (Mt7:i—2; Lk 6:37). That the judge 'is standing at the doors' (v. 9) does not refer to the place of judgement but points to its imminence (cf. Mk 13:29; Mt 24:33; Rev 3:3, 20). (5:10-12) The Example of the Persecuted Prophets Starting with the Deuteronomistic History (i Kings 19:10), Jewish tradition (Dan 9:6; T. Levi, 16) spoke of the persecution and martyrdom of the prophets (v. 10). This motif is also found in the synoptic tradition (Mt 23:29-39; Lk 11:47-51; Mk 12:1-12). Jesus compared his destiny (Lk 13:32—3) and that of his followers (Mt 5:11—12; Lk 6:22—3) with the fate of the prophets. If 'the steadfast are called happy' (v. na) this might be a reminiscence of Jesus' beatitude of the persecuted. That Job is singled out for his patience (v. nfc) has its background rather in Jewish legends, such as the Testament of Job, than in the OT. Augustine (PI 40.634) thought that 'the purpose of the Lord' refers to the passion of Jesus. But the construction of the sentence is
Warning to the Rich (4:13-5:6)
(4:13-17) Tomorrow Belongs to God This admonition resembles the polemic in i Enoch 97:8—10 and the parable of the rich fool (Lk 12:16—21), the latter itself showing parallels to the Enochic tradition. In contrast to the rich in 5:1 the merchants here seem to be members of the community (v. 13). Under Palestinian conditions they could try to become rich only through trade. Whereas the criticism of care about tomorrow may echo Jesus'teaching (Mt6:25~34;Lk 12:22—31), 'mist'was a very common metaphor for the passing of life (v. 14). The most dangerous consequence of human 'arrogance' (v. 16) is to forget God, who governs life (v. 15; cf. i Enoch 94:8). The
Semitic-style maxim in v. 17 reminds one of Jesus' parable of the watchful servants (Lk 12:47). (5:1-3) Warning to the Rich v. i reads like an abbreviation of Jesus' woe against the rich (Lk 6: 24-5), w. 2-3 could be an allusion to his words on treasures (Mt 6:19—21; Lk 12:33—4). That hoarded goods and their decay will be a witness in the last judgement (v. 3) is also expressed in i Enoch 96:7. (5:4-6) The Oppression of the Poor and the Just What makes things even worse is that the rich gain their goods by injustice. Keeping back the wages of the labourers (v. 4) is an old prophetic accusation (Jer 22:13; Mai 3:5J cfTob 4:14). That at this point God's name 'Lord of hosts' (kyrios sabaoth) is cited means that doom is imminent, v. 5 may allude not only to Jer 12:3, but also to Jesus' parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19, 25)- Th£ condemnation and killing of the righteous man (v. 6) could be a general attack on judicial murder (cf. Wisd 2:12), but the change from plural to singular is remarkable. In the Lukan special tradition 'the rulers' are singled out as those killing Jesus (Lk 23:13, 35; 24:20; Acts 3:17; cf. i Cor 2:8). 'The righteous one' (ho dikaios) was a primitive JewishChristian designation of Jesus as the Messiah (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; cfLk 23:37; i Pet 3:18; i Jn 2:1), a Jewish antecedent is found only in i Enoch 38:2; 53:6 (cf. Isa 53:11). Bearing this traditio-historical background in mind, the remark on nonresistance could hint not only in general at the suffering of the righteous, but especially at Jesus' suffering as the Servant of the Lord (Isa 53:7; cf. i Pet 2:23).