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(13:7) and Babylon (17:15). v. 10, some MSS have 'they reign' for 'they will reign'; the latter accords with 20:4-6; 22:5. w. 11-13, the circle of worshippers expands from v. 8 to v. n and encompasses the whole creation in v. 13, anticipating the final implementation of the Lamb's victory in God's universal reign
(cf. Phil 2:8-11, a close thematic parallel to the whole chapter). The worship of the Lamb in v. 12 is parallel to that of God in 4:11, while in v. 13 worship is offered to both together, ensuring that the Lamb is not seen as an alternative object of worship
(another god) but recipient with God of the honour due to God. This heavenly worship before the throne is an unequivocal indication of the inclusion of Christ in the identity of the one God who, for Jewish and Christian faith, is alone entitled to worship. It is one of several kinds of expression of very high Christology in Revelation (see comments on 1:5/7—6, 8).
the priests of the heavenly temple, the central worshippers in creation, representatives of the whole animate creation. Their song is adapted from Isa 6:3, incorporating two of the key designations of God in Revelation (see 1:4, 8). v. n, God's sovereignty is depicted first as that of the Creator of all things, then in ch. 5 as the Redeemer, in process of restoring his universal sovereignty on earth. Because he is Creator, God can be expected to renew his whole creation in the end (21:5).
The Seven Seals (6:1-8:5)
(6:1-8) The First Four Seals v. i, the events which accompany the opening of the seals are not the content of the scroll, which cannot be read until all the seals are opened. They prepare for it. The first four seals recall 'the beginning of the birth pangs' in Mk 13:7-8. v. 2, that the rider represents Christ (cf. 19:11) or the preaching of the gospel is unlikely because the four riders of the first four seals form a group. The repetition of the key word 'conquer' and its absolute use here are suggestive: it resembles the Lamb's victory (5:5-6) and prepares us for the beast's victory (11:7; 13:7). The figure may represent the evil of imperial conquest, with the 'bow' a reminder of the Parthian empire, Rome's eastern rival, w. 5-6, this rider represents famine, which the information given by the voice characterizes as severe but not extreme. The judgements are limited compared with what will come later, v. 7, the fatal effects of pestilence are limited to a quarter of the earth: the escalation of judgements is indicated by proportions: cf. 9:7-12 (a third). All the evils listed at the end of this verse (cf. Ezek 14:21), summarizing the second, third, and fourth seals, could be understood as the effects of war, initiated by the rider of the first seal.
(5:1—14) The Lamb on the Throne v. i, the scroll contains God's secret plan for the coming of his kingdom on earth, which cannot be revealed until someone authorized to break the seals does so. Only Christ proves worthy to open the scroll, because his witness and death have made the coming of God's kingdom possible, v. 5, two traditional titles for the Davidic Messiah, from Isa 11:10 and Gen 49:9, both suggest the militant Messiah who would conquer his enemies. Note that 'conquer' is here used absolutely, as in the promises to the conquerors in the seven messages, v. 6, John has heard of a lion, but sees a lamb looking as if it had been slaughtered. The titles of v. 5 are thus reinterpreted: Jesus is the victor over evil, but the way he achieves victory is through sacrificial death. The Lamb—from this point on Revelation's major Christological image—is the passover lamb, belonging to the new exodus imagery (cf. 1:5/7 with 5:9—10), with probable allusion also to Isa 53:7. His relationship to the divine throne is not clear, but 7:17 (cf. 3:21) shows that he must be on the throne, sharing the divine sovereignty, which his death has made him worthy to exercise. Both his seven horns and his seven eyes symbolize the seven Spirits of God (i.e. the Holy Spirit). The horns are a standard image of power (cf. the horns of the dragon and the beasts: 12:3; 13:1, n; 17:12-13), while the seven
(6:9—11) The Fifth Seal v. 9, the earthly temple had two altars: one for burnt-offerings in the outer court, where blood sacrifices were offered, and one for incense, in the holy place. Revelation knows of an altar of incense in the heavenly temple (8:3, 5; 9:13; 14:18), but does not explicitly refer to an altar of burnt-offering (but cf. 16:17). But if the altar of incense is in
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1:5 uses a different metaphor), since it is something they, not the Lamb, have done. It alludes to Dan 11:35; I2:IO> and refers to their death due to faithful following of Jesus on his way to the cross. The value of their death is derivative from his. Revelation is written as though all faithful Christians are to suffer death. This can be understood, not as a literal expectation, but as an imaginative way of suggesting that in the situation envisaged Christians who avoid idolatry must be prepared to die. By now it should be becoming clear that the 'conquering' to which the seven messages called the churches is victory through faithful witness to the point of death, w. 1517, the images anticipate the New Jerusalem (cf. 21:3-4, 6; 22:3), and allude to Isa 49:10; 25:8. That God 'will shelter them' (v. 15) evokes the tabernacling presence of God with his people in the wilderness. Note that in v. 17 the divine roles of shepherding (Isa 40:11) and leading to the water (Isa 49:10) are ascribed to the Lamb. These are all new exodus images.
view here, the location of the souls of the martyrs under it is incomprehensible. The blood of sacrifices on the altar of burnt-offering was poured out under the altar (e.g. Lev 4:7), and so it seems probable that those who have died for bearing the witness of Jesus are here seen as having been sacrificed, v. 10, their cry is that of the murdered for justice. The prayer, 'how long?'—prompted by the disappointingly moderate nature of the judgements of the first four seals—expresses a sense of eschatological delay in God's giving justice to his people (cf Dan 12:13; Zech 1:12; Ps 79:5). v. n, the traditional Jewish idea of a predetermined number of the elect (4 Ezra 4:35-7; 2 Apoc. Bar. 23:4-5; i Enoch, 47:4) is here integrated into the theme of Christian witness as far as death, which will be explored further in subsequent passages, beginning with ch. 7. Later we shall learn why more martyrs must die; for the time being those already martyred are assured of their victory, despite appearances, by the white robes (cf. 7:9).
(8:1—5) The Seventh Seal Revelation uses a literary interlocking device especially here and in 15:1—4. The account of the seventh seal is in w. i, 3-5, while v. 2 is the beginning of the sequence of seven trumpet-blasts which follows. The impression is that the seven trumpet-blasts are included in the seventh-seal opening, w. i, 3, the silence is part of the liturgy of the heavenly temple. According to Jewish tradition, at the time of the incense-offering (v. 2) the heavenly worshippers fall silent so that the prayers of people on earth can be heard in heaven. The heavenly incense assists the prayers of the saints to reach God, as the incense from the earthly temple was thought to do. v. 5, the prayers are for the coming of the end, and so the response is judgement on earth (fire, seen again in 8:7). The storm phenomena indicate the eschatological theophany of God the Judge (cf. 4:5) and the correspondence with 11:19 shows that 8:5 already includes proleptically all the judgements of the seven trumpet-blasts (concluding in 11:19).
(6:12-17) The Sixth Seal This passage uses language calculated to evoke the impression that now the final coming of God to judge the world is occurring (for v. 12, cf. Ezek 38:19— 23; Hag 2:6; Isa 13:10; Joel 2:10, 31; Zeph 1:15; Mk 13:24; for v. 13, cf. Isa 34:4; Mk 13:25; Jer 4:24; for w. 15-16, cf. Isa 2:10, 19, 21; Hos 10:8; Lk 23:30; for v. 17, cf. Joel 2:11; Nah 1:6; Mai 3:2). The events ofw. 12—13 are not themselves judgements so much as heralds of God's coming as Judge. The 'wrath of the Lamb' (v. 16) suggests the consequence of not responding to God's sacrificial love. In v. 17 the variant reading 'his wrath' should be preferred to 'their wrath' since Revelation always avoids referring to God and Christ as a plurality, with plural verbs or pronouns (cf. 11:15; 22:3-4). (7:1-17) Interlude: The Sealing of the Elect This passage is an intercalation in the numbered series of seven; an even longer intercalation will intervene between the sixth and seventh trumpet blasts (10:1-11:13). These passages express the experience of eschatological delay—and constantly disappointed hope—before the end, and their contents explore the meaning of the delay. Here the expectations raised by the martyrs' cry of'how long?' (6:10) and by the impression of reaching the very brink of the end (6:17) is deliberately dashed by an image of judgement held back (7:1). w. 2—3, the sealing indicates ownership (as of slaves) and protection (cf. Ezek 9:4—6): they are protected in order to serve God as the messianic army, w. 4-8, in the OT a census is always a reckoning of Israel's military strength. The 144,000 are the messianic army of the twelve tribes of Israel expected to fight the war against God's enemies in the last days. Judah, the tribe of the Messiah (5:5), is numbered first, v. 9, the juxtaposition ofw. 4-8 and v. 9 resembles that of 5:5, 6, with the same distinction between what John hears and what he sees. Just as the militant Messiah is shown to win his victory by sacrificial death, so his army is now seen to win their victory by following him in martyrdom. They are also redefined as not just Israelites, but from all nations, and not numbered but innumerable (thus fulfilling the promise to Abraham: Gen 13:6; 15:5; 17:4—6). The white robes and palm branches indicate the victory celebration of the martyrs in heaven, though the credit and the glory are God's and Christ's (w. 10,12). v. 14, for the great ordeal, cf. 3:10. The washing of robes in the Lamb's blood (cf. 22:14) is not indicative of their forgiveness or redemption (for which
The Seven Trumpets (8:6-11:19)
(8:6—12) The First Four Trumpets Trumpets were used in holy war against Israel's and God's enemies, herald divine judgement (e.g. Joel 2:1), and feature especially in the story of the fall of Jericho (Josh 6), which makes them appropriate in Revelation, although we do not yet know that these judgements will lead to the fall of another great city (16:19). Like the first four seals, the first four trumpet-blasts form a quartet. They affect the four regions of God's creation: earth, sea, fresh water, heavens (cf. 14:7), and each affects a third part only of its region (note the emphatic repetition of 'third' throughout). This represents an intensification of judgement after the seals
(cf. 5:8), but these are still limited judgements, aimed at repentance (cf. 9:20—1). To those who worship parts of the creation as idols, they demonstrate that the true God is the Creator who has power over his creation (cf. 14:7). They are also modelled on the plagues of Egypt, making them the judgements that prepare for the new exodus.
(8:13—9:11) The Fifth Trumpet v. 13, the message of the eagle designates the last three trumpet-blasts as a group of three woes. This and the other markers indicating the sequence of the woes (9:12; 11:14) keep the reader strongly aware of the
(slow) progress through these terrifying plagues towards the end. v. i, whereas the first four trumpet-blasts attacked, not
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(15:5—16:21), there would then have been four series of seven judgements each, indicating complete judgement (seven for completeness) on the earth (symbolized by four), v. 4, they are revoked (cf. Mk 13:20: God will 'cut short' the days of eschatological tribulation), and are not to be the content of John's prophecy. Instead of more warning judgements, there is to be something else: the content ofthe scroll, w. 5—7, the angel's solemn declaration, alluding to Am 3:8 and Dan 12:6-7, i™" plicitly responds to the question 'How long?' which has been in readers' minds since 6:10. The final period of history, revealed to Daniel as 'a time, times and half a time' (i.e. three and a half years: Dan 12:7; cf. Rev 11:2, 3) is now to begin at once, and for the first time the true nature ofthe events of this period, the way they will contribute to the final coming of God's kingdom, will be revealed by the scroll, v. 10, like Ezekiel's scroll (3:3), John's is sweet to taste, but, unlike Ezekiel's, bitter when swallowed—probably because it concerns the suffering of God's people, v. n, previously John had prophesied to and about the churches (1:11-3:22); now he is to prophesy about the nations, and perhaps to the nations in the sense that his prophecy now describes the church's prophetic witness to the nations (11:3—13). The fourfold description ofthe nations (see comment on 5:9) indicates that the fulfilment of Dan 7:9 is the subject.
humans directly, but their sources of life, the fifth and sixth attack humans directly, v. 2, the image of the fallen star suggests an evil angel, allowed, like other evil agents in the various judgements in Revelation, to wreak evil as a form of divine judgement. The abyss ('bottomless pit') in Revelation is not the place of the dead (Hades) or the place of the final punishment of the wicked (the lake of fire), but the abode and source of supernatural evil (11:7; 17:8; 20:1-3). v3> me l°custs are a demonized version of the army of locusts in Joel (2:1-11). v. 5, the period and the prohibition of killing show that this is again a limited judgement, whose purpose is to bring about repentance, v. n, Abaddon is an OTterm for the underworld, sometimes personified (Job 28:22). Itmeans 'destruction', but John translates in a personal form: Apollyon ('destroyer'), with perhaps an allusion to the Greek god Apollo, and the emperor Nero's claim to be a manifestation of Apollo. Cf. also 'the destroyer' responsible for the last plague of Egypt (Ex 12:23).
(9:12—21) The Sixth Trumpet v. 13, the reference to the altar of incense in heaven links this judgement again to the prayers of the saints (8:3—5). vJ4> mis picture of judgement plays on the Roman empire's fear of invasion from the east (cf 16:12). The angels are evil angels released from previous restraint, v. 17, an army of demonic cavalry is described, v. 20, even this deadly judgement has been aimed at the repentance of the rest of humanity, but unsuccessfully, v. 21, cf. 21:8; 22:15; mis emphatic statement of the failure of even the most severe judgements to bring humanity to repentance prepares for the revelation, in ch. n, of a different divine strategy to that end. (10:1-11) Interlude: (a) The Scroll Given to John As between the sixth and seventh seals, so between the sixth and seventh trumpet-blasts, an interlude addresses the reason for the delay of the final judgement, v. i, this most awe-inspiring of the angels in Revelation ('another' in relation to the angel of 5:2) is the most important because he is the one who transmits to John the revelation he has received from Christ (1:1; 22:16). v. 2, though most commentators think otherwise, there are good reasons for thinking that this is the scroll of 5:1-9. The content of that scroll, available only when its seven seals have been opened (8:1), has not yet been revealed. The scroll in ch. 10 is already open (v. 2): its contents can be known only when it has been ingested by John (10:8-11). The process of transmission—from God to Christ (5:7) and from the angel to John (10:8—10)—corresponds to that described in 1:1. Moreover, John's use of an OT model for his account of the scroll (Ezek 2:8-3:3) begins in 5:1 (cf. Ezek 2:9-10) and continues in 10:810 (cf. Ezek 3:1-3). The reason most commentators have not regarded the scroll of ch. 10 as the same as that in ch. 5 is that the former is called a 'little scroll' (biblaridion) in 10:2, 9—10, while the latter is a 'scroll' (biblion). But it is clear that John makes no absolute distinction between the two terms, since the scroll of ch. 10 is also called a biblion in v. 8. The words could be used interchangeably. The reason biblaridion is predominately used inch. 10 is probably that the scroll has now to be portrayed as small enough for John to eat (w. 9-10). v. 3, for the lion's roar, cf. Am 3:8. The seven thunders (echoing Ps 29, where the thunder of God's voice is mentioned seven times) must be another series of warning judgements, more severe than the seals and the trumpet-blasts. With the seven bowls
(11:1-13) Interlude: (b) The Content ofthe Scroll This section contains the content ofthe scroll in nuce. Later chapters will greatly expand on it, but the essential message ofthe scroll is given here, in two parts (w. 1—2 and 3—13) linked by their respective versions of Daniel's reckoning ofthe final period of history as three and a half years (w. 2, 3). w. 1-2, this difficult passage derives from interpretation of Dan 12:6—7; 8:11—14; Zech 12:3. The temple proper (the holy of holies and the holy place, containing the altar of incense), with the priests who alone worship in it, is to be measured, but the outer court, where the people worship, and the city in which they live are left to be trampled by the nations. The meaning of this imagery, taken from Daniel, becomes clear as Revelation proceeds. The temple and city represent the church. The inner, hidden reality of the church as a kingdom of priests (1:6; 5:10) who worship God in his presence is distinguished from the outward experience ofthe church exposed to persecution by the kingdom of the nations. In the coming great persecution, the church will be kept safe in its inner reality (cf. already 7:1—8, where the counting parallels the measuring here), while outwardly destroyed (cf. 12:13-17). w. 3-13 give a second symbolic narrative ofthe events ofthe final period of history, parallel to w. 1-2 but going further into the distinctive revelation given by the scroll, w. 3—4, like the seven lampstands of chs. 2-3, the two lampstands (also called olive trees, following Zech 4:1-14) here represent the church. They are two because adequate witness requires two witnesses (Deut 19:15); and so their number shows not that they are only part ofthe whole church, but that they represent the whole church in its role of prophetic witness to the world. This is the role that the seven churches of chs. 2—3 will fulfil—the task to which they are called in the coming of God's kingdom—if they heed Christ's advice and 'conquer', w. 5—6, the two prophets are modelled on Moses and Elijah (both on both, not one on each; cf. 2 Kings 1:10—12; i Kings 17:1; Ex 7:14—24), the
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both 'destroy' (cause to perish) and 'ruin' (corrupt with evil); its use here parallels the same double meaning in Hebrew in Gen 6:11—13, J7As at the Flood, God's faithfulness to his creation requires that he destroy its destroyers in order to preserve it. v. 19, from the heavenly presence of God come the phenomena of theophany and judgement, in the formula first used in 4:5, expanded in 8:5 (seventh seal), again here (seventh trumpet), and yet again in 16:17-21 (seventh bowl).
two great OT prophets who confronted pagan idolatry, Moses at the Exodus, Elijah in the time of Jezebel (cf 2:20). The judgements they command (v. 6) recall those of chs. 6, 8—9, and are no more effective in producing repentance, v. 7, the beast appears for the first time, anticipating his full introduction in ch. 13, along with his characteristic activity of conquering the saints (13:7). v. 8, the witnesses follow Jesus in his faithful witness as far as death. The city recalls Jerusalem (cf. Isa 1:10), Egypt, and Babylon (cf. 17:18): it is every city in which the church bears suffering witness, v. 9, the three days ofthe story of Jesus are modified to make the apocalyptic number three and a half (cf. 12:14). Th£ fourfold formula makes clear the universality of the prophets' witness to all nations, v. 10, a reversal of Esth 9:19, 22: there the people of God rejoice over the slaughter of their enemies, here the opposite leads paradoxically to their victory and conversion of their enemies, w. 11-12, as they followed Jesus in his death, so they share in his triumph over death. This is their public vindication. The truth of their witness, thought to have been refuted by their death, is now seen to have been evidenced by their faithfulness to death and vindicated by God in their triumph over death, v. 13, the reaction ofthe rest' corresponds with 14:6—7 and contrasts with 9:20—1 (cf. 16:9—11): it is therefore genuine repentance and acknowledgement ofthe one true God. The arithmetic is symbolic: in judgements announced by OT prophets 'the remnant' ('the rest') spared are only a tenth part (Isa 6:13; Am 5:3) or seven thousand (i Kings 19:18). Here the reverse occurs: seven thousand killed and ninetenths spared. The novelty of the witness of the two, by comparison with their OT predecessors, is thus dramatized: not so much judgement as conversion is the effect. Where the preaching of repentance, with judgements alone as evidence, had failed (v. 6), when fulfilled in witness to the point of death, participating in Jesus' witness and victory through and over death, the prophetic ministry of the church will effect the conversion of the nations to God. This is the heart of the revelation contained in the scroll, the heart of Revelation's message: that the church redeemed from all nations is called to suffering witness which, by virtue of its participation in Jesus' sacrificial witness, can bring the nations to repentance of idolatry and conversion to the true God. In this way—as Jesus' witness is extended universally in the life and death, as well as the preaching, of the church—God's kingdom can come to the nations as salvation, rather than judgement. This message will be portrayed at greater length in chs. 12-15.
The Story of God's People in Conflict with Evil (12:1-15:4)
(12:1—6) The Woman, the Dragon and the Child Unlike other beginnings of sections there is no literary link back into what precedes. A new start is made, with a partly new cast of characters, but from this different starting-point a fuller version ofthe message of 11:3—13 will be told and will converge again on the end already reached at the end of ch. n. v. i, a fresh OT background is evoked here: the age-long conflict between 'the ancient serpent' (v. 9) or dragon and the woman and her offspring, and the promise of eventual victory for the offspring, not without suffering violence from the serpent (Gen 3:15). The serpent of Eden is identified as also the seamonster or dragon Leviathan, destined for eschatological defeat by the sword of God (Isa 27:1). In extra-biblical tradition (cf. Ps 74:14) he had seven heads (cf. v. 3). By fusing the two figures of the Genesis serpent and the eschatological Leviathan, Revelation has created a new image of ultimate evil. For many ofthe first readers, pagan mythological themes and stories would also be evoked by 12:1—6, especially the story of Apollo and the Python, a dragon who threatened Apollo's mother at the time of his birth and was later slain by him. From both OTand pagan precedents, the passage would raise the readers' expectation that the divine child will eventually destroy the dragon. Jesus' mother Mary is scarcely in view in the symbolic, not historical, account of his birth and immediate rapture to heaven (v. 5); rather, as her crown of twelve stars shows, the woman in the sky is the people of God (both Israel and the church), v. 3, not Mary's pregnancy so much as the sufferings of Israel from which the Messiah came (and which he bore) (cf. Mic 5:3). v. 4, the dragon's heads and horns are the model for the beast's (13:1) and challenge the Lamb's seven horns (5:6). The seven crowns represent the fullness of rule, suggesting the dragon is the power behind all idolatrous human rule. Cf. Dan 8:10. The stars, as in 1:20, maybe angelic representatives of the people of God, so that the dragon's action against them represents inflicting suffering on Israel on earth, v. 5, cf. Ps 2:8-9.v6, this anticipates v. 14. The same time period is given in days (11:3 and here), months (11:2; 13:5), and 'times' (i.e. years: 12:14). Derived from Daniel (7:25; 12:7, n, 12), it is the period ofthe final great conflict of God's people and God's enemies, the church and the beast. The ambiguity of this period (who are the real victors?) is reflected in the usage of temporal terms: as 42 months it is the beast's period, for trampling and rule (11:2; 13:5); as 1,260 days it is the church's period, for prophesying and protection (11:3; 12:6). (12:7-12) Michael and the Dragon v. 7, the archangel Michael is the heavenly representative ofthe people of God (Dan 10:13, 21; 12:1), and so his defeat ofthe dragon in heaven corresponds to the victory ofthe martyrs on earth (v. n). Here the heavenly victory is depicted in military terms, the earthly in forensic
(11:14-19) The Seventh Trumpet In this section the end itself, the coming of God's kingdom, is finally reached, though the description of it is provisional and will be expanded later, v. 15, the words ofthe voices allude to Ps 2.17. For 'who are and who were', cf. 1:4, 8; 4:8; since it is God's eschatological coming which is here being celebrated, 'who is to come' is omitted
(also in 16:5). v. 18, the opening words again echo Ps 2:1—3. The events here celebrated run forward as far as ch. 20. The 'destroyers ofthe earth' are later revealed as the dragon, the beast, and the harlot of Babylon (cf. 19:2), who are ruining God's creation with their violence, oppression, and idolatrous religion. Their destruction is an example ofthe eschatological lex talionis, which matches punishment to crime by describing both in the same words. The Greek diaphthdro means
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the empire had been most apparent so far, since he was the first emperor to persecute the church (only within the city of Rome, but including the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul). The reference to a mortal wound to one of the beast's heads, inflicted with a sword (v. 14), probably alludes to Nero's suicide with a dagger, while also suggesting a judgement inflicted by the sword of God. But whereas it is a head (an emperor) which receives the wound, it is the beast itself that recovers ('its [i.e. the beast's] mortal wound was healed'). The historical reference is to the death-blow which the imperial power received from Nero's death, since it precipitated the period of civil war and chaos ('the year of the four emperors') in which the very survival of the empire was at risk. The healing of the beast's wound alludes to the establishment by Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty which restored the imperial power all the more securely in the later part of the first century, to the 'amazement of the whole earth'. 13:4, it is the apparent invincibility of the empire, all the more impressive after its recovery, to which the people of the empire spontaneously respond with worship offered to the emperors (the beast) and to the gods of Rome who grant them success (here equated with the dragon). In the Greek east of the empire, the imperial cult was not imposed from above, but organized by the local authorities, as an appropriate response to Rome's godlike power and the benefits of its rule. Revelation's prophetic purpose here is to expose the idolatry involved in this deification of brutal political and military power. The question asserting the incomparability of the beast is a satanic parody of OT expressions of the uniqueness of God (e.g. Ex 15:11; Isa 40:25).
terms (w. 10-11: 'accuser', 'testimony'). Revelation frequently alternates or mixes the two fields of imagery, v. 9, from here onwards the deceit practised by the powers of evil is prominent (cf 13:14; 16:13; 18:23; !9:2o; 20:3,8; 21:27; 22:15; cf3:9)- It is by exposing this deceit that the witness of the martyrs constitutes victory over evil. v. 10, cf. 11:15. Th£ devil's original role was as prosecuting counsel in the heavenly court (Zech 3:1; Job 2), but often, as here, acting maliciously and deceptively, v. n, for the first time, the 'conquering' by the martyrs has an object; cf. 15:2. The relationship of martyrdom to the cross is clear here (cf. 7:14): by maintaining their witness even to the point of death the Christian martyrs follow Jesus to death and so win a victory dependent on his. v. 12, the devil's rage is not a sign of his power, but of the fact that he is already defeated. Heaven, earth, and sea are prominent in chs. 12—13: thrown out of heaven, the dragon empowers one beast from the sea and another from the earth.
(12:13—17) The Dragon and the Woman The narrative depicts, like 11:1—2, the spiritual protection of the church (the woman in the wilderness) during the period of conflict with the beast, even while outwardly the church suffers persecution (the dragon makes war on the woman's children), v. 14, the eagle's wings (Ex 19:4; Deut 32:11; Isa 40:31) and the wilderness are exodus motifs, v. 17, the 'testimony of Jesus' (also 1:9; 19:10) seems to be, not witness to Jesus, but the witness Jesus bore.
(12:18-13:10) The Monster from the Sea v. 18, this statement connects the dragon with the appearance of the beast, to whom he now delegates what power he has. 13:1—2, the sea is here the sphere of primeval chaos, the source of evil, an alternative image to the abyss (cf. 11:7). It is the appropriate source for the beast whose dominant characteristic is violence. The scene is modelled on Daniel's vision of four beasts representing the four great world empires (Dan 7:1-8). The fourth, the most terrifying, is the last empire, whose rule is replaced by the kingdom of the Son of Man and his people. Revelation's beast also fills this role but is described in terms drawn from all four of Daniel's beasts. It is the empire which sums up and surpasses all the violent and oppressive empires of history. As will become clear it is the Roman empire of John's time, but portrayed with the eschatological hyperbole that creates a symbol of idolatrous political power available for reapplication whenever and wherever it suits. The seven heads are the sum of all the heads of Daniel's beasts, but they also indicate totality. They represent, as later explained
13:5—6, the language reflects Dan 7:6, 8, 25. The beast's power, though given by the dragon (v. 2), can only be exercised by God's permission (v. 5); cf. 6:2, 4, 8; 9:5; 13:7,15. 13:70, the language was anticipated in 11:7. The paradox of martyrdom appears in the contrast between this statement and 15:2. From the earthly perspective it appears that the beast has won; from the heavenly perspective it is seen that the martyrs have won. The contrast is between victory by brute force and victory by witness to the truth, even at the cost of life. 13:7/7—8, with reference to the Roman empire such universal language is hyperbolic (cf. Dan 4:1), but the imperial propaganda itself used such language, ignoring the Parthian empire to the east.
Such hyperbole also allows the images to transcend their immediate reference to the world contemporary with Revelation. The phrase 'from the foundation of the world', which older translations relate to 'slaughtered', should almost certainly, as 17:8 shows, be related to 'written'. 13:9, as in 2:7 (etc.) an appeal for discerning attention by the readers is made. 13:100, there are variant readings; probably best is: Tf anyone is to be taken into captivity, into captivity he or she must go; if anyone is to be killed by the sword, by the sword he or she must be killed' (cf. Jer 15:2; 43:11). In other words, Christians who remain faithful in the circumstances just described must expect to suffer. 13:10/7, cf. 14:12: endurance and faithfulness are what are required for 'conquering' the beast. The temptation to worship the beast and to see its power as irresistible
(17:9), the complete series of Roman emperors in whom the beast's power is invested. The ten horns derive from Daniel's fourth beast, but Revelation gives them crowns to identify them as kings (cf. 17:16). The blasphemous names are the divine titles, such as 'Son of God' and 'Lord and God', assumed by the Roman emperors. 13:3, the account of the beast, as well as continuing to draw on Dan 7, has two other major features: it provides a theological interpretation of the recent history of the empire, and it depicts the beast as an idolatrous parody of Jesus Christ. When one of the beast's heads is said to be 'as if slaughtered', precisely the same phrase is used as in 5:6, where it indicates the sacrificial death of the Lamb. The beast's mortal wound and its healing are a satanic parody of the death and resurrection of Christ. They also refer to Nero, the Roman emperor in whom the anti-Christian character of
(v. 4) was one to which many of Revelation's first readers were in danger of succumbing (cf. chs. 2-3).
(13:11-18) The Monster from the Land v. n, this second beast, also called the false prophet (16:13; 19:20; 20:10), represents
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(14:6—13) Three Angelic Messages and a Voice from Heaven w. 6—n, the angels symbolize the effect on the nations oftheconfrontationoftheforcesofthe beast and the Lamb. By contrast with the eagle (8:13), their messages are positive, w. i—2, the invitation to all nations to repent and worship God (cf. 11:13) alludes to Ps 96. v. 3, the good news of Babylon's fall anticipates the account of Babylon in 16:19—18:24, just as the initial reference to the beast (11:7) anticipated his introduction in ch. 13. Cf. Isa 21:9; Jer 25:15—16; 51:7—8; Dan 4:30. In the OT Babylon is the greatest of the world powers who subjugated and exiled the people of God, and is closely associated with the imagery of new exodus in Isa 40-55. In Revelation she stands for, not the political and military power of Rome (the beast), but the city of Rome (seechs. 17—18), with its economic, cultural, and religious influence on the empire. For 'the wine of the passion [thumos can also mean wrath, as in v. 10] of her fornication' (lit. tr.) cf. 17:2; 18:3: the reference is to the promise of economic prosperity whereby she entices the nations into association with her, a promise which intoxicates, so that her clients are oblivious of the risk of divine judgement incurred, v. 10, the first image of punishment is an example of eschatological lex talionis (see comment on 11:18): those who drank the wine of Babylon's passion (thumos) will drink the wine of God's wrath (thumos). 'Fire and sulphur' allude to the paradigmatic judgement on Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 19:24; and cf. Isa 34:9). The torment consists in remorseful recognition of truth and holiness, v. n, the image is from Isa 34:9-10, the judgement on Edom, enemy of OT Israel who, though never named in Revelation, serves implicitly as a precedent for Rome. Revelation's use of such imagery (cf. 19:3, 20; 20:10, 15) resists translation into prosaic literal terms. The 'no rest day or night' (from torment) corresponds verbally with the ceaseless praise of the living creatures (4:8), as well as contrasting with the 'rest' promised to the saints in v. 13. v. 12, cf. 13:10. The threat of w. 9—10 is a warning notleast to Christians, who need 'endurance' ifthey are to avoid worshipping the beast, v. 13, the Spirit's words are a prophetic oracle given to John in response to the heavenly voice (cf. 2:7 etc.).
the priesthood of the imperial cult, which included prominent members of the elite of the cities. The imagery suggests that outwardly its power appears innocent, but its seductive speech reveals its inner reality as demonic. If the first beast is a parody of Christ, the second is a parody of the Spirit-inspired prophetic witness of the church (11:3—6). v. 13, the signs parody those of 11:5—6, and (like v. 150) refer to the apparent miracles engineered in the temples, v. 14, the image no doubt refers to statues of the emperor and the Roman gods. Most of these were erected on the initiative of the local authorities, not by Roman governors, w. 15—17, the universal enforcement of worship of the beast goes beyond the historical reality at the time of Revelation (when there could certainly be considerable social pressure to participate in the imperial cult), but indicates where the logic of imperial idolatry would lead as the conflict between God and his demonic opponents comes to a head. The mark of the beast is a parody of God's seal of ownership on the foreheads of faithful Christians (7:3; 14:1). The reference to buying and selling reflects the fact that it was particularly in order to participate in the business life of the cities that Christians were tempted to compromise with idolatry, v. 18, since Greek or Hebrew letters also functioned as numbers, it was possible to add up the numerical value of a word—a practice known as gematria. This verse says that 'the number of the beast' is also 'the number of a person' and that both are 666. The Greek word used for beast (therion), transliterated into Hebrew letters, has the value 666, as does the name Nero(n) Caesar, written in Hebrew script. The implication is that Nero's very name reveals his true nature to the discerning. The verbal link with 17:9 suggests there is even more to the significance of the number. The number 666 has the unusual characteristic of being not only what the ancients called a triangular number (it is the sum of all the numbers up to 36), but also a doubly triangular number (36 is the sum of all the numbers up to 8). It is the eighth such number (in the series i, 6, 21, 55, 120, 231, 406, 666). So for those familiar with ancient numerology, Nero is also revealed to be 'the eighth', with a significance ch. 17 will develop.
(14:14—20) The Harvest of the Earth and the Vintage of the Earth The messages of the angels have given the nations the opportunity to respond to the witness of the martyrs in repentance (14:7) or to face the judgement of God (w. 9-11). To these two possibilities correspond the two images of the end that now follow, two different forms (taken from Joel 3:13) of the traditional eschatological image of harvest: the grain harvest
(14:1—5) The Lamb and the 144,000 v. i, this is the army (see REV 7:2-3) of the Lamb ready for battle with the beast. 'Mount Zion' alludes to Ps 2:6. For the names (indicating ownership), cf. 3:12. v. 3, for the new song, cf 5:9. v. 4, they are not literally all adult celibate males. The image is part of the imagery of holy war, for which soldiers had to keep themselves free of the ritual defilement incurred by sex (i Sam 21:5-6). This is used as an image of the moral probity (cf. v. 5) required of Christians (female as well as male) who follow the Lamb in his path of faithful witness to death. The first fruits are the first part of the harvest dedicated to God in sacrifice (Lev 23:9-14). The image implies that the rest of the harvest—the nations converted to God by the martyrs' witness—will follow, as depicted in 14:14-16. v. 5, there is probably allusion to both Isa 53:9 and Zeph 3:13 (the verbal correspondence of the two texts shows that the Messiah's people resemble him in his total lack of deceit), as well as contrast with the guile of the forces of evil (12:9; 13:14; 6:13). 'Blameless' really means 'without physical defect': the requirement for sacrificial animals or for soldiers in the holy war, used metaphorically here.
(w. 14-16) and the vintage (w. 17-20). The first, which takes up the harvest image from 14:4, is a positive image of the gathering of the nations into the messianic kingdom, while the second, taking up the image of wine from 14:8, 10, is a negative image of the judgement of the unrepentant nations. Thus the response of the nations to the proclamations of the angels is left open to two final possibilities: salvation or judgement. This passage is an important corrective to the tendency of commentators to allow only one of these possibilities as the message of Revelation, v. 14, there is a precise allusion to Dan 7:13—14, depicting Christ (cf. 1:13) coming on the clouds to God, not as judge, but to receive his dominion over all nations (hence the golden crown), w. 15-16, the harvest here consists in the single action of reaping, not the following acts of
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threshing and winnowing. Whereas the latter are commonly images of eschatological judgement (e.g. Jer 51:33; Mt 3:12), reaping alone is not a natural image of judgement and is never so used in the Bible, whereas it does occur as a positive image of the gathering of people into the kingdom (Mk 4:29; Jn 4:358). v. 18, the altar and the fire (cf 8:5) already suggest that this image is of judgement, w. 19—20, unlike the single action of reaping the grain harvest, two actions are specified for the vintage: gathering the grapes into the winepress and treading the winepress (for the latter as image of judgement, cf. Lam 1:15; Isa 63:3). The exposition of these images is left until 16:12-14 (^e gathering of the grapes) and 19:15 (the identity of the treader of the grapes). (15:1-4) The Song of the Conquerors v. i, while w. 2-4 are the concluding section of the account of the conflict of the forces of evil and the forces of God in chs. 12—15, vJ already introduces the angels whose actions are then narrated in 15:516:21. This is another example of the interlocking device already used in 8:1—5. v-
the series of seals and the series of trumpet-blasts, which both had interludes between the fifth and sixth judgement, expressing and interpreting the delay of final judgement, this series has no such interlude. (16:2-11) The First Five Bowls v. 2, like the first four trumpetblasts (8:7-12), the first four bowls fall on the four regions of creation: earth, sea, rivers and springs, heavens. But whereas the trumpet-blasts were limited, these are total. Again there are echoes of the plagues of Egypt (Ex 7-10). v. 5, in Jewish angelology, various angels were in charge of the functioning of various parts of creation (cf. 14:18). v. 6, an example of eschatological lex talionis (see comment on 11:18). v. 7, this is the altar of 6:9, on which the martyrs were sacrificed, v. 9, the response of these hardened sinners (also in v. n) is the opposite of 11:13 and I4:7v- IO> the first judgement to attack the power of the beast directly.
(16:12—16) The Sixth Bowl v. 12, this does not look like a judgement at all, until we realize that it prepares for the forces of evil to inflict judgement on themselves (cf. Rev 17:12, 16). The references to the Euphrates and kings from the east again evoke the contemporary fear or hope of invasion from the east (cf. 9:14-19), as well as prophecies of the fall of Babylon (Jer 50:2,41; 51:11, 28, 36). There maybe a parodic element again, suggesting the drying up of the Red Sea or the Euphrates (Isa 11:15) f°r God's people to pass. v. 13, frogs were unclean animals (Lev 11:9-12, 41-7). v. 14, this gathering for battle is resumed in 19:19. For 'the great day' cf. Joel 2:11,31; Zeph 1:14; Rev 6:17. v. 15, this interruption of the narrative by Christ addressing the readers, as in chs. 2-3, and a beatitude directs the readers' attention to the urgent relevance to themselves. They too are susceptible to the deceptions of the beast and the false prophet, who have their agents in the churches (cf. 2:14, 20). The simile (cf. 3:3) suggests the unexpectedness of the parousia, such that the readers must be at all times ready. Otherwise they will be like someone who removes his clothes for sleep and when surprised is found naked to his shame, v. 16, Harmagedon means 'mountain of Megiddo(n)', but is problematic since, although Megiddo is a town mentioned often in the OT, there is no 'mountain of Megiddo'. Probably the name derives from Zech 12:11 ('the plain of Megiddon'), since Rev 1:7 alludes to Zech 12:10, 12 with reference to the parousia and Zech 12:9 speaks of God's destruction of the nations who come against Jerusalem. Conflation of this passage with Ezek 38:17 (to which Rev 19:17 alludes) has produced a mountain of Megiddo. In view of the interpretation of Zech 12:10-12 in Rev 1:7, it seems that, even at this last moment of the eleventh hour, immediately before the very last judgement (16:17—21), John hints at the possibility of the nations greeting the returning Christ with repentance.
2> the heavenly sea of glass (4:6), now mingled with the fire of judgement, is the Red Sea through which the martyrs have come in the new exodus. They stand beside it, praising God for the victory, as Moses and Israel did (Ex 15:1—18). v. 3, since they have conquered by the blood of the Lamb (12:11), their song is the Lamb's as well as Moses', w. 3-4, the song is an interpretation of the song of Moses (Ex 15:1-8), reflecting the themes of that OT passage, but using the words of other OT passages with verbal links to Ex 15:11; Jer 10:6—7; PS 86:8—10. The effect is to stress the theme that God's act of judgement and salvation, the Exodus, demonstrates his deity to the nations (Ex 15:11-16), and to interpret this in terms of the most universalistic hope of the OT: that all the nations will come to worship the true God. In the context of Rev 15, this is the result of the victory won by the martyrs through their faithful witness as far as death. However, just as the positive outcome (the grain harvest) is followed by the negative outcome (the vintage) in ch. 14, so this vision of the nations converted to the worship of God through the witness of the martyrs (15:2-4) is now followed by a picture of final judgement on the nations (15:5—16:21) in consequence of their rejection of the witness of the martyrs (cf. 16:4—6). The future is portrayed in alternative images—conversion of the nations, judgement of the nations—which Revelation never reconciles. Since it deals in genuine images, not literalistic descriptions, it need not do so.
The Seven Bowls (15:5-16:21)
(15:5-16:1) Introduction The anticipatory vision of 15:1— which declared these seven plagues to be the last ones—is now continued. 15:5 echoes 11:19, indicating that this series of seven is related to the seventh trumpet-blast just as the seven trumpet-blasts were to the seventh seal. 15:7, the golden bowls reflect Isa 51:17, 22-3 (God's wrath punishing his people's enemies as they had afflicted his people; cf. Rev 16:4—5). They are also liturgical vessels described like those of 5:8, which contain incense representing the prayers of the saints. They therefore make the same point as the related but alternative image in 8:3—5. J5:8, cf Isa 6:1,4; Ezek 10:2—4. That no one can enter the temple until these plagues are ended stresses their finality and also contrasts with 7:9-17. Unlike
(16:17—21) The Seventh Bowl v. 17, the voice declares the completion of God's judgement (cf. 15:1); the same words in 21:6 refer to the completion of the renewal that follows judgement, w. 18—21, this is the final and fullest expansion of the formula of theophany and judgement (cf. 4:5; 8:5; 11:19). With 16:5 it shows that the whole series of last plagues is included in 11:19. The earthquake and the plague of hail echo Ezek 38:1922 (and cf. Josh 10:11). Earthquakes were frequent in the province of Asia in this period and ruined several cities, including Laodicea. The expression 'such as had not
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(21:10). The beast is easily identifiable as that of ch. 13, though its colour is a new feature, suggesting royal power or bloody oppression (cf. 12:3). Rome's economic power (the harlot) rides on the back of her military and political power (the beast), v. 4, the golden cup (cf. Jer 51:7), the outward attractiveness of Roman propaganda, contains the abominations of the Roman political religion, v. 5, the name Babylon is a mystery because it points to the true reality and fate of Rome which the vision reveals. Babylon as 'the mother of whores' is the metropolis to which other urban centres—such as the cities in which the seven churches are located—are subject (cf. 16:19). v6, the two descriptions of Christians seem to refer to the same people, not to two groups. It is probably not implied that their blood is in the golden cup (v. 4). The harlot's drunkenness has an even more sinister source. Probably Nero's persecution of Christians in the city of Rome is in mind, but those whom Rome will put to death in the great persecution which Revelation sees coming may be included.
occurred...' is an apocalyptic formula deriving from Dan 12:1 (cf Mt 24:21; Mk 13:19), though it might also recall the plagues of Egypt (Ex 9:18, 24; 10:6; 11:6). The judgement affects not only Babylon and the other cities (v. 19), but the whole earth (v. 20; cf. 6:14). The description ends, not with the death of the still unrepentant sinners, which must be implied, but with their cursing of God, making a striking contrast with 11:13, which is an alternative version of the same eschatological earthquake and its effects. The description of the fall of Babylon here (w. 18—19) is g°°d evidence for not taking Revelation's images literally, since the fall of Babylon is differently described in 17:16, as the work of the beast and the ten kings, and in 18:8.
Babylon the Harlot (ij-.i-icj-.io)
(17:1—60) The Harlot: (a) the Vision Until now Babylon has appeared only briefly in 14:8; 16:19; now she is given full attention, v. i, this angel is a characteristic literary link with the preceding section, while the reference to the 'judgement' of the harlot shows that the vision will expand on what was briefly mentioned in 16:19. The 'many waters' apply literally to ancient Babylon (Jer 51:13), hardly to contemporary Rome, but this is why they are later given an allegorical interpretation
(17:66—18) The Harlot: (b) The Interpretation v. 6, John is perplexed by the vision, v. 7, the interpretation turns out to be as much about the beast as about the harlot, since her fate is closely related to the career ofthe beast, v. 8, in this chapter, unlike ch. 13, Revelation takes up the popular expectation that the emperor Nero, thought not to be dead but to have fled secretly east to the Parthian empire, would return, with allies from the east, to wreak vengeance on Rome. This expectation, kept alive by a series of pretenders claiming to be the returning Nero, was a matter of eager hope for many in the eastern part ofthe Roman empire, who saw it as the resurgence ofthe power of the east against the west. The expected returning Nero was thus a kind of messianic figure. By alluding to this myth, Rev 17 can take in a different direction the Christological parody which was a feature ofthe portrayal ofthe beast in ch. 13. Whereas there the healing ofthe wound the Roman power suffered at the death of Nero parodies the resurrection of Jesus, here the return of Nero parodies the parousia of Jesus. Thus in v. 8 the beast is twice described in terms which echo one of Revelation's key designations for God: 'the one who was and who is and who is to come' (1:4, 8). The description ofthe beast differs in that the middle term is negative: 'is not'. Unlike God, the beast is not eternal. He has perished once already and so his future coming, unlike the parousia of Jesus, is unlikely to establish his eternal rule. Whereas Jesus will descend from heaven, he will ascend from the abyss and go to destruction (v. 8a). He is already doomed and his parousia will prove a fraud, v. 9, the interpretation ofthe seven heads as mountains makes the identification with Rome, famous for its seven hills, unequivocal, v. 10, attempts to use this passage to discover which Roman emperor was ruling when Revelation was written fail because it is impossible to know from which emperor the counting should begin or whether all emperors should be counted. It is better to recognize seven as the number of completeness. The series represents the complete sequence of emperors, and the counting functions to put the readers near, but not yet quite at the end ('a little while' is the conventional period of eschatological imminence, cf. 6:11; Heb 10:37). There is still one short reign to come. v. n, Nero is the one who belongs to the seven (as a past emperor) but is also an eighth (when he returns). This
(17:15). w. i—2, harlotry or adultery is an image applied by OT prophets to Israel, indicating her unfaithfulness to her husband YHWH and her devotion to other gods (cf. 2:22). But this sense of religious apostasy is only appropriate if the image is applied to the people of God. The image has another significance in Isa 23:15-18, where it is applied to Tyre, and Nah 3:46, where it is applied to Nineveh. Since the account of Babylon in ch. 18 alludes not only to OTprophecies about Babylon but also to those about Tyre (Isa 23; Ezek 26—8), Isa 23 is probably the main source of the image. In both Isa 23 and in Revelation it is not with gods that the harlot commits fornication but with 'all the kingdoms ofthe world' (Isa 23:17; cf. Ezek 27:33) or 'the kings ofthe earth' (Rev 17:2; 18:3, 9). In Isa 23 prostitution is an image of Tyre's trading relationships with the nations; in Revelation harlotry is similarly an image of Rome's economic relationships with client kingdoms and others. The basic idea is that those who associate with a prostitute pay her for the privilege. Babylon, 'the great whore' (v. i), is a rich courtesan, whose expensive clothes and jewellery (v. 4) indicate the lifestyle she leads at her clients' expense. This is an image of Rome's economic exploitation of her empire (as becomes especially clear in ch. 18). To those who associate with her she offers the supposed benefits of the Pax Romana (the conditions for economic prosperity), much lauded in Roman propaganda ofthe period, but these benefits are not what they seem. While the local elites may benefit from Rome's rule, many of Rome's subjects do not, but, dazzled by her glory and persuaded by her propaganda, they fail to realize they are being exploited. Hence 'the kings ofthe earth' (the local elites) enjoy her sexual favours, but 'the inhabitants ofthe earth' are intoxicated by her wine (v. 2; cf. the same distinction in 18:2). v. 3, for John's transportation in the spirit (i.e. by the agency of God's Spirit), cf. 21:10; Ezek 3:12, 14. The 'wilderness' (cf. Isa 21:1) already anticipates Babylon's destruction (18:2). It is also one ofthe many parallels and contrasts between Babylon and the new Jerusalem, which John will see on a high mountain
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intervention, w. 6—7/7, this formulates the principle that the punishment fits the crime (see comment on 11:18). 'Double' (as in Jer 16:18; Isa 40:2) really means 'fully equivalent'. The third command takes up the notion that the cup of Babylon's passion is also the cup of God's wrath (cf. 14:8, 10; Jer 51:7). v. yb is Rome's proud — virtually self-deifying — claim to eternal reign (cf. Isa 47:7—8).
head of the beast is identified with the beast itself (here and in v. 8) because Nero most vividly represents the antichristian evil of the imperial power. If seven is the complete sequence of emperors, the eighth is a supernumerary, in whom completeness is surpassed in a final excess of evil, which brings final destruction to the imperial power, v. 12, the ten are probably 'the kings of the east' (16:12) who accompany the returning Nero on his return. Their 'one hour' of co-rule with the beast is clear proof that none of Revelation's time periods should be understood literally, v. 14, this anticipates the account of the parousia in 19:11—21. As the beast has his allies, so Christ is accompanied by his saints (cf 19:14). v. 16, Revelation here exploits the contradiction between the two pagan Roman expectations: the admiring belief in Rome's self-promotion as 'the eternal city', and the rebellious hope of a conqueror from the east who would destroy Rome. Since the latter is the returning emperor Nero, the beast's own last attempt to establish his universal dominion itself destroys the eternal city. v. 17, evil itself enacts the judgement of God on evil. v. 18, this anticipates the appearance of the kings of the earth, mourning Babylon's fall, in 18:9. (18:1-3) The FaU of Babylon: (a) The Voice of an Angel Ch. 18 draws on all the OT prophetic oracles against Babylon (Isa 13:1—14:23; 21:1—10; 47; Jer 25:12—38; 50—i) and against Tyre (Isa 23; Ezek 26-8). John's oracle gathers up all that his prophetic predecessors had said against these two cities, in order to portray Rome as the culmination of all the evil empires of history and therefore subject like them to judgement. (Compare the way the beast (13:1-2) combines the features of all four beasts in Daniel's vision (Dan 7:3-8).) OT Babylon prefigures Rome's political supremacy and oppression, but OT Tyre prefigures Rome's economic power and oppression. Hence the importance of Ezek 26-8 as a model for John's oracle against Babylon (w. 9-20). Atthe same time, prophetic precedents are selected and adapted to fit the realities of contemporary Rome. v. 2, the cry of the angel in 14:8 is taken up and expanded. Demons and unclean animals haunt deserted ruins in OT oracles of destruction (Jer 51:37; Isa 13:21-2; 34:11—15). v. 3, to the nations and the kings, already in ch. 17*8 account of Babylon's harlotry, the merchants, another group who, like the local ruling elites, profited from Rome's domination of her empire, are now added. (18:4-20) The Fall of Babylon: (b) A Voice from Heaven This whole section is spoken by the voice to which v. 4 refers, v. 4, cf. Isa 48:20; Jer 50:8; 51:6. Addressed to Revelation's first readers, who did not live in Rome, this is a summons not to physical movement out of Babylon, but to dissociation from her evils. It is especially relevant to those Christians who belonged or wished to belong to the groups who mourn for Babylon in w. 9-19, who profited themselves from the economic system by which Rome exploited her empire and in which the political religion of Rome was inextricably involved, v. 5, for 'heaped high as heaven', cf. Jer 51:9; the phrase is suggestive of the tower of Babel (Gen n), implying that what God prevented humanity completing then is now accomplished in Babylon's summation of the human desire to rival God. For 'God remembered', cf. 16:19; Jer 14-10; Hos 7:2; 8:13; the expression responds to the complaint that God has forgotten, made by those who suffer injustice and wait for God's
v. 9, the three groups of mourners (w. 9-19) bewail the loss of the source of their own power or profit, v. 10, the lament of the kings appropriately refers to Babylon as powerful, whereas the others refer to her wealth, v. n, though not of high social status, many merchants were among the richest men of their time, and wielded much economic power, w. 1213, the list of cargoes has 28 (7 x 4) items, indicating all the produce of the whole earth (seven for completeness, four for the earth). The model for such a list is Ezek 27:12-24, but the form and contents of the list are quite different. It is a remarkably accurate list of the main imports to the city of Rome at the time, especially the most expensive luxuries which the extravagant tastes of the Roman rich demanded, but also some items (wine, oil, wheat) on which the life of the whole city depended. Many of the luxuries are those mentioned by Roman moralists criticizing the decadence of the Roman aristocracy. While those who mourn for Rome profited from this trade, on the whole Rome's luxuries and even her more basic imports were bought with the wealth gained from conquest, plunder, and taxation of the provinces, or drew resources to Rome that were needed in the provinces, or exploited local labour. The list is not an admiring view of Rome's civilization, but a precise indictment of her economic exploitation and oppression. The end of the list makes this clear: 'slaves, that is, human lives' (probably better than: 'slaves and human lives'). Not only does this indicate that slaves, traded as property, are human beings, but as the end of the list it suggests the contempt for human life on which all Rome's prosperity and luxury rested, v. 14, this is addressed to Babylon by the heavenly voice, as a comment on the list of cargoes: it evokes Rome's addiction to consumption and ostentatious display of wealth, v. 16, the description is very close to 7:4, demonstrating that Rome's luxury imports are the courtesan's extravagant profits from her rich clients, v. 17, the third group are those employed in the maritime transport industry, v. 20, this is not part of the mariners' lament, but the heavenly voice (v. 4) speaking for itself. Whereas Babylon's clients mourn, the saints should rejoice, for Babylon's fall is God's justice in their favour against their oppressor. It is a test for Revelation's Christian readers to realize with which perspective they sympathize — that of the earth (w. 9, n) and the sea (v. 17), or that of heaven (v. 20).
(18:21-4) The FaH °f Babylon: (c) The Voice of Another Angel v. 21, a prophetic symbol of Babylon's fall, modelled on Jeremiah's (51:63—4). w. 22—3, cf. Jer 25:10; and for 'your sorcery', cf. Nah 4:3; Isa 47:12. Babylon is guilty of all the crimes which, according to 22:15, exclude people from the new Jerusalem, v. 24, this depicts Babylon as the culmination of all evil empires, held guilty of all their crimes: the kind of eschatological hyperbole which enables the image to transcend its original reference to Rome. It is not only for the martyrdom of Christians, but for all the victims of her oppres-
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sion that Babylon is judged. John's prophetic critique of Rome (the most thoroughgoing in ancient literature) exposes the oppressive nature of Roman power, inherent in its deification of its power. The martyrdom of Christians serves as a peculiarly illuminating instance of this. (19:1-8) The Fall of Babylon: (d) Voices from Heaven w. 1-5, the full range of voices in heaven praise God for his judgement of Babylon and exhort God's servants on earth to do so. v. 3 once again mocks Rome's claim to eternity, w. 6-8, the second voice of a great multitude—more majestically described than that in v. i (cf 14:2)—celebrates the positive consequences of Babylon's judgement. God reigns (contrast 17:18; 18:7), and the Lamb's marriage to his chaste bride the church (contrast 18:23) takes the place of Babylon's venal promiscuity. These themes look forward to ch. 21. They remind us at this point that the negative side of God's eschatological action—the fall of Babylon—takes place only for the sake of the positive. The end of the passage also makes the present challenge to Christians clear: the positive corollary of coming out of Babylon (18:4) is to be ready for the Lamb as his bride. For the image of the church as the bride of Christ, see Eph 5:25-7; 2 Cor 11:2. The bride's clothing (v. 8) has a different meaning from that of the harlot (17:4; 18:16).
witness, but judge. But it is the same truth to which he witnessed that now condemns. Witness is double-edged, like his sword (1:16, but no longer in 19:15): it wins people from lies and illusions to the truth, but when they reject it it becomes evidence against those who love lies and cling to illusions in the face of the truth (cf. Jn 12:46—9). So the truth to which Jesus was the faithful witness is the same truth by which he now judges. The end of v. n echoes Isaiah's prophecy of the Messiah as righteous judge on behalf of the oppressed (11:4). v. 12, cf. 1:14; 2:18, 23: eyes which see the truth of minds and hearts. The significance of the unknown name is debatable: perhaps the mystery of his divine identity, v. 13, although the image derives from Isa 63:1-3 (cf. Gen 49:9-11), the blood must be his own (1:5; 5:9; 7:14; 12:11), since the slaughter of his enemies is yet to come (w. n—16 describe exclusively his qualifications for victory in the battle that follows). It is the blood of his faithful witness to the word of God which qualifies him to be the Word of God in person, v. 14, the martyrs appear as his army (cf. 17:14): their robes have been washed white in his blood (7:14). Their victory in death is vindicated through participation in his final victory, but it is unclear whether they are active in the destruction of the enemy (cf. v. 21; and v. 15 with 2:26—7).v-15> his weapon is his word: cf. Isa 11:4, and v. 21. This verse takes up the narratives left hanging in 12:5 and 14:19-20, along with their OT sources (Ps 2:8-11; Isa 63:1—6). v. 16, this name, publicly visible, proclaims him the one who exercises the absolute divine sovereignty over all and comes to establish it against the kings who contest his lordship, w. 17-18, the invitation to the birds, based on Ezek 39:17—20, is a gruesome parody of the eschatological banquet, the marriage supper of the Lamb (cf. 19:7—9). The birds form a literary indusio round the account of the battle (cf. v. 21). v. 19, as well as echoing Ps 2:1-3, this verse takes up the unfinished narrative of 16:14. Th£ whole passage, by means of its literary links with earlier parts of the book, portrays the parousia's comprehensive finality, v. 20, the final punishment represented by the lake of fire (which is the same as 'the second death': 20:14) is the immediate fate of two of the Satanic trinity, but not of the devil himself until 20:10, and not of humans until they have appeared before the divine tribunal
(19:9—10) John and the Angel v. 9, the common image of the eschatological banquet (e.g. Mt 8:11) is here specified as a marriage supper (cf. Mt 25:10). v. 10, John mistakes the agent of revelation, a servant of God like himself, for the divine source of God's true words (v. 9). The incident is significant primarily because it dramatizes the issue of true worship which is at stake throughout Revelation. Not the pretenders to divine status, like the beast, not even God's heavenly servants the angels maybe worshipped, but only God. This is the Jewish criterion of monotheism: only God may be worshipped. Given this passage, it is the more remarkable that 5:9-14 and 22:3 include Jesus in the worship due to God alone. The difficult final statement of v. 10 must mean that when the
Spirit inspires prophecy (such as John's) its content is the witness Jesus bore and bears (cf. 1:2).
Transition from Babylon to the Newjerusalem (19:11-21:8)
(20:15). Th£ beast and the false prophet, it should be remembered, are not human individuals but systems of power and influence. It is these primarily which are destroyed. Humans perish by the truth of God's judgement (v. 21) only because they have thrown in their lot with these systems.
(19:11—21) The Rider from Heaven and his Victory v. n, the open heaven signals a novel stage in the visionary narrative. Hitherto John's visions have revealed the heavenly perspective on the earthly situation. They have shown the beast's power to be deceit and the witness of the martyrs the truth. But while the beast still contests God's rule, earthly appearances still hide the truth from those unwilling to see it. With the opening of heaven, truth prevails openly and irresistibly on earth. All illusions and delusions must perish, and those who have propagated and still cling to them must perish with them. The truth, the heavenly reality of things, comes to earth in the person of Jesus, the one who has supremely witnessed to the truth of God in his life and death and who is the Word of God in person (v. 13). His victory is pictured in two interwoven strands of imagery: as military victory and as judicial sentence. He comes as the Divine Warrior, riding to victory over his enemies (v. 19), and as the Judge whose truthful verdict condemns the wicked. He is called 'faithful and true' (v. n), words which in 3:14 (cf. 1:5) describe him as witness. He is no longer
(20:1—10) The Millennium This passage has been the subject of interpretative debate for centuries, and the basis for a very diverse tradition of Christian 'millenarianism'. It is important to focus here on the role which the period of a thousand years plays in Revelation's visionary narrative. Some Jewish writings contemporary with Revelation portrayed a temporary period of messianic rule on earth at the end of history and prior to the eschatological renewal of creation (2 Apoc. Bar. 40:4; 4 Ezra 7:28—9). But John characteristically adapts this tradition for his own theological and literary purposes, w. 1-3, just as the dragon appeared in the narrative before the two beasts (chs. 12—13), so his story continues after they have gone to their doom. He is the ultimate principle of evil, they are no more than his historical minions. In ch. 12 he was thrown
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the way for 21:1. v. 14, Death and Hades appeared in the narrative before the Satanic trinity (1:18; 6:8) and survive longer before finally joining them in the lake of fire; cf. i Cor 15:26. (21:1-4) The New Heaven and the New Earth v. i, the expectation of a new cosmos here echoes Isa 65:17. 'New' carries its eschatological sense of radically different, but implies a radical renewal of the old creation rather than creation from nothing (cf. Paul's use of'new creation' in 2 Cor 5:17). Absence of sea, if this means the primordial chaos from which the beast arises (13:1), implies that the creation is established eternally, beyond any threat of reverting to chaos, v. 2, the new Jerusalem will be described at length later in the chapter. It comes from heaven as the dwelling place of redeemed humanity with God—the union of heaven and earth, or of the bride with her husband Christ (cf. 19:7-8). v. 3, the words echo God's OTpromises to dwell with his own people Israel as their God (Ezek 37:27—8; Zech8:8) and also that many nations will be his people with whom he will dwell (Zech 2:10—11; cf. Isa 19:25; 56:7; Am 9:12). The best text has 'his peoples' (rather than 'people'), using in the plural the word commonly used of God's own people (laoi) rather than the more usual word for the other nations or Gentiles (ethne). Now that the covenant people (Israel and the church) have fulfilled their mission of witness to the nations, all nations will share in the privileges and promises of the covenant people. From this point two strands run through the account of the new Jerusalem that follows, one referring to the covenant people, the other to the nations, v. 4, cf. Isa 25:7-8. In God's immediate presence on earth all sorrow, suffering, and death are banished for ever: this above all is what makes the new cosmos new. (21:5-8) God Speaks This is the first time since 1:8 that God speaks directly (as distinct from 'a voice from the throne', a phrase which preserves a reverent indirectness), v. 5, 'making all things new' implies renewal from the creative resources of God: the old creation is not replaced by another, but nor can the potential of the old creation itself produce its renewal. The renewal must come from the Creator, v. 6, cf. comment on 16:17. m b°th his first (1:8) and his last words, God declares himself the Alpha and the Omega. Here, as he becomes the realized goal of his creation, the phrase is stressed by reiteration in other terms (and in 22:13, where Christ also claims the title, it is reiterated yet again). The water (cf. 7:17; 22:1; Isa 49:10) is the eternal life of the new creation, beyond the reach of death, life lived continuously from its source in God. v. 7, this is the eighth promise to the conquerors, summing up those which end each ofthe messages to the churches (chs. 2— 3) and indicating their fulfilment from this point in the narrative onwards. It is another form ofthe OT covenant formulary