Part 39
Those favouring a literary approach note several verbal links: 'benefits'/'deal' (w. 2, 10, the same Heb. root), 'your/ our iniquity/iniquities' (w. 3,10), 'steadfast love' and 'mercy' (w. 4, 8, n, 13,17), but these form no clear pattern and may be unintentional repetitions.
Psalm 104 This great hymn praising the creator God is remarkable for its similarities with Gen i and an Egyptian hymn to Aten, the sun's disc, by the Pharaoh Akhenaten in the fourteenth century BCE. The similarities with Gen i include the general order of creation and vocabulary (with some unusual Heb. forms). Yet there are differences, the most notable of which is the lack of some of the psalm's mythological features in Genesis, such as traces of YHWH's conflict with the waters (w. 6-9), direct mention of the sun and moon (v. 19; they are 'lights' in Gen 1:14—18), and the naming of Leviathan
Those who look for patterns within the structure of the psalms note examples of indusio and word plays: 'my days' (w. 3, n), 'withered like grass' (w. 4, n), the collection of similes (w. 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, n) within w. 3—11; and, less convincingly, within w. 12—22 the sixfold repetition of YHWH plus one mention of YH (w. 12, 15, 16, 19, 21, 22, and 18), 'name' (w. 12, 15, 21, although in v. 12 the word translated 'name' is more literally 'memorial'), Zion (w. 13, 16, 21), 'servants' and 'to worship' (w. 14, 22, the same Hebrew verb), and 'generation' (w. 12,18). The final sections of the psalm appear to be linked to the two earlier parts by vocabulary: 'your years'
(v. 26; 'sea-monsters' in Gen 1:21). Moreover the psalm ranges more widely in its description of the world. Examples of similarities with the Egyptian hymn are lions roaming at night, the provision of pasture for the animals, ships sailing up and down, and the god as creator, but again there are differences: night is more sinister in the Aten hymn; several features, such as care of the foetus in the womb and the chicken in the egg, are absent from the psalm; and above all it is YHWH who exercises providential care in the Israelite poem, not the sun. Whether there has been direct contact between Ps 104 and either Gen i or the Aten hymn must be regarded as doubtful, though all three may have been influenced by common ideas and even traditions, and it is not impossible that the writer of Gen i knew the psalm.
(w. 24, 27), 'long ago' and 'in your presence' (w. 25, 28, the same Heb. word, slightly modified), 'my days' (w. 23, 24 ('at the mid-point of my life', lit. 'in the half of my days', cf 3, n), 'He has broken' (v. 23) is a homonym of'answer' (v. 2) in the Hebrew; 'your servants' (w. 14, 28), 'heaven' (w. 19, 25), 'to/ throughout all generations' (w. 12,24), and the similes inv. 26 recall those in w. 3-11. Some of these features are more convincing than others, but they suggest that the psalm was carefully crafted as a unity.
The psalmist appears to be gravely ill (the suggestion that this is the prayer of one unjustly accused, which some propose, appears unlikely), and the 'enemies' seem to be those who regard his disease as punishment for sin. This is confirmed by the unusual title. Jewish tradition linked the psalm with the days of fasting (m. Ta'an. 2.3), and in Christian tradition it is one of the seven penitential psalms, perhaps seeing in the reference to God's anger (v. 10) an implicit expression of penitence, for there is no open confession.
The structure of the psalm can be set out as: w. 1-4, the introductory self-exhortation of praise, beginning like Ps 103:1; w. 5-9, YHWH as creator; w. 10-18, YHWH's care of all creatures; w. 19—23, moon and sun, and their influence; w. 24-30, a further account of God's providence, upon which life itself depends; w. 31—5, a renewed call to praise, including a prayer for sinners to be destroyed, and ending with a repetition of the opening exhortation. The call that sinners be consumed offends many today, but it has been suggested that 'No one who has reckoned with the evil which man has wreaked
Psalm 103 Although this psalm is often described as a hymn of praise, it differs from many other hymns in the intensely personal character of its opening, and it might well be treated
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hymnic accounts of God's salvation, ending with a vow to offer praise (v. 47). v. 48 is usually regarded as the doxology at the end of Book 4 ofthe Psalter, but it is included in the extracts from the psalm which the Chronicler quotes in i Chr 16:34—6, and it is somewhat bold to claim that the Psalter was complete and divided into five books by that time. To relieve sharply contrasting forms within the psalm, it has been suggested that w. 1-3 are the conclusion of Ps 105, but this is unnecessary, given the style of many ofthe psalms, and Ps 105:45 forms a fully satisfactory end to that psalm. It is widely accepted that w. 27 and 47 refer to the Exile and the dispersion, and provide a means for dating the psalm. This would not preclude an early form, however, and some are prepared to set it in the pre-exilic period, perhaps as part of a covenant renewal ceremony at New Year. It is intriguing that a ceremony at the Feast of Weeks included recitations of the righteous acts of God by the priests and of Israel's sins by the Levites (iQS 1:21, 23). Perhaps more lies behind the juxtaposition of Ps 105 and 106 than simply the fact that they are history psalms.
on animals, trees and waters could think this prayer superfluous'—it is indeed an essential part of the psalm that 'the spoilers should be brought to the end of their existence as spoilers' (Eaton 1995: 73).
The verb 'to make' and the noun 'work' occur at strategic places in the psalm (w. 4, 13, 19, 24, 31), and it may be that beside the indusio of w. ia and 35c ('Hallelujah' in 35^ stands outside the psalm itself), there is a concentric structure of w. 1-4, 5-13, 14-23, 24-30, 31-5, with w. 14-23 forming the centre.
The theme of the psalm may connect it with the Autumn New Year Festival, but there can be no certainty, as is shown by such diverse suggestions as that it originated at the dedication of Solomon's temple and that it is post-exilic. In the end the origins matter little for an appreciation of the magnificent hymn.
Psalm 105 This is the second ofthe three greathistory psalms (PsyS; 105; 106; PS 1.13). The tone throughout is of praise, and it is usually regarded as a hymn, but with such an extended historical section form-critical considerations break down.
Psalm 107 This appealing psalm is unique among the thanksgiving psalms. The central part (w. 4—32) consists of four sections in which different groups of those who have been rescued by YHWH are called upon to thank him. There are two refrains. The first in w. 6,13,19, 28, which has slight variations, describes the way the unfortunates 'cried to' YHWH, who then 'delivered' (v. 6) or 'saved' (w. 13, 19) them, or 'brought them out' (v. 28), while the second in w. 8, 15, 21, 31 urges them to offer thanks, the first two followed by different motivations suited to the trouble into which they had fallen, the last two with extended exhortations (w. 22,32). The introductory call to give thanks (v. i) is followed by what appears to be a reference to the returning exiles (w. 2-3). w. 33—43 form a hymn praising God who controls nature and maintains justice among human beings, ending with a wisdom-style admonition.
Date and original setting are uncertain. The inclusion of w. 1-15 in the composite poem which the Chronicler has inserted at i Chr 16:7 fixes the relative date for its completion and may indicate an original cultic use, although it provides no evidence for linking the psalm with the time of David. The Chronicler was probably influenced by the liturgical practice of his own day or he may have introduced the psalm for literary reasons. Some note the references to the covenant and suggest that the psalm was related to its renewal at an annual festival. Much depends upon the relation of the psalm to the Pentateuchal narratives. Some argue that the historical allusions are derived from the completed Pentateuch, and that the psalm is therefore post-exilic. If so it might be non-cultic, possibly related to wisdom writings. The psalm differs from Exodus, however, in several respects, particularly the number and order of the plagues, and the omission of any reference to Sinai, leading others to claim that similarities with the Old Testament narratives are due to both drawing on common traditions rather than to literary borrowing.
Not unnaturally many suppose that two separate psalms have been combined, some also regarding w. 2-3 as a postexilic adaptation of an earlier psalm (cf. Isa 43:5; 49:12). Since such composite psalms are found both in the Psalter (e.g. Ps 108) and in the historical books (e.g. i Chr 16), this is not out of the question. It is possible, however, to read the psalm as a liturgy of thanksgiving, the final hymn summing up the congregation's praise.
Most base their analysis ofthe structure ofthe psalm on the historical sequence, with w. 7-41 set between an extended call to praise (w. i—6) and a concluding section which expounds the covenant faith and calls for Israel's ethical response to election and deliverance (w. 42-5). The central section is often divided into w. 7-11,12-15,J6-23, 24-36(38), 36(39)~4i, in a sequence of historical allusions. Those looking for literary devices point to elaborate indusio (e.g. the covenant with Abraham in w. 9, 42, and 'strangers'/'alien' in w. 12, 23) and chiasmus (e.g. in w. 2-5: 'wonderful works', 'seek', YHWH :YHWH, 'seek', 'wonderful works').
How the psalm might have been used is unknown. It has been suggested that it might have had its origin at a mass thanksgiving festival, and was picked up later and slightly modified by pilgrims from the Diaspora. There is also disagreement about the nature of the dangers from which the worshippers have been saved, some taking the language literally and seeing actual travellers, prisoners, sick persons, and sailors, others treating the whole as allegorical ofthe nation, freed from bondage in Egypt and Babylon, restored to new life and health, and delivered from the 'stormy' attacks of foreign nations.
Psalm 106 The third ofthe great history psalms takes a very different view of Israel's history from the other two psalms. The stress now is upon Israel's faithlessness and disobedience, despite the persistent grace and forgiveness of YHWH. Form-critical classifications are uncertain. The opening verses read like a hymn of praise (w. 1—3), but swiftly turn into the style of an individual lament (w. 4-5), and then from v. 6 corporate confession dominates, though mixed with
Psalm 108 This psalm has been formed by combining 57:7— ii and 60:6—12 with only very minor differences in the text. But rather than simply referring to the comments on these two psalms, it is worth looking carefully at the new psalm
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assigned to the king's coronation (cf Ps 2). The first words of the psalm are found very often in the prophetic books, where they usually come at the end of an oracle and are commonly translated 'says the LORD'. They are found only here in the Psalter (but cf. 'Transgression speaks', Ps 36:1). A further oracle is given in v. 4, where the king is also declared a priest. Melchizedek was the king-priest of Jebusite Jerusalem in Gen 14:18-20, and it has been suggested that when David captured the city he took over many features of the old Canaanite religion. Although NRSV does not insert quotation marks, v. 2/7 may be a further divine promise.
which has been created, for the thrust and mood have been radically altered.
Ps 57 begins with urgent petition by an individual, and the section which has been taken up in Ps 108 is the concluding expression of confidence that the prayer has been heard and self-exhortation to offer praise. Ps 60 also begins with a complaint against God, because he has rejected his people, but the editor of Ps 108 omits this part of the psalm, takes up the divine promise to give Israel victory over the surrounding nations, especially over Edom, the call for help, and the final note of certainty that God will enable the Israelites to defeat their enemies. Thus the tone of Ps 108 is more assured and joy predominates. The combination of individual and communal prayers presents the psalmist as the representative of the nation (royal maximalists suggest that this is a king's psalm). If the sources are disregarded the structure of the psalm now appears as w. 1-4, a vow to praise God or the expression of that praise; w. 5—9, prayers for help linked to the divine promise (perhaps a prophetic oracle); and w. 10—13, a further appeal, ending in an expression of trust or confidence that God will support his people. Throughout the emphasis is upon the steadfast love, faithfulness, and promises of God. Whether it reflects the experiences of the Exile and Return cannot be determined, but it is a fine example of the way that past liturgies continue to live on into a later age.
Unfortunately the text is difficult and almost certainly corrupt in several verses (cf. the varied translations of v. 3 in the Eng. versions), possibly an indication of the great age of the psalm, and its reuse in different situations across the centuries. Some accept that it goes back to the time of David, others relate it to the New Year Festival, either at the beginning, when it is part of the king's preparation for the ritual battle with his enemies, or after his humiliation and victory. The speaker may have been a temple prophet. The mysterious v. 3 may refer to an enacted 'rebirth' within the ritual. Alternative suggestions link it with Solomon's coronation, or the time of Josiah. Others take the military language literally and relate the psalm to actual battles.
Christian interpretation, going back to the first century and building on Jewish tradition, regarded it as messianic, and w. i and 4 are frequently quoted in the NT, where they support the belief in the reign of Christ after the resurrection and ascension (cf. Mk 12:36; Acts 2:34-5; Heb 1:13; 5:6; 7:17, 21).
Psalm 109 This appeal to God is notable for the comprehensive curse in w. 6—19. It is probably the prayer of an individual, who is perhaps a man who has been falsely accused, or who is making an appeal to the temple authorities, or who is having to undergo an ordeal, although some find national overtones and link it with the king's psalms. The psalmist makes his plea in w. 1—5, and this is followed by the extensive imprecation (w. 6-19, concluded or summed up in v. 20). Pleading is renewed at v. 21, with appeals on the grounds of YHWH's steadfast love, the psalmist's misery, and the attacks and curses of the enemies. The lament ends with the vow to offer praise, so common in this type of psalm (w. 30-1).
Psalm in This and Ps 112 form a pair of acrostics, each having twenty-two short lines beginning with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The present psalm has the features of a hymn of praise or thanksgiving. Whether it was intended to be sung in worship (cf. v. i) or was a poetic meditation on such worship is impossible to decide. The main themes relate to the Exodus deliverance, possibly linked even more closely to Ex 34 (cf. v. 4/7 with Ex 34:6, and other similarities of vocabulary with Ex 34:5, 10, ii.
NRSV and REB insert 'They say' in v. 6, taking the following words as a quotation of the enemies' curse, while NJB adopts the same interpretation by the use of quotation marks. NJB continues the quotation to the end of v. 15, and NRSV to v. ig.butREBholdsthatonlyv. 6 is the word of the enemy, the rest of the imprecation being uttered by the psalmist against the perjured accuser put up by the enemies. NIV and GNB give no indication of any change of speaker in the text, although NIV offers a marginal alternative similar to NRSV.
How far the acrostic hinders logical development of the ideas is much debated. Some find reiterated thoughts on the covenant God. Others detect two strophes, w. 2-712 fastening on YHWH's saving deeds, and w. 7/7—10 on covenant and law. Whether more intricate word patterns are visible as some have claimed, seems doubtful. Certainly this is no drab exercise but a vibrant account of the saving God to whom Israel responds with thanksgiving, reverence, and obedience, for the psalmist is confident that the everlasting graciousness of God will be matched by everlasting praise.
Although there seem to be quotations in other psalms (e.g. Ps 52:7), the quotation of such a lengthy imprecation appears unlikely, since the psalmist utters a curse in v. 29, and would surely have been fearful of repeating his enemies' curse in such detail. In support of the theory it is pointed out that outside these verses the enemies are spoken of in the plural (but the imprecation may be against their leader), that the psalmist states that they resorted to curses (v. 28), and that v. 21 may signal the return to the psalmist's own plea. It is doubtful whether the psalm was ever part of normal worship, although if it was a royal psalm it may have been.
Psalm 112 This psalm is either by the same author as Ps in or was modelled on it, as the acrostic form and similarities of vocabulary suggest, but here the poet speaks more like one of the wise men, telling of the blessing which comes to the godly man, rather like Ps i, though with only a glance at the fate of the wicked in the final verse. The tightly compressed style makes the translation of some verses uncertain, e.g. is the subject of v. 4 light, God, or the righteous man? All the words are singular (the 'they' of NRSV is accommodation to inclusive language). LXX inserted 'the Lord' to make the meaning
Psalm no This is one of the irreducible minimum of royal psalms and because of the divine oracle in v. i has often been
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Psalm 115 w. 4—11 recur as Ps 135:15—20, with some differences in the text; many Hebrew M S S, including the Leningrad codex, the LXX, Syriac, and Jerome join the psalm to Ps 114; and many Hebrew MSS begin a new psalm at v. 12. This confusion is increased by the inclusion of the psalm within the Hallel, for it begins like a lament rather than a hymn of praise. It will never be possible to trace its past history, and it is best to try to understand the meaning of the completed psalm on its own.
clear, cf. RS V, probably wrongly in view of the general tenor of the psalm.
A striking feature of this psalm is the way virtues ascribed to YHWH in Ps in are transferred to the good man: like YHWH he is gracious and compassionate and his righteousness is of the same nature as God's. Although the psalm lacks a logical structure, the psalmist pointing to many different ways in which goodness leads to prosperity, its attractiveness lies in its portrait of the righteous man, giving to the poor, always ready to lend to the needy, governed by absolute integrity, and with a life based on trust in God, in whose law he delights.
w. i—2 is a cry for deliverance, at a time when God appears to have deserted Israel and his people and foreigners ask for proof of his activity. The next section (w. 3-8) is a hymn, in which the power of YHWH is contrasted with the impotence of idols. A threefold call to Israel, priests ('Aaron'), and those who 'fear the LORD' (possibly proselytes, but more probably a comprehensive term for all the faithful) to trust in YHWH follows (REB, hardly correctly, follows the LXX, Syriac, and Jerome in taking the verbs as indicative). At this point a prophet or priest confidently affirms that God will bless his people (w. 12-13) and a priest gives a blessing
Psalm 113 Ps 113-18 form the 'Hallel' ('Praise', cf. the frequent 'Hallelujah', 'Praise Yah') or the 'Egyptian Hallel' (cf. Ps 114:1) to distinguish it from the 'Great Hallel' (Ps 136, or 120—36, or 135—6; the name was also given in Jewish tradition to Ps 146-50). These six psalms were the only ones sung at the great festivals, according to the earliest sources. At Passover Ps 113—14 were sung before the meal and 115—18 after it (m. Pesah. 10:6, 7, cf. Mk 14:26).
(w. 14-15). The liturgy ends with a vow to praise YHWH (w. 16-18).
Ps 113 is a hymn of praise. It opens with a thrice-repeated imperative, and this is followed by ascriptions of praise to YHWH (w. 2—3) and further descriptions of his greatness and goodness (w. 4—9). v. 9 may have been intended literally of a childless woman; later Judaism found in it a reference to Zion (cf. Isa 54:1-8), and the Targum paraphrased the verse: 'Who makes the congregation of Israel, which was like a barren woman mourning for the men of her household, to be full of crowds, like a mother who rejoices over sons.' Whether the psalm was sung antiphonally, a leader shouting the call to praise and the congregation, or another choir, responding with w. 2—9, is conjecture. Psalm 114 Despite the narrative form, this psalm is usually classed as a hymn of praise, in stanzas of two verses, the inner two (w. 3-4, 5-6) matching each other. Incidents in the account of the Exodus and Conquest are referred to: God's choice of Israel, crossing the Red Sea and Jordan, the provision of water in the desert, and the Sinai law-giving (though some see either parallels to creation myths or a specific reference to creation). Changes ofverbal forms have led NRSVand NJB to introduce vivid present tenses in w. 5—6. The LXX moves 'Praise the LORD' from the end of Ps 113 to the head of this psalm, perhaps rightly, since it then provides an antecedent for 'his' (NRSV 'God's') in v. 2.
Presumably the psalm was intended for worship, and if it reflects the teaching of Deutero-Isaiah it belongs to the time of the second temple.
Psalm 116 This psalm has often been seen as a textbook example of the individual thanksgiving psalms, w. 1—2 express the psalmist's love of God because he has saved him (other thanksgiving psalms begin with a call to give thanks); a narrative follows (w. 3-11), in which the psalmist recounts his past distress and describes how God delivered him; and the psalm ends with the repayment of the vows which the psalmist made and the psalmist offers a thanksgiving sacrifice (w. 12-19; unless this is a vow promising to do all these things).
The trouble from which the psalmist was saved was most probably serious illness: he feels that he had almost entered into Sheol, its cords had gripped him and he felt he would be swept away to destruction, v. n does not seem sufficient evidence for supposing that this is another psalm of one falsely accused, and the 'cup of salvation' is more probably a libation accompanying the sacrifice than an ordeal (cf. Num 5:15—28). Royal maximalists take it as the king's psalm, holding that he would be the most likely person to offer sacrifices in the temple and finding a parallel to the libation in a stele of Yehawmilk of Byblos on which the king is depicted standing before the goddess Ba'alat, cup in hand, and uttering his prayer. It is held to be especially appropriate for the king to call himself YHWH's servant (v. 16), and the occasional plurals may show that the royal psalmist is the nation's representative. Aramaisms in the language may point to a postexilic date, however, and the psalm was perhaps intended for use by any Israelite who came to the sanctuary to offer his thanksgiving.
In Dante's Divine Comedy the spirits sing this psalm as they draw near to the island on which the mountain of purgatory stands. In another place Dante explains the medieval method of exegesis: Tf we regard the letter alone, what is set before us is the exodus of the Children of Israel from Egypt in the days of Moses; if the allegory, our redemption wrought by Christ; if the moral sense, we are shown the conversion of the soul from the grief and wretchedness of sin to the state of grace; if the anagogical, we are shown the departure of the holy soul from the thraldom of this corruption to the liberty of eternal glory.' It was on such grounds that the psalm has been used both on Easter Day and at the burial of the dead. While such interpretations may appear far removed from the 'real' meaning of the psalm, modern literary theory warns against supposing that meaning is limited to the author's intention.
The LXX begins a new psalm, with a fresh heading of 'Alleluia', at v. 10, but there is no reason to suppose that two psalms have been combined. The tradition in this part of the Psalter appears to have been uncertain about the psalm divisions generally.
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ments', 'ordinances', 'decrees', 'precepts', but with occasionally different renderings), although GNB varies the translations of all the words apart from 'law' with a wanton promiscuity. It has been suggested that originally all eight words were included in each stanza, and some scholars have emended the text to secure this, but there is so little obvious corruption that it is most unlikely that this is right. Most of the words are found in all the stanzas but only four contain all eight used once each (w. 57—64, 73—80, 81—8, 129—36). Although the words have different connotations, differences of meaning are hardly important in this psalm, where the psalmist ponders the divine teaching, eagerly looking for it to mould his life. It was a happy chance that the word expressing beatitude begins with the first letter of the alphabet: it is found in the first two verses of the psalm.
Psalm 117 This tiny psalm expresses the perfect form of a hymn of praise, with the call to praise (v. i), the motivation for that praise, introduced by 'for' (v. 2ab), and a repeated call to praise (v. 2c). The universalist invitation to the (foreign) nations to worship YHWH, a couple of Aramaisms, and possibly the influence of DeuteroTsaiah, have suggested a post-exilic date. Paul quotes v. i in support of his belief that God's loving purpose reaches out to the Gentiles (Rom 15:11). It is not impossible, however, that the psalmist thought of the nations as coming in subservience to Israel's God.
The uncertainty about the psalm divisions continues, many Hebrew MSS joining this psalm to Ps 116 (which royal maximalists find appropriate as the conclusion of the king's psalm), and other MSS taking it as the beginning of Ps 118. But Ps 116 is complete in itself, and Ps 118 opens in a different style, so that the tradition of the LXX, and the majority of Hebrew MSS, which treats it as a separate psalm is probably correct.
Each verse expresses an independent idea, although there is some grouping (e.g. w. 98-100) and features from different types of psalm appear within the poem: hymn of praise (e.g. w. 89-91, 172), thanksgiving (e.g. v. 7), lament (e.g. w. 107, 153-60), references to enemies (e.g. w. 23, 51, 86-7, 95, 157), confession and assertion of innocence (e.g. w. n, 30-2, 97104,163), vow (v. 33), wisdom saying (e.g. w. 9,130). Although it is difficult to imagine a setting in Israelite worship for this amalgam, the psalmist is deeply versed in the hymns of the temple, and other OT writings, especially Deuteronomy, Proverbs, and Jeremiah.
Psalm 118 The interchange between singular and plural, and apparent dialogue, coupled with apparent references to the temple gates and a procession, suggest that this is a liturgy. In w. 1-4 the community is called to offer thanksgiving. An individual appears at v. 5 and describes the way YHWH has saved him (w. 5—18). The call to open the gates (v. 19) with a response in v. 20 is similar to Ps 24:7-10, and has led some to see in the psalm an 'entrance liturgy'. The final verses contain varied elements: thanksgiving (v. 21), possibly in response to the opening of the gates, a proverbial statement (v. 22), praise of YHWH (w. 23-4), a plea for salvation (v. 25), a blessing, probably by a priest (v. 26), a call to join in the procession round the altar (v. 27), and a vow to praise God (v. 28). The psalm ends, as it began, with a call to thanksgiving (v. 28).
While it is often described as a Torah psalm, apart from w. 1-3 and 115 every verse is addressed to God. Perhaps it would be better to regard it as a meditation in the form of a prayer to God (somewhat like Augustine's Confessions). If the beginning and end mark his intention, the psalmist wished to stress the happiness that comes from following YHWH's teaching and to 'walk in his ways', and, despite some assertions of his own righteousness, he seeks the divine help which he knows is necessary if he is to obey God's law.
Interpretations vary. Many believe that it is a royal psalm, either after actual victory in war, or as part of the temple ritual, when the king was attacked by his enemies and almost defeated before being 'saved' by YHWH. Some argue that the phrase 'house of Aaron' points to the time after the Exile when this was how the priesthood was known, while 'those who fear the LORD' were proselytes; they refer the psalm to a national leader, or even to the whole nation. Jewish tradition linked it with the feast of Tabernacles, and the Mishnah (m. Sukk. 3:9; 4:5) records that the lulab (bunch of palm, myrtle, and willow branches) was shaken at the beginning and end of the recital of the psalm, and that willow branches were set up over the altar.
Psalm 120 The tenses in v. i present the main difficulty in the interpretation of this psalm. NRSV changes the pointing and treats the verse as the opening of a prayer for deliverance. The MT should be translated as REB: T called to the LORD in my distress, and he answered me'. If this is correct, the psalm would appear to be a thanksgiving which includes the prayer which the psalmist offered and the distress from which he has been delivered. The psalm seems very fragmented, with v. 2 as the actual prayer, v. 3 a rhetorical question answered in v. 4, w. 5—7 an account of the enemies who refuse appeals for peace.
The psalm was regarded as messianic in early Christian circles and is quoted extensively in the NT (Heb 13:6 (v. 6); Mk 12:10-11; Acts 4:11; i Pet 2:7 (w. 22-3); Mk 11:9 (v. 26)), but whether this interpretation had Jewish antecedents is uncertain.
The dangers besetting the psalmist are uncertain. It might be the prayer of one falsely accused, making his appeal in the temple, the references to warfare being metaphorical. Royal maximalists treat it as the prayer of the king, attacked by enemies, and possibly the victim of the breaking of an alliance ('lying lips'). Meshech and Kedar refer to a country or people near the Black Sea and a tribe in the Syro-Arabian desert, places so far apart that the names are often taken metaphorically to represent bitter and implacable foes rather than the actual exile of the psalmist. If'Song of Ascents' is a reference to pilgrimage (see PS c.g, £.12), the names may have been understood as areas from which the pilgrims have
Psalm 119 This great acrostic consists of twenty-two stanzas of eight lines, each line beginning with the appropriate letter of the Hebrew alphabet (cf Lam 3). While the stanzas are separated in most English versions, only NIV and NJB mark the Hebrew letters as AV and RV did. GNB is misleading in suggesting that each stanza expresses a special theme. In addition to the alphabetic structure the writer uses eight words to represent the law, visible in most modern translations (cf. NRSV: 'law', 'promise', 'word', 'statutes', 'command-
come
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Psalm 121 This psalm is in the form of a dialogue. Unless 'my help' (v. 2) is arbitrarily emended to 'help' or 'your help', the response to the question in v. i begins at v. 3. But then v. 2 rather hangs in the air, since it would imply that the questioner offered his own answer before receiving the assurance of w. 3—8 (probably by a priest). It is just possible that v. 2 as it stands is the beginning of the priest's assurance, expressing his own experience. The AV followed Jerome and Luther in wrongly taking 'from where' (v. i) as a relative.
was on his people's side (w. 1-5). Had he not been they would have been overwhelmed by the danger, depicted as the attack of a savage animal or a devastating torrent. 'Let Israel now say' (v. ifc) is probably a call to the assembled people to take up the theme. In v. 2 the Hebrew word behind 'enemies' normally refers to humanity in general (e.g. the word is translated 'human beings' in Ps 8:4), but here it appears to be used to contrast the weakness of human enemies compared with the power of YHWH. w. 6-7 praise God who has delivered his people, and the final verse expresses confidence in YHWH, the great creator.
The situation in which the psalm may have been recited is uncertain. A cultic setting is more probable than that the psalmist converses with himself, or a father with his son. Some have taken 'your going out and your coming in' (v. 8) as indicating the priest's blessing to pilgrims as they leave the temple after one of the festivals and look to their return for the next, but the phrase is used of the ordinary activities of daily life (cf Deut 28:6; i Kings 3:7) and this seems to be its meaning here. The reference to the Keeper of Israel in v. 4, has convinced others that the promise is given to the king as representative of Israel, who has YHWH at his right hand, with the going out and coming in referring to his leadership in war (cf. Josh 14:11; i Sam 18:16). Psalm 122 It is difficult to decide whether this pilgrim song, which is related to the songs of Zion (Ps 46; 48; 76; 84; 87), was sung when the pilgrims had just arrived in Jerusalem or were preparing to leave after the festival. Whichever it was, the psalmist expresses the great joy he had felt as he set out in the company of others to come up to Jerusalem (w. 1—2; 'when they said to me' involves a change in the vowels; NIV keeps closer to the MT: T rejoiced with those who said to me'). After praising the holy city (w. 3—5), he prays for its welfare (w. 6—8; 'peace' is more than just absence of war), and concludes the psalm with a vow (v. 9). There is probably a play on the name Jerusalem, the name of which probably means 'the foundation of Salem', a god's name related to salom ('prosperity', 'peace'; the word occurs three times in these verses).
Certain peculiarities in the Hebrew may point to a late date, but it is impossible to fasten upon any historical situation which called forth the psalm.
Psalm 125 Uncertainty about the verb 'will lead away' in v. 5 partly affects the classification of this psalm. If it is to be translated as a future (so NRSV, NIV) it reiterates the confidence of w. 1-3, and the psalm appears to be a national psalm of trust in YHWH. If, however, it is taken as expressing a wish (cf. REB: 'may the LORD make them go the way of evildoers'; NJB and GNB render with an imperative) the psalm looks much more like a national lament, the initial expressions of confidence leading up to urgent prayer for help. Most Eng. versions smooth out v. 2, but NJB expresses the vigour of the Hebrew: 'Jerusalem! The mountains encircle her: so [Heb. "and"] Yahweh encircles his people.'
It appears that the Jews are oppressed in their own land by foreigners (cf. v. 3) and most place it in the post-exilic period, during the Persian (or even Greek) empire. Psalm 126 Four uncertainties in meaning make this apparently simple little psalm one of the most difficult.
1. The opening phrase is now usually translated as NRSV: 'When the LORD restored the fortunes of Zion', rather than as the margin: 'brought back those who returned to Zion', and does not unambiguously refer to the return from exile. Its relation to v. 4, however, remains uncertain. In v. 4 the verb is an imperative, opening up alternative possibilities for the relation of this verse to v. i. Probably v. 4 is a prayer for a further deliverance (only NJB takes it as a release from captivity, though NIV and GNB offer this as an alternative, both reversing text and margin from v. i and presumably taking v. i as a reference to the return from exile and v. 4 as a later deliverance), or w. 1-3 might be a meditation on the future.
'Of David' is added to 'A Song of Ascents' in the title of this psalm, as also in Ps 124; 131. GNB marg. is misleading in making no reference to the title in Ps 120—34, aPart from 'HEBREW TITLE: By David' in these two psalms. 'Of David' is omitted by two Hebrew M S S, LXX M S S, and the Targum. It is another example of the extension of Davidic psalms in later editing. Psalm 123 Despite the title and its position within the Psalter, this is probably not a pilgrim psalm. Rather a group of persecuted Jews plead for help. The singular of v. i may indicate antiphonal chanting, with a representative of the community speaking first, w. 1—2 express confidence in God (some find a chiastic structure, a b b ' a'), while w. 3—4 are the prayer, supported by a description of the contempt which is shown them. In v. 2 'hand' may represent the master's power, or the sense may be that the servants watch their master's hand so that they can obey every gesture.
2. The tenses in w. 1—3 are uncertain, as is the meaning of 'we were like those who dream'. If that phrase is interpreted in a modern sense of being almost unbelievable (cf. GNB: 'it was like a dream'), the whole section probably refers to the past (as most Eng. versions). On the other hand, the verbs in v. 2 might refer to a hypothetical future, the sense being that when (almost 'if') God restores Jerusalem's fortunes, the people would be filled with joy, but it is only a dream. On this view 'we are like dreamers' is a parenthesis. The difficulty with this interpretation, however, is that v. 3 appears to refer to YHWH's past actions (unless the verbs are taken as 'prophetic' perfects or as a petition).
The last line has been taken to be either dittography or (following the qere, 'proudest oppressors' or even 'proudest Greeks') a gloss from the Greek period. There seems no reason for rejecting the ketib; the verse may have three lines. Psalm 124 This communal or national thanksgiving opens with strong emphasis upon the fact that it was YHWH who
3. But 'dreamers' may not be the correct meaning of the Hebrew. The LXX's 'we became as those comforted', the Syriac 'as those who rejoice' and the Targum's 'like sick people who are cured', point to a different tradition, probably sup-
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enemies. It is possible that v. 4 belongs with the second part of the psalm, and that the verb should be taken as precative: 'may he cut', but this is less likely, v. 8c may be an independent blessing, this time invoked on 'those who pass by' or the worshippers who recite the psalm.
ported by a Qumran text (cf REB: 'people renewed in health', cf. NIVmarg.).
4. The meaning of w. 5—6 is also uncertain. They look like proverbial statements, but may go back to ideas of a dying and rising god, symbolized by the sowing of seed (his burial) and its growth (his resurrection). Here they appear to be a promise uttered by a prophet or a declaration of confidence (cf. Ps 85). NRSV, however, regards v. 5 as a continuation of the petition in v. 4, and only v. 6 as expressing a note of confidence.
Type and setting are quite uncertain, although it seems very probable that the psalm was used in the cult. Classifications include communal psalm of confidence, communal thanksgiving, communal lament, or a mixture of forms: national thanksgiving and psalm of revenge or judgement. Perhaps it is best to admit that it does not fit easily into preconceived categories. The opening and much of the subject-matter link it with Ps 124.
The psalm may belong to the Autumn Festival (cf. God's salvation, reference to rain, and sowing and reaping), and be a prayer for blessing on the coming agricultural year. On the other hand, it might have a historical setting, possibly during the distress that followed the return from exile. Psalm 127 The wisdom features of this psalm are clear, and it is unlikely that it was related to the cult, although some have associated it with the Feast of Tabernacles, the rededication of the temple, or the birth of a son (later Christian tradition used it in the service of thanksgiving for women after childbirth). The different themes in w. 1—2 and 3—5 have led to the suggestion that two separate psalm fragments have been combined, but a Sumerian poem also combines the gift of palace, city, and children. This makes it unnecessary to take 'house' (v. i) as 'household, family'. Sons were important for building up the power and prestige of the family, and v. 5 refers to their support in lawsuits which were judged in the city gate. Sons of a man's youth (v. 4) would be in their prime when he came to rely on their support.
Psalm 130 This is commonly regarded as a lament, although the usual account of the distress of the supplicant is lacking, possibly replaced by the indirect confession of sin (w. 3—4). For this interpretation the verbs in w. i and 5 need to be translated as present (as NRSV). They may, however, indicate the psalmist's actions in the past (T have called', REB), when the psalm would more naturally be seen as a thanksgiving which looked back to the earlier distress and prayer. The call to Israel (w. 7-8) is perhaps odd in the petition of an individual. Some regard it as a later addition to adjust the psalm to the community. Others propose that a priest at this point addressed the assembled worshippers, among whom the individual psalmist had come to the temple.
The depths are the watery deeps, and probably indicate that the psalmist is gravely ill and feels he has sunk into the underworld of death (cf. PS 0.13); illness and sin go together, as often in the OT The watchmen (v. 6) may be military sentinels, but the Targum identifies them as Levites who watch for the first moment of the dawn to offer the morning sacrifice.
The meaning of'he gives sleep to his beloved' (v. 2) is very uncertain. The NRSV marg. 'he provides for his beloved during sleep' is doubtfully possible as a translation, since 'gives' requires an object, but neither is particularly suitable in a wisdom context, with its warnings against sleep (cf. Prov 6:6-11; 20:13). Hence other meanings for the word have been sought, such as 'prosperity' or 'honour', but the ancient versions support 'he gives sleep'.
A few claim it as a royal psalm, but there is little to support this. While most assume that it was sung within the cultic worship, this also is uncertain. Some view it as a personal prayer, unconnected with the cult, but whether such poems were composed in ancient Israel, even after the Exile, is unknown. It is one of the seven penitential psalms of the church, and was an especial favourite of Luther, who called it one of the 'Pauline psalms' and based his great hymn 'Out of the depths I cry to Thee' on it.
An editor searching for allusions in the historical books ascribed the psalm to Solomon in the title (absent from some LXX MSS), probably through taking the 'house' as the temple, relating 'beloved' with Solomon's other name, Jedidiah (2 Sam 12:25), and maybe seeing in 'sleep' an allusion to Solomon's dream (i Kings 3:10-15). Psalm 128 This happy psalm begins with a beatitude and ends with a benediction. Usually classed as a wisdom psalm, from the language and sentiments, it is not impossible that it was used in the worship, perhaps to welcome pilgrims or to bless them as they depart from the temple. The stress on fertility may point to the Autumn Festival. Even these are guesses; still more precarious are suggestions that it is the blessing given to a host at the door of his house, and Luther's description of a 'marriage song'.
Psalm 131 The brevity of this psalm makes interpretation difficult. It is usually regarded as a psalm of confidence by an individual, v. 3 being either an addition to fit it for corporate worship (cf. Ps 130:7—8), or the widening of the psalmist's devotion to include the community. Even maximalists shrink from suggesting that it is a royal psalm, despite 'Of David' in the title (omitted by some LXX MSS), though this has been proposed, royal traits being found in the references to pride and similarities with Ps 62:1, 5. Other suggestions are that it was a form of entrance liturgy (cf. Ps 15; 24), that the speaker was a teacher in the temple addressing an assembly of Israel, even that it was sung by a woman pilgrim carrying her child. The exact meaning of'weaned child' is not clear; possibly the weaned child was less fretful than the child just before it was weaned, when its mother's milk was drying up. Whatever the precise meaning and origins, the psalm expresses a quiet confidence in God.
It is in two parts, but whether the division is after v. 3 or v. 4 is uncertain, v. 4 could round off the first part or introduce the second. Notable is the combining of prosperity for the pious man and the welfare of Jerusalem. Psalm 129 The two parts of this psalm stand out fairly clearly. In w. 1—4 Israel is called upon to affirm YHWH's continual protection against its enemies from the time of the Exodus ('my youth', cf. Hos 11:1). w. 5-8 are an imprecation on Israel's
401 PSALMS
omit the phrase (so NRSV, NJB), perhaps sensing its incongruity. Some think it has been misplaced from Ps 132. Psalm 134 Ignorance about the worship in ancient Israel makes it difficult to reconstruct the way this psalm was sung. Are there two voices, or one? Are w. 1-2 addressed to the priests or the laity? Were they actually 'standing in the temple' at the time the psalm was sung, or are they 'attendants' in the temple? What were the night-time practices? (There appear to have been nocturnal rites at the Feast of Tabernacles.) The opening is curious: literally 'Behold, bless YHWH', a unique phrase in the OT—the 'Come' of NRSV, REB, and NJB is not a legitimate translation—and 'Behold' may be wrongly repeated from Ps 133.
Psalm 132 This is among the essential group of royal psalms. It falls into two clear sections: w. i—10 are a prayer for God's blessing on the Davidic king, w. n—18 an affirmation of God's promises to David and an assurance that YHWH will remain faithful to his covenant with David and grant blessings on Jerusalem; David's descendants ('one of the sons of your body', 'a horn to sprout up', w. n, 17) will enjoy prosperity and will triumph over their enemies. Vocabulary and ideas link the two parts closely together: e.g. 'turn away/back' (w. 10, n); 'anointed one' (w. 10, 17); the clothing of the priests with righteousness/salvation (w. 9,16); Jerusalem as God's dwelling-place (w. 7-8, 13, although the Heb. words are different); the correspondence between David's oath and YHWH's (w. 2, n); w. 13—16 form the response to w. 6—9. The psalm is commonly described as a liturgy in which king and prophet take part. The linking of Zion (w. 5, 13-15), the ark (v. 8, and probably v. 6: REB boldly identifies 'it' as the ark), and the Davidic dynasty would all be suitable to the New Year Festival.
While the details are obscure, the general sense is plain: a call to worship God is followed by a priestly blessing. Blessing, indeed, controls the psalm: 'Bless YHWH' opens and closes the first part, and is picked up at the beginning of the last verse. Psalm 135 Many allusions to other psalms and OT passages (e.g. Ps 134 in w. 2, 21; Deut 32:36 in v. 14; Ex 19:5 and Deut 7:6 in v. 4), and a close similarity between w. 15-20 and Ps 115:4n, suggest that the psalmist either drew his inspiration (and some phrases) from earlier liturgical pieces, or was deeply attuned to living tradition. Perhaps because of this the structure is somewhat complex: w. 1-4 are hymnic, with calls to praise and motivations introduced with 'for'; w. 5-7 and 8-12 proclaim YHWH's greatness, first as Lord of nature, then as deliverer of Israel from Egypt and the one who gave the promised land to Israel; w. 13-14 form another hymnic section, first addressed to YHWH and then describing his protection of Israel; w. 15—20, apparently drawn from Ps 115:4—11, but with some differences, repudiate idols and call on Israel, priests, Levites, and those who reverence YHWH to praise him; and the concluding verse, possibly a later addition, praises YHWH as the God whose earthly home is Jerusalem.
There is clearly some connection with the account of David's bringing ofthe ark into Jerusalem and Nathan's oracle in 2 Sam 6-7. Some accept that the narrative in Samuel is historical, and see in the psalm later cultic celebration. Others regard the psalm and the accompanying cultic worship as primary, the writer ofthe history having filled out his narrative from the ritual of his own day. This appears to have happened in 2 Chr 6, where the writer concludes his version ofthe story he has taken from Samuel with w. 8—10 of this psalm.
Ephrathah (v. 6) probably refers to Bethlehem, where David came from. Unless 'fields of Jaar' is really 'fields ofthe forest, woodland', it is apparently a reference to Kiriath-jearim from where David brought the ark into Jerusalem (i Sam 7:1—2; 2
Sam 6:2), and it has been suggested (less probably) that Ephrathah referred to the same area.
Psalm 133 To most people the first line of this psalm is appealing, but to some the second verse may seem grotesque—which shows how difficult it is to enter into the culture and emotions of ancient Israel.
It is better to try to understand the completed psalm than to worry about the sources from which it has been drawn. The changes of form and address possibly point to antiphonal singing, although it is not easy to determine which verses to ascribe to two or more voices. The tone throughout is of ardent and confident praise. It is apparently post-exilic. Whether it was intended for cultic singing is uncertain: Tabernacles and Passover have both been suggested as suitable occasions for its use. Psalm 136 The reiterated refrain sounds monotonous to us. It probably points to antiphonal chanting, either between soloist and choir, or priest and people. Possibly it was added to an original psalm which consisted only ofthe first line of each verse (cf the additions made to Ps 145 in the Qumran MS).
Three main interpretations are generally offered, (i) It is a wisdom psalm concerned with family life, which has been adapted to cultic use by the addition of references to Aaron and Zion. (2) It has a historical setting and perhaps comes from a post-exilic time when attempts were being made to unite the Jews in Judah. (3) It belongs to one ofthe festivals and sees in the worship of YHWH the true unity ofthe nation. None of these is particularly convincing, and we have to confess that the psalm is so foreign that we cannot guess at its true meaning.
The dew of Hermon in Syria falling on Jerusalem is a strange concept. Perhaps 'dew of Hermon' was a phrase for heavy dew. Some emend Zion to 'dry', but this is simply to rewrite the psalm. The oil is probably the sacred oil of consecration. It may be that it is not the oil which runs down on the collar but Aaron's long beard, which 'flows' down.
The form is a hymn. w. 1-3 are a call to give thanks to YHWH; w. 4-9 offer praise of YHWH as creator; w. 10-22 praise YHWH as the one who delivered his people from Egypt and gave them the promised land; w. 23-5 express a more general praise for God's deliverance of his people, perhaps in the present, and his care of all creation, introduced differently from the earlier part ofthe psalm; v. 26 is a renewed call to praise YHWH. The psalm forms a companion to Ps 135, and although both are often described as history psalms, both are
There are carefully crafted repetitions and plays on words in the Hebrew: 'running down' in w. 2 and 3 ('falls' is the same word); Zion and 'ordained' (w. 3, 4); and 'brothers (NRSV 'kindred') and 'life' (w. i, 3) have a similar sound.
MT has 'Of David' in the title (as REB, NIV), but one LXX MS, the Coptic, and the Targum, as well as two Hebrew MSS
PSALMS 402
tions directly addressed to God, and it may be that the verbs should be taken as modal ('Let all the kings of the earth praise you', REB; NIValso takes the verbs as modal).
really hymns (note especially w. 1-3, 23-5). 'O give thanks' is assumed before w. 4, 5, 6, 7,10,13,16,17. The dependence on Gen i (cf w. 7—9; Gen 1:14—18) makes a post-exilic date almost certain. Psalm 137 'The tender pathos of the opening verses enlists our sympathy: the crash of bitter denunciation in the closing stanza shocks and repels' (Kirkpatrick 1901: iii. 779). The date of the psalm is variously taken to be during the Exile, when the mockery of w. 1-3 were a present experience, or soon after the return from exile when the psalmist looked back on past suffering. The key issue is whether v. 6 implies that Jerusalem is restored or faith is holding on to a ruin. Usually described as a communal lament or complaint, the emphasis on Zion is reminiscent of the Songs of Zion, and it may be that the psalmist is reusing features from those songs in a new way. Similarly he expresses his curse on Babylon in the form of a beatitude. The structure is either as in NRSV (w. 1-3, 4-6, 79) or v. 4 belongs to the first stanza, and the rest of the psalm divides into 5—6, 7, 8—9.
All in all we are left with a somewhat elusive psalm of thanksgiving, which nevertheless expresses as attractive a joyful thanksgiving and trust as any in the Psalter. Psalm 139 The uncertain meaning and probable corruption of several verses in this psalm, coupled with uncertainties about its type, make interpretation very difficult. No space is available to discuss individual verses, but the wide differences between the chief modern translations, especially in w. n, 14, 16-18, 20 should be noted. The original text and meaning of these verses is probably beyond recovery.
The structure of the psalm as set out in NRSV is accepted by many. In w. i—6 the psalmist recognizes God's intimate knowledge of all his actions and thoughts. He then confesses God's omnipresence through rhetorical questions showing that nowhere could he escape from God's presence (w. 7—12, contrast Jonah). The next section (w. 13—16) refers either to divine foreknowledge of the psalmist, even before he was born, or draws on mythological ideas about the creation of the first man from the womb of the earth; w. 17—18 are a more general sense of wonder at God's omniscience. The prayer against the wicked and expression of the psalmist's hatred of those who oppose God in w. 19-22 strike a harsh and possibly alien note, but the opening call for God to examine his thoughts and actions is picked up in the two concluding verses.
History may help us to understand, if not to condone, the final curses. Edom was the traditional enemy of Israel, and at the time of the Exile the Edomites pressed into Judah, and brought upon themselves the undying hatred of Israel (cf. Isa 34; 63:1—6; Lam 4:21—2; Ezek 25:12—14; Ob). On one level it represents the ordinary features of ancient warfare; on another, the Babylonians were accounted the enemies of YHWH and not just of Israel, for they had destroyed his city and his temple.
A decision about whether w. 19-24 (or 19-22) are part of a separate psalm is not easy. The echo 'you have searched'— 'search me' (w. i, 23) is a strong pointer to unity, the sudden imprecation on the wicked and the difference between the types (they appear to be an individual thanksgiving, rather akin to a hymn, and a lament) speak for two separate psalms or parts of psalms.
The LXX gives 'Of David' as a title, and one LXX textual tradition added 'through Jeremiah', possibly noting similarities with Jer 49:7—22; 50:1—51:58, and the verbs 'payback' and 'dash' (w. 8—9) in Jer 51:20—4. Psalm 138 The structure of this psalm is clearer than its type, w. 1-3 express thanksgiving for answered prayer, w. 4-6 call on the kings to praise YHWH, and w. 7-8 conclude the psalm with confidence in YHWH's steadfast love. Perhaps the most natural understanding is that this is an individual thanksgiving, but the universal reference in the middle section has convinced some that it is a royal psalm, offered by the king either when absent from Jerusalem or, more probably, from within the temple court and facing the temple itself. Others propose that it is corporate, the T being either a representative of the nation or symbolizing it. Support can be found for each of these interpretations, but this only reinforces the uncertainty. For example, the call to the foreign kings fits a royal psalm, but might equally be a late 'democratizing' of the style when it was taken over by individuals. In the same way 'lowly' in v. 6 can be understood as a mark of an ordinary Jewish worshipper, but kings, both within Israel and in other countries of the ancient Middle East, described themselves as poor and lowly. Moreover, while there are some resemblances to Deutero-Isaiah (e.g. cf. v. 6 with Isa 57:15) these are hardly close enough to prove dependence on the prophet, and both may well have been calling upon traditional liturgical language. Some LXX MSS add 'of Zechariah' to the title, perhaps finding similarities between the message of this prophet and w. 4—6. Finally, the tenses in w. 4—5 present some difficulties. NRSV takes the verbs as future, declaring the homage that the kings will offer, but it is unusual to find such hymnic descrip-
Royal maximalists, who regard this as a royal psalm, see w. 19-24 as the goal of a prayer in which the king invites God to search his inner being and prays for the slaughter of his enemies. (Many readers wish that w. 19—22 were not there, and it is important to remember that for the psalmist the wicked were God's enemies and that for him God's honour was at stake; see PS f.2-8.) An alternative interpretation ascribes the psalm to a man who has been acquitted of the charges made against him (God has already searched out his thoughts and deeds, w. 1-3), and offers his thanksgiving. This is preferable to taking it as the prayer of one who has been accused and awaits judgement, a view that involves seeing w. 1-18 as a kind of 'negative oath', akin to Job 31. All these interpretations assume that the psalm belongs to cultic worship, but some think it is too personal for this, and, pointing to wisdom features, regard it as a meditative poem.
The date of the psalm cannot be determined, but does not matter for an appreciation of the reverence before the mighty God which shines out. Psalm 140 This appears to be the prayer of a man accused by slanderers, whose attacks are described under a variety of metaphors: war, snake poison, setting traps, and plots. The difficulties of knowing whether the situation is an appeal to a higher court, an ordeal, a counter-curse against sorcery, or a
4°3 PSALMS
the English: 'prison' (YHWH 'put me [shut me up] into your hands'); 'righteous'; and 'deal bountifully' ('repaid'). Psalm 143 This psalm is clearly the prayer of an individual, but who the psalmist might be is uncertain. Royal maximalists include it among the king's psalms, pointing to the title, the language, references to enemies, including possibly death as the supreme enemy, and similarities with the previous psalms, which are also regarded as royal. Others include it among the psalms of those falsely accused, pointing to its legal phraseology (e.g. w. 1—2), seeing in v. 3 a reference to imprisonment while awaiting a decision, and relating v. 8 to the divine decision at dawn; the lack of the usual protestations of innocence perhaps counts against this interpretation. On either view, it is more likely that v. 5 refers to YHWH's deliverance of Israel rather than his past dealings with the psalmist. As with many of these individual laments, most of the allusions are too general to make any reconstruction fully convincing. One of the most striking characteristics of this psalm is the writer's eager longing for God himself and not just his gifts (v. 6), and his prayer to be enabled to obey him (w. 8,10).
plea for direct divine aid and a right judgement are the same as in all similar psalms. A few attribute the psalm to the king (largely on the grounds of the references to war in w. 2, 7, which most treat as part of the figurative language). The text is almost certainly corrupt in w. 8-9, and the Eng. versions make various attempts to arrive at some sense.
The structure is not entirely clear, w. 6—7, 12—13 are some~ what parallel in expressing confidence in God, most obviously in 12-13, which may be a response to a priestly or prophetic assurance that the prayer has been heard. This leaves w. 1—5 as a prayer for help and w. 8—n as an imprecation against the enemies. Psalm 141 w. 5-7 of this psalm are so corrupt that it seems impossible to gain any certain sense (cf. the differences in the Eng. versions). In the psalm as a whole the psalmist prays that he may be delivered from the enticements and the oppression of the wicked, and seeks divine support to live a sinless life. Royal maximalists take it to be the king's psalm, perhaps offered during a military campaign far away from Jerusalem (v. 2 is taken to mean that he cannot offer sacrifice in the temple, while v. 7 is seen as a lament over battle losses). More probably it is a prayer of an ordinary worshipper, even a prayer outside cultic worship altogether, although most question whether v. 2 implies the substitution of prayer for sacrifice. While w. 8-10 express the common plea for help against enemies who are persecuting the psalmist, in terms similar to Ps 140 (cf. 35:8), other parts of the psalm are closer to wisdom teaching, especially the request for help against wrong speech (v. 3) and to be kept away from bad company
The structure is not entirely clear because of the repetition of some of the ideas. Most simply it can be divided into an introduction (w. 1—2), a description of his troubles (w. 3—6), and further petitions (w. 7-12), but within the second section there are references to enemies, the psalmist's own depression, a memory of the past, and a longing for God, while in the third death seems imminent, and the psalmist makes several requests for God's steadfast love and divine instruction, as well as deliverance from enemies, and their destruction.
Within Christian tradition this is one of the seven penitential psalms, Paul quoted v. 2 in Rom 3:20 to show universal sinfulness. The LXX's enlargement of the title with 'when his son (one MSS adds Absalom) pursued him' (cf. 2 Sam 15-18) shows how later editors looked for incidents in the books of Samuel with which to link the psalms, in this way providing an interpretation both of the narratives and the psalms. Psalm 144 At least w. i-n of this psalm are a king's prayer and must be included in the irreducible minimum of royal psalms, w. 12—15, however, with their plural 'our' and theme of fertility and prosperity, are commonly held to be a fragment of a different psalm. The unity of the psalm can be maintained if it is taken to be liturgical, part of the ritual drama of the humiliation and restoration of the king, rather than a prayer before battle. The celebration of prosperity is the expected consequence of YHWH's salvation of his anointed servant and viceroy (cf. Ps 72). w. i-n contain many reminiscences of other psalms, Ps 18 especially, but also Ps 8 and 33. This may indicate a late date, but the similarities might equally be the result of common liturgical language.
(v. 4, cf. Ps i). The structure of the psalm is difficult to determine owing to uncertainties about the text. The NRSV divisions are probably as good as any: an opening call to God to hear his prayer (w. 1-2), a petition to be enabled to avoid sin and sinners (w. 3-4), and two sets of petitions against the enemies (w. 5—7, 8—10), but v. 5 may belong to the second section.
Psalm 142 The title, references to enemies, the psalmist's close bond with YHWH, and the celebration of the people around him, perhaps even crowning him (v. 7, cf. REB: 'The righteous will place a crown on me') have led royal maximalists to include this as one of the king's psalms. On the other hand if'prison' (v. 7) is taken literally, it will be more naturally regarded as the prayer of a man awaiting the divine decision as to his guilt (cf. Lev 24:12; Num 15:34). It may, however, be figurative, either for distress, or, less probably, for exile, turning the psalm into a prayer for Israel.
The simplest structuring of the psalm is to divide it into two strophes, w. 1—4, 5—7, although the smaller divisions of NRSV point to further developments in the thought: the opening call to YHWH, a description of the distress, and renewed prayers, coupled with expression of trust in God and a final vow to offer thanksgiving for the deliverance.
The meaning of v. 14 is uncertain. NRSV takes the first line as a continuation of the agricultural scene in the previous verse, with a change to an attack by a foreign enemy and exile in the second line (cf. NIV). REB, however, makes the whole verse refer to fertility among the animals.
The title reveals the way the editor searched the historical books for a suitable setting for the psalm. The cave may be that at Adullam or En-gedi (i Sam 22:1; 24:3). It has been pointed out that he may have found links with the former in the references to 'refuge' (v. 5) and 'stronghold' (i Sam 22:4), and to the latter through three words in v. 7 and i Sam 24:17—18 from the same Hebrew roots, though this is not apparent in
To the Davidic title the LXX adds, 'concerning Goliath' (cf. i Sam 17), a further example of a late editorial ascription to David. Psalm 145 This psalm is an acrostic, each verse beginning with the appropriate letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The n
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question of the unity of the psalm, doubts about which are increased by the LXX's division into two psalms, w. i—n, 12—20. While some accept this, or even argue for a combination of three separate psalms, similarities of vocabulary and themes across the whole psalm, and possible structural patterns, such as the mention of Israel at the beginning and end, have convinced others that the MT tradition is the correct one.
verse is missing from the MT, but is supplied by the Qumran scroll and the LXX and Syriac versions. It is included after v. 13 in all the modern Eng. versions.
Despite the limitations which the form imposes on the writer, the psalmist has produced a hymn with a firm structure. Three times the invocation to worship YHWH is followed by descriptions of his power and goodness (w. i— 2 + 3; 4-7 + 8-9; 10-12 + 13-20), and the psalm ends with a renewed call to worship which links the individual and 'all flesh' (v. 21). If this is the correct analysis, the verbs in w. 4—7 and 10—12 should be treated as modal, 'May one generation laud your works to another...', not recognized by modern translations (unless the 'shall' of NRSV is intended to express this sense).
The LXX adds to the title 'of Haggai and Zechariah', as in Ps 146, and inserts this full title before v. 12. Possibly the references to the restoration after the Exile are responsible for this, although it is difficult to determine what controlled its decision. In a further departure from the MT, the LXX adds a second 'Praise the Lord' in v. i (in these last five psalms in the Psalter 'Hallelujah' stands outside the main poem), which would make the rest of the verse into the 'for' clause of hymns. Psalm 148 The structure of this hymn is interesting. The call to praise is expressed with imperatives in w. 1-4, 7, and with jussives ('let them praise') inw. 50,130, while what is normally the main content of hymns of praise, the description of YHWH's nature and deeds, introduced with 'for', is limited to w. 5/7-6 and 13/7-140. Moreover, in w. 1-4 the imperative 'praise him' begins every line, whereas in w. 7—12 the opening verb is followed by a series of vocatives. The unity is confirmed by the careful construction, which moves from the heavenly bodies (possibly thought of in mythological terms rather than merely poetic imagery), to features oftheearth (natural forces, plants and animals, human beings), and finally to what is almost a little hymn to God in itself, v. i/^bc is rather awkward and it has been suggested that it is an editorial footnote stating that this is a hymn of praise.