Part 40
The psalm is notable for reminiscences of other psalms; e.g. v. 3/Ps 96:4; and w. I5~i6/Ps 104:27-8. The description of YHWH in v. 8 is found in Ps 103:8 and Ex 34:6, while individual phrases occur elsewhere. It is possible that such phrases are derived from a common liturgical tradition rather than by direct borrowing, although the change of person in w. 15-16 favours close contact between the two psalms.
Whether the psalm was ever part of cultic worship is uncertain, although the addition in the Qumran MS of 'Blessed is YHWH, and blessed is his name for ever and ever' after each verse may show that it was sung with a congregational response in late Jewish liturgy. The early church sang it at the midday meal, while Chrysostom associates it with the eucharist because of w. 15-16. Some, however, regard acrostics as purely poetic, or as wisdom exercises which have no connection with the cult. Psalm 146 Usually described as a hymn of praise, this psalm has several unusual features. It is by an individual. Instead of the call to praise (w. 1-2) leading into a description of YHWH's greatness, the psalmist introduces a wisdom-style warning against reliance on human aid (w. 3—4). This is followed by a beatitude (v. 5) which opens out into the expected description of YHWH as creator and protector of the oppressed (w. 6-9). Striking in this section are a series of relative clauses setting out the character of God and a group of five sentences each beginning with the name YHWH. The psalm ends with YHWH's reign as king of Zion (v. 10), akin to the Zion hymns (cf. also v. 5). As in Ps 145, phrases from other psalms or from liturgical tradition are taken up and adapted for new use.
The listing of the various parts of the natural world have been compared to Egyptian lists, but these are longer and the psalm sounds more like a hymn than a scribal collection of animals. Others point to the hymnic tradition from Babylon as well as Egypt. There seems no need to go outside the OT, however, for the closest similarities are with Gen i, even down to some items of vocabulary.
The 'Song of the Three Young Men' (an addition to Daniel inserted between Dan 3:23, 24 in the Gk. and Lat. versions), and the Contemns Cuncti are further developments of this kind of hymn. Job 38, with which it is also often compared, is less close. Psalm 149 Some divide this hymn into two sections, w. 1-4, 5—9, others into three, w. 1—3,4—6, 7—9. In favour of a twofold structure is the call to praise followed by the grounds for this praise (introduced by 'for') in the first part, and the call to the people to execute divine vengeance in the second. Support for a three-part division is seen primarily in the triad of infinitives, in w. 7—9, which marks off these verses; its weakness lies in the rather motley collection of themes in the middle part.
The LXX title ascribes this psalm, as well as Ps 147 (divided into two, each with the same title), to Haggai and Zechariah, without any obvious reason. Most regard it as post-exilic, however, on the grounds of its apparent use of other psalms and its language. Psalm 147 This psalm consists of three sections, each of which is in the form of a complete hymn of praise, with call to worship and description of YHWH's character and deeds upon which that praise is based (w. i—6, 7—11, 12—20). He is worshipped as the God of Israel who has restored Jerusalem after the Exile (w. 2, 13), has shown himself as the mighty creator who controls the stars and the forces of nature, especially the winter frost and snow (w. 4, 8,16—18), provides food for human beings and animals (w. 9, 14), and cares for the brokenhearted (v. 3) and the oppressed (v. 6). This raises the
The psalm is marked by the martial tone and the look towards the future, and various situations have been proposed for it. The description of YHWH as king (v. 2) suggests that it may be one of the 'new songs' of the Autumn Festival (cf. Ps 96), the battle being cultic, and the eschatology part of the New Year rites. Others suggest an actual battle situation, the psalm being either a hymn of victory that looks forward to still greater triumphs, or as a prayer sung while preparing for the fight.
4°5 PROVERBS
Gillingham, S. E. (1994), The Poems and Psalms of the Hebrew Bible,
Many are appalled at the way this psalm has been used to stir up martial passions in the past. It may alleviate their distress to remember that Israel's enemies were also those of YHWH. On the other hand that may be seen to intensify hatred of the nation's enemies.
Oxford Bible Series (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Gunkel, H., and Begrich, J. (1933), Einleitung in die Psalmen (Gottin-
gen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht). Gunn, G. S. (1956), God in the Psalms (Edinburgh: St Andrew). Johnson, A. R. (1964), The Vitality of the Individual in the Thought of
Psalm 150 This expansion of the cry, 'Praise the Lord', forms a noble conclusion to the book of the praises of Israel. Ten times the cry 'Praise him' (once 'Praise God') rings out. This may be accidental, or it may reflect the ten words of creation in Gen i (cf m. 'Abot 5.1: 'By ten sayings was the world created'). These forge the psalm into a unity and it is unnecessary to try to divide it into stanzas, such as w. 1—2, 3—4, 5—6, or, more realistically, w. 1-2 expressing where and for what God is to be praised (by 'the sanctuary' is probably meant both the Jerusalem temple and God's heavenly dwelling), w. 3—5 listing the various musical instruments (presumably those played in temple worship), and v. 6 uttering a final call to all living things to praise YHWH.
Ancient Israel, 2nd edn. (Cardiff: University of Wales Press).
(1967), Sacral Kingship in Ancient Israel, 2nd edn. (Cardiff: University of Wales Press).
(1979), The Cultic Prophet and Israel's Psalmody (Cardiff: University of Wales Press). Kaiser, W. C., Jr. (1983), Toward Old Testament Ethics (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Academie Books, Zondervan). Keel, O. (1978), The Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near
Eastern Iconography and the Book of Psalms, ET (New York: Seabury; London: SPCK). Kirkpatrick, A. F. (1901), The Book of Psalms (Cambridge Bible for
Schools and Colleges) (3 vols.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), iii. Kraus, H.-J. (1986), Theology of the Psalms (Minneapolis: Augsburg;
London: SPCK).
The psalm is often regarded as an extended doxology at the end of the Psalter, corresponding to the doxologies which mark each of the first four books. It is, however, a joyful hymn in its own right, distinguished by the dominance of the call to praise, and lacking the 'for' clauses that describe God's greatness (the brief motivation in v. 2 is a different construction in the Heb.).
(1988), Psalms 1-59, BKAT; ET (Minneapolis: Augsburg). McCann, J. C., Jr. (199312), A Theological Introduction to the Book of
Psalms (Nashville: Abingdon).
(ed.) (1993(7), The Shape and Shaping of the Psalter, JSOTSup 159 (Sheffield: JSOT). McKay, H. A. (1994), Sabbath and Synagogue: The Question of
Sabbath Worship in Ancient Judaism (Leiden, New York, Cologne: Brill). Magonet, J. (1994), A Rabbi Reads the Psalms (London: SCM). Mays, J. L., Petersen, D. L., and Richards, K. H. (eds.) (1995),
Old Testament Interpretation, Past, Present, and Future: Essays in Honour of Gene M. Tucker (Nashville: Abingdon; Edinburgh: T & T Clark). Mowinckel, S. (1921-4), Psalmenstudien (6 vols.).
Anderson, A. A. (1972), Psalms 1—72, Psalms 73—150, NCB Commentary
(London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans). Berry, D. K. (1993), The Psalms and their Readers: Interpretive Strategies
(1962), The Psalms in Israel's Worship, ET (2 vols.; Oxford: Basil Blackwell). Noble, P. R. (1995), The Canonical Approach: A Critical Reconstruction
for Psalm 18, JSOTSup 153 (Sheffield: JSOT). Bradshaw, P. (1995), Two Ways of Praying (Nashville: Abingdon; Lon-
don: SPCK). Childs, B. S. (1979), Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture
of the Hermeneutics ofBrevard S. Childs (Leiden, New York, Cologne: Brill). Ringgren, H. (1963), The Faith of the Psalmists (London: SCM). Rogerson, J. W, and McKay, J. W. (1977), Psalms 1—50, Psalms 51—100,
(London: SCM). Craigie, P. C. (1983), Psalms 1-50, WBC 19 (Waco, Tex.: Word Books). Dahood, M. J. (1966-70), Psalms, Anchor Bible Commentary (3 vols.;
Psalms 101—150, Cambridge Bible Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Schofield, J. N. (1951), Archaeology and the Afterlife (London: Lutter-
Garden City, NY: Doubleday). Day, J. (1990), Psalms, Old Testament Study Guides (Sheffield: JSOT). Delitzsch, F. (1887), ET of Biblischer Kommentar fiber die Psalmen
worth). Snaith, N. H. (1944), The Distinctive Ideas ofthe Old Testament (London:
(London: Hodder& Stoughton). Eaton, J. H. (1986), Kingship and the Psalms, SET, 2nd ser. 32; 2nd edn.
Epworth).
(Sheffield: JSOT).
(1964), The Seven Psalms (London: Epworth). Wilson, G. H. (1985), The Editing ofthe Hebrew Psalter, SBLDS 76
(1995), The Circle of Creation (London: SCM). Gersterbenger, E. S. (1988), Psalms Part I with an Introduction to Cultic
(Chico, Calif: Scholars Press). Zenger, E. (1996), A God of Vengeance? Understanding the Psalms of
Poetry, The Forms of the Old Testament Literature, 14 (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans).
Divine Wrath (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox).
19. Proverbs K. T. AITKEN
A. The book and its background. 1. The book of Proverbs presents itself as a textbook designed to educate humans in general and the young in particular in wise living (1:2-7). It divides into two main parts: a series of didactic discourses comprising parental instructions and speeches by personified
Wisdom in chs. 1-9, and collections of chiefly short proverbial sayings in chs. 10—31. The discourses in 1—9 serve as an extended introduction to the collections that follow. The major theme of these chapters is the surpassing value of wisdom and it is in them that the theological character of wisdom is most
PROVERBS 406
pronounced. Wisdom is founded on the 'fear ofthe LORD' (1:7; 9:10), and is the gift of God (2:6). Through its personification, wisdom is also presented as mediating God's revelation in creation to humankind (8:22-31). The question of how far the theological aspects of wisdom in the book represent a later religious or 'Yahwistic' reinterpretation of an earlier 'secular' wisdom has been the subject of much debate (see Wilson 1987: 313-33). 2. The similarity between the instructions in Proverbs and Egyptian texts used in the education of royal princes and state officials (see PROV 1:8—16; 22:17—24:22) has often been observed. It has been argued that court schools also existed in Israel and that Proverbs has its roots in these schools as an adaptation of Egyptian wisdom and its educational context (McKane 1970). But while the book contains observations on kings and royal officials, the majority of its sayings deal with everyday matters of family, community life, and personal relationships. Others have therefore stressed the importance ofthe family and community as settings for the instruction of the young and the transmission of proverbial sayings, maintaining that the book has its origins in a more popular oral tradition predating the monarchy (Westermann 1995). None the less, the court was evidently an important setting in the course ofthe literary development ofthe book (cf. 25:1). Given the variety in the contents ofthe book and the nature ofthe wisdom it inculcates, it seems reasonable to think that wisdom flourished in various settings in Israel and had a corresponding variety of exponents—all of which have left their imprint on the book.
Wisdom's Benediction (3:13-18) Wisdom and Creation (3:19—20) Kindness and Neighbourliness (3:27—35) Get Wisdom! (4:1-9) The Two Ways (4:10-27) Avoid the Seductress! (5:1—22) Four Warnings (6:1—19) The Price of Adultery (6:20-35) The Wiles ofthe Seductress (7:1-27) Wisdom's Second Speech (8:1—36) The Two Banquets (9:1—18) The First 'Solomonic' Collection: 10:1-22:16 Sayings ofthe Wise: 22:17-24:22 Further Sayings ofthe Wise: 24:23—34 The Second 'Solomonic' Collection: 25:1—29:27 The Sayings of 'Agur: 30:1-33 The Words of Lemuel: 31:1-9 The Good Wife: 31:10-31
Didactic Discourses (i:i-g:i8)
(1:1^7) Introduction These verses state the purpose and value of the book and the basis upon which its teaching rests. 'Wisdom' basically means 'skill, ability'. The term is used, for example, ofthe manual skills of craftsmen (Ex 35:35; cf. 13340:20) and the navigational skills of sailors (Ezek 27:8). To learn about (lit. know) wisdom means to become equipped with the skills necessary to live a good and successful life. 'Instruction' (lit. discipline) often refers to the training received in wise living under the authority of a parent or teacher (e.g. 4:1—5). Here it means 'disciplined living' as the outcome of this training. The good and successful life is the disciplined life (cf. 25:28).
B. Date and Authorship. 1. The book comprises a number of separate collections each of which, save the last one, is introduced by its own heading (see the outline below). The heading in 1:1 may be intended to refer to the book as a whole and Solomon is traditionally regarded as its author. But while its major collections are assigned either directly (10:1) or indirectly (25:1) to him, the remaining collections are ascribed to other 'authors'. It is also clear that the book can be no older than the time of Hezekiah (25:1). If the Solomonic origin of some sayings should not be excluded, neither can it be demonstrated. The headings are best seen as a reflection of the association of wisdom with the royal court in pre-exilic times (cf. 25:1), together with the tradition of Solomon as the paradigm ofthe wise king (i Kings 4:29-
Wisdom promotes 'righteousness, justice, and equity'—i.e. right conduct and right relationships—within the community (v. 3). It equally promotes 'shrewdness' and 'prudence' based on a practical knowledge ofthe ways ofthe world (v. 4). A related form ofthe word 'shrewdness' is used pejoratively of the craftiness ofthe serpent (Gen 3:1; cf. Josh 9:4). Its good sense is captured in Mt 10:16. Those most in need of this wisdom are the 'simple', i.e. uninstructed youth. The word derives from a root meaning 'to be open'. As portrayed in Proverbs, the simple are 'open' to persuasion, and so easily manipulated (cf. 14:15). They are accordingly the primary targets for the beckoning of Folly (9:16; cf. 7:7, 21).
34)- 2. The dates of the individual collections are difficult to determine. It is likely that chs. 10—31 largely emerged during the pre-exilic period. Chs. 1-9 are commonly regarded as the latest section ofthe book. They may have been put together and edited to form an extended introduction to chs.10—31, and it was probably in the post-exilic period that the book received its final shape.
Following a parenthetic observation that through attending to Proverbs the wise can become wiser, v. 6 highlights the importance of an understanding ofthe literary forms in which wisdom is expressed. This includes not only intellectual penetration but also the ability to apply the right saying at the right time (cf. 26:7). A 'proverb' (masal) may originally have meant a short saying drawing a comparison, later extended to include other kinds of'artistic' sayings (e.g. prophetic discourse, Num 23:7; allegory, Ezek 17:2; taunt song, Isa 14:4). In 1:1 it embraces the varied literary contents of Proverbs. A 'figure' is an enigmatic saying whose meaning lies beneath the surface and has to be teased out.
C. Outline Didactic Discourses: i:i—g:i8
Introduction (1:1-7) Avoid Evil Men! (1:8-19) Wisdom's First Speech (1:21—31) Wisdom as a Guard and Guide (2:1—22) Trust in God (3:1-12)
4°7 PROVERBS
Street corners, squares, and the city gates were the centres of the juridical, business, and social life of the city and form an appropriate setting for Wisdom to make herself heard. Wisdom bears on all human activity and has to compete not only with cynicism and wilful folly but also with the distractions of everyday life. 'Give heed' (v. 23) is literally 'turn'. The same word is used in prophetic exhortations to (re)turn to God (cf. Isa 44:22; Jer 3:22; Hos 6:1). The translation of Hebrew ruah by 'thoughts' (cf. Ezek 20:32, 'mind') rather than the more usual 'spirit' is supported by its poetic parallelism with 'words' in the next line.
In v. 7 'fear of the LORD' is presented as the prerequisite of true wisdom. The verse is repeated in 9:10 by way of a literary inclusion for chs. 1—9, and forms a central theme of the book. Fear of the Lord embraces both reverence for God (cf Isa 8:13) and obedience to him (cf. Deut 10:12-13; Eccl 12:13). 'Beginning' may imply first in order (Gen 1:1), or importance (Am 6:1), or the 'best part' (Am 6:6). (1:8-19) Avoid Evil Men! This is the first of several instructions addressed by a father to his son in this section of the book. The characteristic features of the instruction are: an appeal for attentiveness (cf. v. 8); the directive expressed as a command or prohibition (cf. w. lob, 15), and motivation clauses explaining why the directive should be heeded (cf. v. 9, 16-19). Th£ address by a teacher to his pupils as a father to his sons was a common practice in the wisdom schools of Egypt and Babylonia. However, the parallelism between father and mother (v. 8) suggests that the instructions in Proverbs may reflect the less formal setting of parental instruction within the home.
There is an awkward transition between the exhortation in v. 23 and the reproach and threat in w. 24-8, and this has led some to construe v. 23 as also condemnatory (cf. Murphy 1998: 7,10). The reproach centres on the continued spurning of Wisdom's counsel (cf. 'how long', v. 22). The language has close parallels in prophetic indictments (cf. Isa 65:1-2,12; Jer 6:19). The consequences of rejecting Wisdom are spelled out in w. 26-8. The imagery of the storm or whirlwind is a common metaphor of judgement (Isa 17:13; Am 1:14), particularly in connection with a divine theophany (Ps 18:7-15; Nah 1:3—5). 'Panic' describes the 'terror' evoked by the day of the Lord in Isa 2:10—21. Wisdom's role will be simply that of an amused onlooker (v. 26; cf. Ps 2:4; 59:8). Too late they will realize the folly of spurning her and will be spurned by her. The repetition 'cry/call out' points the irony (w. 21, 28). The same motif of futile entreaty occurs in the prophets (Isa 1:15; Hos 5:6).
To'hear' (v. 8) implies both to listen and to obey (cf. Isa 1:19). Obedience will adorn the child's life and character with charm and beauty (v. 9; cf. 4:9). Though invoking parental authority, the motivation clauses show that the instruction appeals as much to the child's good sense as its duty to obey its parents.
The child is warned against joining in the activities of a professional gang of robbers and murderers. 'Entice' (v. 10) comes from the same Hebrew root as the 'simple' (v. 4), and the passage illustrates the dangers of their 'openness' to persuasion. The gang holds out to the young person the attractions of a life of adventure, comradeship, and easy money. In v. 12 they liken themselves to Sheol swallowing its victims whole. The imagery of Sheol—the abode of the dead—as a devouring monster with an insatiable appetite for human victims (cf. also 27:20; 30:15—16; Isa 5:14; Hab 2:5) probably derives from the depiction of the god Mot (Death) within Canaanite mythology. Their appetite for violence and murder cannot be satisfied and they destroy their victims just as ruthlessly.
The note of reproach is resumed in w. 29-30. Echoing the motto in 1:7, v. 29 makes clear that the rejection of Wisdom is tantamount to rejection of the fear of the Lord. The announcement of doom represents the fate of the foolish as the natural outflow of their own folly: the boomerang of their own waywardness and complacency. 'Waywardness' evokes a contrast with 'give heed'. It derives from the same Hebrew root and likewise has echoes in prophetic passages, where it is used of Israel's backsliding and apostasy from God (Jer 8:5; Hos 11:7).
The concluding promise (v. 33) contrasts the security and peace of mind enjoyed by those who pay heed to Wisdom (cf. 3:21-6). This serves to temper the note of doom in the preceding verses, so that the passage as a whole functions as a warning to embrace Wisdom before it is too late.
w. 16—19 explain why the child should avoid such companions: they are evil (v. 16 = Isa 597») and foolish (w. 17-19). Their crimes are self-destructive and they are their own victims. Like a senseless bird that swoops down to the baited trap, these men are oblivious to all signs of their own danger and plunge mindlessly to their destruction. To join in their company is to share in their fate. The passage concludes with a summary statement of the operative principle of retribution (v. 19).
(2:1—22) Wisdom as Guard and Guide This instruction presents wisdom as a human quest (w. 1-5) and a divine gift (w. 6-8), which guards its recipients from the way of evil men and loose women (w. 9-19), and guides them in the way of good men (w. 20—2). The alphabetizing shape of the passage, together with its rehearsal of themes developed in later instructions, suggests that it has a deliberate, programmatic character (cf. Skehan 1972: 9-10).
(1:21—31) Wisdom's First Speech In this passage wisdom (a fern, noun in Heb.) is personified as a woman. Though here Wisdom appears to be essentially a dramatization of the wisdom taught by the father, reinforcing the appeal to heed his instruction, she speaks not only like a wisdom teacher but also like a prophet. This implies that Wisdom speaks with a divine authority. To reject her is to reject the fear of the Lord (v. 29). The basis of her authority is expounded in 8:22-31. Like a prophet, Wisdom takes her stand in public places and cries out to passers-by to accept her counsel and reproof.
Wisdom must be pursued with diligence. The first step is to be attentive to the father's words and to 'incline the heart' (i.e. 'mind') to understanding wisdom (w. 1-2). The dual application of ears and heart is reflected in Solomon's prayer for a 'listening heart' (i Kings 3:9; NRSV 'understanding mind'). There must also be a fervent desire to find wisdom (v. 3), matching the fervency of Wisdom's desire to be found (cf. 1:20); and it must be pursued with the
PROVERBS
equally at home in wisdom instruction (cf. 'my teaching'). 'Loyalty and faithfulness' can refer to relationships between human beings and God (cf. Jer 2:2; Hos 6:4) or to human relationships (cf. Ps 109:16; Hos 4:1; Mic 6:8). Both may be intended. They are to be worn as an adornment around the neck (cf. 1:9; Deut 6:8; 11:18) and written on the heart (cf. Jer 31:33). w. 5-8 form the kernel of the instruction. They contrast trust in God with self-reliance. The Hebrew word 'trust' is related to the words rendered 'securely' in 3:23 (cf. 1:33) and 'confidence' in 14:26. At stake is the basis for security in life, with the confidence to walk boldly without anxiety between the pitfalls and snares that lurk at every step. For this, complete commitment and submission to God ('all your ways') is the key. The medicinal analogy of healing and health to the benefits of wisdom (v. 8) recurs elsewhere in Proverbs (cf. 15:30; 16:24; I7'-22)- The admonitions to honour God with the first fruits (w. 9— 10) and to submit to his discipline (w. 11-12) exemplify trust in God in the contrasting situations of prosperity and adversity. The offering of first fruits was an expression of dependence on and gratitude to God for the gift of the land and its harvests (cf. Deut 26:1-11). But even those who honour God may sometimes suffer adversity. This should be accepted as a divine chastisement and a proof of God's fatherly love (cf. Job 5:1718; 33:i4~3o;Heb 12:5-6).
strenuousness and perseverance of miners tunnelling for precious ores (v. 4; cf. Job 28). For wisdom seeker and miner alike, the prize is worth the toil (v. 5). The quest for wisdom is a quest for knowledge of God and his ways, and fear of the Lord is not only the beginning of wisdom (1:7) but also its ripest fruit.
The seeker finds wisdom given by God himself (v. 6). Solomon's prayer (i Kings 3:7-9) came to typify the prayerful attitude required of the wisdom seeker (cf. Wis 8:18, 21; 9:4). The present passage calls rather for concerted intellectual and moral application, w. 7—8 characterize the wisdom God gives as 'sound wisdom', i.e. effective. It maintains God's moral order ('paths of justice') by preserving the upright from the pitfalls and snares of evil. The 'shield' may either be 'God' (NRSV) or 'sound wisdom' (NEB 'as a shield'). The upright are God's 'faithful ones' (hasidim). This is the only occurrence of this term in Proverbs. It refers to those who are loyal to God and his covenant (cf. Ps 31:23; 37:28; 97:10). The wisdom God gives conserves the right ordering of his people.
Echoing the introduction in 1:2-7, w9"11 elaborate on wisdom as a guide and a guard, and this is applied in w. 12—19 to two particular cases: evil men and loose women. Evil men (w. 12-15) are perverted characters who invert the moral order (cf. Isa 5:20). They abandon straight and level paths for ways of darkness, and they go about their evil for profit and for pleasure (v. 14). More dangerous than what they do is what they say (v. 12), for by their words they seek to entice others in the moral chaos of their ways. The instruction in 1:8—19 serves as a parade example of such men, and illustrates both the wickedness of their conduct and their enticement to evil.
(3:13—18) Wisdom's Benediction These verses form a hymnic celebration of the 'happiness' of those who find wisdom. While Wisdom is again personified (cf. 1:20-33), the hymn takes up and reinforces the benefits claimed for obedience to the father's instructions (cf. 1:8; 3:1—4) and serves the didactic purpose of commending his teaching.
The theme of the loose woman (w. 16-19) is developed at length in 5:1—14, 6:20—35, an(^ 7:1—27. The words translated 'loose woman' and 'adulteress' are literally 'strange woman' and 'foreign woman', neither of which are the normal terms for an adulteress or prostitute. Various explanations of her 'foreignness' have been given—both literal and metaphorical—sometimes linked to participation in the sexual rites of fertility cults. Camp (1985: 116) suggests that the figure functions symbolically for 'the attractions and dangers of any and every sexually liminal woman'. Warning against illicit sexual entanglements was a standard topic within Egyptian wisdom instruction. But whereas the Egyptian sages warned that it could ruin a promising career, here the seductress is a threat to life itself. 'Death' (v. 18) is a further allusion to the Canaanite god Mot and 'shades' (repa'tm, a term for the departed, cf. Isa 26:14; PS 88:10) to the Repha'im, the underworld deities and minions of Mot. The house of the seductress is as the mouth of the god (cf. 1:12).
To find Wisdom is to possess an asset of great value. Wisdom unfailingly pays a higher dividend than silver or gold (v. 14), and is a rare and priceless treasure beyond comparison (v. 15). Wisdom also bestows long life, riches, and honour on her devotees (v. 16) and leads them along pleasant and peaceful paths (v. 17). v. 16 probably owes something to depictions of the Egyptian goddess Ma'at, the goddess of truth and justice, who is portrayed with a symbol of long life in one hand and a sceptre symbolizing wealth and honour in her other. The 'long life' bestowed by Wisdom implies not only longevity but also quality of life. This is expressed in the metaphor of 'the tree of life' in v. 18: Wisdom is the vital source that nourishes growth and fruitfulness and promotes fullness of life (cf. 11:30; 13:12; 15:4). The expression recalls the tree of life in the garden of Eden (Gen 2—3).
(3:19—20) Wisdom and Creation In their present context, w. 19-20 present the credentials for the claims made by Wisdom in the preceding verses. The wisdom by which humans are blessed is the wisdom by which the world was created and is sustained (cf. 8:22—31). The water imagery is suggestive of wisdom as fructifying life.
(3:1—12) Trust in God Among the instructions in chs. 1—9, this passage stands out by reason of its pronounced religious tone. It may be seen to develop the motto of the book (1:7). Wisdom consists in complete trust in and submission to the Lord. It is introduced by the customary appeal to obey the father's teaching and a statement of the benefits that obedience brings
(3:27-35) Kindness and Neighbourliness The final section returns to the form of instruction and brings together a number of topics. The theme of w. 21—6 is the secure and tranquil lives of those who hold fast to wisdom (v. 21) and trust in God
(w. 1-4; cf. 1:8-9). 'Teaching' (cf. 1:9) translates Hebrew tord (lit. guidance, direction), in parallelism with 'commandments'. Both terms commonly refer to God's law but are
(v. 26; cf. w. 5-8). w. 27-30 inculcate kindness and neighbourliness, with the avoidance of malicious actions and
4°9 PROVERBS
constant vigilance, self-discipline, and singleness of mind and purpose. This is set out in a review of parts of the body: the heart, mouth, eyes, and feet. These may be sources of evil and death (cf. 6:16-18) or sources of goodness and life. If they are healthy, the whole body is healthy.
unnecessary quarrels, w. 31-5 warn against envy of evil men and the imitation of their ways. God's judgement ('curse', cf Deut 27:15—26) rests on their house and they will be utterly disgraced, while the upright will enjoy divine blessing. (4:1-9) Get Wisdom! This short passage centres on the value of wisdom and the need to acquire it at all costs (v. 7). The father reinforces the appeal to his children (w. 1—2) by recounting his own experience as a child when he was taught the lesson by his own parents (w. 3-4). Here the importance of the home as a setting for wisdom as an educational discipline
(5:1-22) Avoid the Seductress This instruction continues the warning against the loose woman introduced in 2:16—19 (see also 6:20—35; 7:I~27)- ^ begins with a typical appeal to the child to listen carefully to the warning so that he might receive the prudence and knowledge necessary to avoid entanglement with her (w. 1—2).
(cf. Ex 12:26—7; Deut 6:6—7, 2O~5)> together with its transmission from one generation to the next, is particularly well illustrated. His precepts are 'good' (RSV 'sound', v. 2) because they have been proved by experience, but each new generation must choose to receive them and prove them for themselves.
The danger posed by the loose woman is compounded by her seductive wiles. While making use of her natural sex appeal (cf. 6:25), it is on her seductive speech that she relies most (cf. 7:14—20). Her words are like honey and are smoother than oil (v. 8). Honey was proverbial for its sweetness (cf. 16:24; Judg I4:^» !4)- The figure is used in Song 4:11 of the bride's kisses. Smoothness can denote flattery (cf. 29:5) and hypocrisy (cf. Ps 5:9). The seductress thus holds out promise of pleasure and enjoyment. But the reality is quite different ('in the end'). This is brought out by the contrast in w. 3-4 between honey and wormwood and between smooth and sharp. Wormwood was equally proverbial for its bitterness (cf. Jer 9:15; Am 5:7). Her honeyed words leave a bitter taste and her smooth words are as the thrusts of a double-edged sword (cf. Ps 55:21). Disregarding the path of life, the seductress travels the path to Sheol (v. 5; cf. 2:18—19; 7:27) with the unsteady steps of a drunkard ('wander'; cf. Isa 28:7) as she staggers from one lover to another unmindful of the harm she brings either on herself or on her victims (cf. 7:21-7; 30:20). Following the resumptive appeal for attentiveness and obedience (v. 7), the father offers the same succinct advice as in 1:15 (cf. 4:15), here emphasized by a wordplay between 'far' and 'near' (v. 8). This advice is then reinforced by spelling out the consequences of liaison with her (w. 9—14): the loss of dignity and honour (v. 9), of hard-earned wealth (v. 10), and of vigour and health (v. n). This is the antithesis of Wisdom's benediction in 3:13-18. The phrase 'your years to the merciless' (v. 9) is obscure. The Hebrew word 'years' may rather be connected with an Arabic word meaning 'honour, dignity'. This gives a good parallel to the first line. 'Merciless' is masc. sing, and could be an allusion to Death as the cruel, merciless one. With the support of the LXX, it is sometimes emended to the plural, which might then be a reference to the seductress and her associates. 'At the end of your life' is literally 'at the end'. It echoes v. 4 and more probably means 'afterwards', i.e. when the effects of w. 9—10 are felt. The lament of the victim in w. 12—14 illustrates the theme of rejecting wise counsel and learning the lesson too late (cf. 1:24—8). The reference to ruin before the public assembly (v. 14) might be a specific reference to punishment meted out by the lawcourt or may refer more generally to public denunciation and disgrace. Possibly behind the scene is the woman's husband (cf. 6:34—5), denouncing the offender in public (v. 14) and pressing for compensation (v. 10).
In w. 6-9 wisdom is personified as a bride to be wooed, and who will in return love and honour those who embrace her. The garlanding (v. 9) may be an allusion to a wedding feast. This portrayal of Wisdom is evidently intended to counter the spurious love and deadly embrace of the seductress. According to McKane (1970: 306), the representation is rather of Wisdom as an influential patron offering protection and preferment to her proteges.
(4:10—27) The Two Ways The metaphor of life as a road with two ways plays an important role in the teaching of Proverbs. Ithas already occurred a number oftimes (cf. 1:15,19; 2:8-22; 3:17, 23, etc.). In w. 10—19 it becomes the main theme of the instruction as the father counsels his child to adhere to the way of wisdom and avoid the path of the wicked. 'Paths of uprightness' (v. n) implies not only paths that are morally upright, but also paths that are straight and level (cf. 3:6). Hence the way of wisdom is not only the good path (cf. 2:9) through life but also the secure path (cf. 3:23). It is a road along which the traveller can progress with firm, measured strides and even run without fear of stumbling (v. 12; cf. Ps 18:36). A further reason why it is the secure path is that it is brightly illuminated. In v. 18 it is compared with the steady increase of brightness from the first flickers of dawn to the full splendour of the noonday sun. No loose stones or potholes can lurk in the shadows to catch the traveller unawares.
The contrasting description of the path of the wicked recalls the description of their activities in 1:8-19 and of their twisted paths in 2:12—15. Wrongdoing and violence come as naturally to them as eating and drinking (v. 7). Their path is shrouded in 'deep darkness' (v. 19). The term is used of the plague of darkness that enveloped Egypt (Ex 10:22), and also recurs in descriptions of the consequences of the day of the Lord (e.g. Joel 2:2; Am 5:20). It suggests the extent of their moral blindness, but more especially it points to the inevitable consequence of walking along a treacherous, twisting path in utter darkness. Intent on the destruction of others ('cause to stumble', v. 16) they make victims out of themselves ('stumble', v. 19). In the darkness of their deeds, they will not even see what their feet strike on that final, fatal step (cf. Job 18:712; Jer 13:16; 23:12). The final paragraph (w. 20—7) resumes the appeal (v. 10) to accept the father's words, since they are 'life' and 'healing' (cf. 3:8). To walk in the way of wisdom (cf. w. 26-7) requires
Whereas the preceding verses primarily have in view young unmarried men, w. 15-21 address the married man. They
PROVERBS 410
listing different kinds of malicious and disruptive activity through a review of the unhealthy body: 'eyes ... tongue... hands... heart... feet' (contrast 4:23-7). The 'false witness' and 'one who stirs up strife' complete the seven items. (6:20-35) The Price of Adultery This passage returns to the form of instruction and to the theme of the seductress, w. 20— 4 emphasize the need to hold fast to parental teachings: they are light and life and will protect against her enticements. Though the reference is to parental teaching, w. 21-2 closely echo the role of divine teaching in Deuteronomy 6:6—8 (cf. 3:3, 24). In v. 24 'wife of another' rests on a change on the vocalization of Hebrew 'evil women' following the LXX and v. 29. Here the seductress is explicitly a married woman. Alongside her seductive speech (24; cf. 5:3), warning is given against being captivated by her eye make-up and inviting glances (cf. Sir 26:9). 'Desire' is the word translated 'covet' in the tenth commandment (Ex 20:17).
counsel that the best way of avoiding the temptation of the seductress is that he remain in love with his wife and derive sexual satisfaction from her. Drawing on imagery of water and its sources (cf Song 4:15), v. 15 expresses the pleasure which a man should obtain through sexual intercourse with his wife. In v. 16 the 'springs' and 'streams' could allude to the waste that results from extramarital affairs or to the encouragement of the wife to infidelity through neglect. The image of the wife as a 'graceful doe' is symbolic of her beauty (v. 18; cf. Song 2:7), with which the husband should be intoxicated.
Reinforcing the appeals for a prudent weighing up of the consequences of liaison with the seductress, in v. 21 appeal is made to the scrutinizing eyes of the Lord (cf. 15:3; Job 31:4; 34:21) and his guardianship of the moral order. None the less, the concluding summary of the consequence of such indiscipline and folly is again expressed in terms of reaping what has been sown (cf. 1:19; 2:20—2). 'Toils' is literally 'cords'. By threading a path to folly's door, a man is threading a noose around his own neck, like a senseless bird weaving the net that will ensnare it (cf. 1:17-19).
In w. 26—33 me case against the adulteress is closely argued through comparison with a prostitute, fire, and a thief. The Hebrew text of v. 260 is obscure. The English versions are divided between the sense that a prostitute costs only the price of her fee (cf. NSRV; NEB) and that a prostitute brings a man to poverty (NIV). In either case the point is that the adulteress exacts a heavy price: 'a man's very life', w. 26-7 appear to be popular maxims. The point of the comparison is reinforced by a wordplay in Hebrew between'wife' ('eset) and'fire' ('es). v. 30 may be construed either as a question (RSV; NEB) or as a statement (NRSV; NIV). In the former case, the point of w. 30-3 appears to be: how much more will the adulterer be despised than the thief and how much more dearly will he have to pay since he has no excuse? In the latter case, the cost to the adulterer is the same, but it would be contrasted with the lenient view taken of a thief in these circumstances. The concluding verses (w. 34—5) envisage a jealous and enraged husband seeking revenge and demanding a higher price than money. (7:1-21) The Wiles of the Adulteress The body of this passage is formed by an example story on the wiles of the adulteress (w. 6—23). It is enclosed by parental instruction to accept teaching (w. 1—5) and avoid the adulteress (w. 24—7). The appeal to the child in w. 1-5 closely echoes 6:20-4. m v4 'sister' probably means 'bride' (cf. Song 4:9-10), again presenting Wisdom as a counter-attraction to the adulteress for the love and fidelity of the child (cf. 4:6—9).
(6:1-19) F°ur Warnings The four miscellaneous sayings in these verses are more reminiscent of the proverbial sayings in chs. 10—31 than the discourses in chs. 1—9. Though the form of instruction is reflected in the first, it lacks the characteristic parental appeal for attentiveness.
w. 1—5 warn against acting as guarantor for debts. 'Neighbour' and 'stranger' (v. i; cf. NSRV fn.) perhaps refer to the friend on whose behalf security is pledged and to the creditor, respectively. The expression 'to give a pledge' is literally 'to strike hands' (cf. 2 Kings 10:15). If a pledge has been given, no time should be lost and no effort spared in seeking to be released from it. Not only penury (cf. 22:26—7) but also slavery threatened the unwise guarantor (cf. 2 Kings 4:1-7; Neh 5:1-8). w. 6—ii warn against laziness and encourage diligence. The drawing of analogies with the natural world was common in wisdom circles (cf. 30:15-16, 24-31). The ant is a model of diligence and foresight in that it prepares its food for winter without having to be goaded. Wedded to slumber and indolence, the lazy person makes no such provision (cf. 20:4) and will suffer poverty and want. v. n should perhaps be rendered like a 'vagrant' and a 'beggar'.
The description of the scoundrel (w. 12—15) recalls the evil men in 2:12-16. 'Scoundrel' is literally 'man ofbeliya'al' (from which comes 'Belial') (cf. 16:27; !9:28). The derivation of the word is obscure. It may be a compound word meaning 'worthless' (lit. not-profit), or may derive from a verb meaning 'swallow, engulf or the like. The scoundrel is characterized by his malicious undermining of harmonious relations within the community (v. 14). v. 13 may imply the casting of magic spells to accomplish his evil designs (McKane 1970: 325) or may simply refer to the covert way he and his associates go about their business.
The story is cast in the form of the personal reminiscence of what the narrator observed through the lattice of his window. In the LXX it is the woman who looks out of the window seeking her prey, and this reading has been preferred by some scholars. The story unfolds with a young man making his way through darkening streets towards the house of the adulteress (w. 6-9). The impending darkness becomes symbolic for the story as a whole. He is accosted by a woman dressed like a prostitute and practised in the art of seduction (w. 10-13). w14-20 illustrate the 'smoothness' of her words (v. 5)—the chief weapon in her arsenal (cf. 2:16; 5:3; 6:24). She flatters him and invites him to spend a night of sexual pleasure with her, reassuring him it is perfectly safe since her husband is away on a business trip. The significance of the cultic reference in v. 14 and its function in the seduction
w. 16-19 f°rm a graded numerical saying of a type common in the HB (cf. 30:15—31; Job 5:19; Am 1:3) and in the literature of the ancient Near East. It was particularly useful within wisdom circles, both as a means of classification and as an aid to memorization. The saying complements w. 12-15 by
411 PROVERBS
Jer 52:15 and has the support of the LXX. In this case, Wisdom actively participated in the design and construction of the world. The apocryphal Wisdom of Solomon explicitly represents Wisdom as 'the fashioner of all things' (7:1). Alternatively, the word may mean 'little child', connected with 'those reared' in Lam 4:5. This suits the metaphor of birth in the preceding verses, while w. 30—1 read more like a child at play than a craftsman at work. 'Rejoicing' is elsewhere used of children playing in the street (Zech 8:5). The picture is of Wisdom playing at her father's feet and bringing him pleasure and then making the world her playground. As her ways brought pleasure to God, so they now bring pleasure to humankind.
scene are quite unclear (cf. Murphy 1998: 43-4). In any case, unable to resist her advances and oblivious to the real cost he will have to pay, the young man follows her: one more beast to the slaughter; one more bird caught in her snare
(w. 21-3). The final paragraph (w. 24-7) reinforces the lesson by exhorting the child to avoid the paths of the adulteress and warning of the deadly effects of consorting with her. Her house is the vestibule to Sheol and leads down to death
(cf. 2:18-19; 5:8)- (8:1-36) Wisdom's Second Speech Personified Wisdom again takes her stand in public places and invites all who would learn from her to receive her instruction. In w. i—n
she assumes the role of a wisdom teacher. The prophetic note of reproach and threat characteristic of her first speech (1:2033) is lacking. The setting in w. 2—3 is reminiscent of the 'patch' of the seductress in 7:11—12. It has emerged that Wisdom has to compete not only with the distractions of everyday life and wilful folly (1:20—33) but also with the enticements of the seductress. The emphasis on the character of Wisdom's words in w. 6—9 can be seen in this light. While the words of the seductress are marked by duplicity and fraudulence, the words of Wisdom are marked by candour and integrity. Wisdom speaks in plain language, which is intelligible to all who find her (v. 9). w. 10—n are very similar to 3:14—15.
The final w. 32—6 form a resumptive conclusion looking back to the appeal in w. 3-4. The 'happiness' of the man who finds wisdom recalls the theme of 3:13-18. To neglect and miss Wisdom spells injury and death.
The identity of the Woman Wisdom in chs. 1—9 and especially in 8:22-31 has been extensively debated (see Camp 1985: 23-70). While some view the figure as a personification or hypostatization of a divine attribute, others find her origins in goddess figures within the ancient Near East or within Israel itself. Von Rad (1975: 148) argued rather that she was an attribute of the world, signifying 'something like the "meaning" implanted by God in creation'. Certainly, she is an ambivalent and enigmatic figure. She belongs at God's side, but she is also at home in the world (8:31—3). This ambivalence conceals her identity as much as it reveals her place as the link between heaven and earth and the mediatrix of divine revelation and divine blessing.
In w. 12-21 she extols her providential role in the good and orderly government of the world (w. 12-16) and as the giver of wealth (w. 17—21). w. 12—14 closely echo the language of the prologue (1:2—7). The terms 'advice' and 'strength', however, anticipate the manifestation of the various qualities of wisdom in the government of kings and rulers (cf. Isa 11:2). The role claimed by Wisdom is comparable to that of a royal counsellor (cf. 2 Sam 16:23) an(^ even to God himself (i Kings 3:1-15). w. 17-21 (cf. w. 10-11) are a variation on the theme of 3:13-18. Wisdom bestows not only the intimacy of her embrace but also wealth and prosperity upon her lovers. The connection between w. 12 and 14 is interrupted by v. 13 and it should perhaps be transposed to w. 6-9.
(9:1—18) The Two Banquets In the first and last sections of this chapter, Wisdom and Folly are contrasted as rival hostesses inviting the simple to enter their house and dine with them (w. i—6, 13—18). Though Folly is portrayed in terms of the seductress, her description as 'woman of foolishness' (v. 13) implies that she personifies every kind of folly. Hence, the contrast reinforces not so much the earlier warnings against adultery as the teaching on the two ways
The hymn of self-praise by Wisdom in w. 22-31 falls into two parts: Wisdom's origins before creation (w. 22—6), and her place at creation (w. 27—31). As rendered by the NRSV, Wisdom variously describes herself as created by God (v. 22), setup or installed (v. 23; with royal overtones, cf. Ps 2:6) and as born (w. 24—5). However, the significance of the first two terms in the Hebrew is disputed. The first translates Hebrew qanah, which besides 'create' (cf. Gen 14:19, 22) could also mean 'procreate' (cf. Gen 4:1). Likewise the second term, of uncertain derivation, may be connected with a root meaning 'to be fashioned [in the womb]' (cf. Job 10:11; Ps 139:13). Hence Wisdom may be consistently representing herself as a child of God. None the less, the emphasis of the verses is not the manner of Wisdom's origins but her priority over the created world. Although v. 22 alludes to the creation narrative in Genesis ('beginning'), the language of the passage stands closer to hymnic celebrations of creation (cf. e.g. Ps 104:513; Job 38:4-18). During the creation of the world, Wisdom was 'there' (v. 27), 'beside' God (v. 30). The particular part she played is obscured by the uncertainty of the meaning of Hebrew 'amon in v. 30. The translation 'master workman' (NRSV) is based on
(cf. 4:10-27).
The significance of Wisdom's seven-pillared house is uncertain. Among other things, it has been taken to symbolize the world as fashioned by Wisdom; the cosmic temple of Wisdom (Perdue 1994: 94—7), or to be simply a stately mansion. Correspondingly, the pillars have been thought to have cosmic or mythological significance; to reflect temple architecture, or to indicate that Wisdom's house is a rather splendid one which can accommodate all who accept her invitation. The invitation of Wisdom (w. 3—4) echoes her earlier appeals
(cf. 1:20-1; 8:1-5). It is addressed to the 'simple', i.e. to those who most need to dine with Wisdom but who can be most easily induced to dine with Folly (cf. 1:4). In v. 5 food and drink is used figuratively of Wisdom's instruction (cf. Isa 55:1-3; Sir 15:3; 24:19-21). 'Bread' may be better translated 'meat' (cf. v. 2).
The brash manner in which Folly invites the simple to her house (w. 13—16) recalls the solicitations of the seductress
(7:11-12) and contrasts with the formality and decorum of Wisdom's invitation. That the provision of Folly is water and bread (v. 17) may be intended to compare unfavourably with
PROVERBS 412
value (v. 20) and win acceptance (v. 32), for they are characterized by wisdom (v. 31), bring nourishment (v. 21), and promote life (v. n). On the other hand, the wicked have nothing ofvalue to say (v. 20) and what they do say is characterized by perversity (v. 32) and duplicity, concealing their malicious intent to cause harm (v. nfc; cf. v. 6h). By their words, therefore, the righteous contribute to the well-being of the community, whereas the speech of the wicked undermines it. On a more general note, w. 14 and 19 imply that the words of the wise and righteous will be few (cf. 13:3; 21:23). Garrulousness is a hallmark of the fool (v. 8).
the sumptuousness of Wisdom's spread. However, it is likely that Folly is citing a popular proverb on the magnetic power of forbidden fruit. Whereas the banquet of Wisdom promotes and celebrates life (v. 6), to dine with Folly is to banquet with the 'dead' in Sheol (cf 2:18-19; 5:5~6; 7:27).
The middle section (w. 7—12) is digressive and is regarded by some commentators as a later intrusion. In its present context it may be intended to contrast two different responses to Wisdom's invitation—the one represented by the scoffer
(cf. 15:12; 21:24) and me wicked, and the other by the wise and the righteous. It is those who are responsive to discipline and who fear the Lord who will partake of Wisdom's banquet.
Poverty and wealth, v. 15 contrasts an advantage of wealth with a disadvantage of poverty. Wealth provides protection and security against the vicissitudes of life (cf. 18:11), whereas the poor have no resources to fall back on. For this the poor may sometimes have only themselves to blame (v. 4). But not all wealth is advantageous. How it is acquired is the test of whether it is an asset or a liability (v. 2). The instruction in 1:8— 19 illustrates the liability of ill-gotten gain (cf. also 20:17; 21:6; 28:20). By contrast, the wealth that accrues through 'righteousness', i.e. honesty and integrity, is a mark of divine blessing and provides for a long, secure, and anxiety-free life (v. 22; cf. 11:4).
The First 'Solomonic' Collection (10:1-22:16)
This is the largest collection of proverbial sayings within the book—some 375 in all. Differences between chs. 10-15 and 16:1-22:16 have often been observed. Most notably, while the vast majority of sayings in chs. 10—15 are in me form of antithetic parallelism, in 16—31 other kinds of poetic verse forms predominate. Chs. 10-15 also have a certain coherence through the prevalence of sayings on the righteous and the wicked. This section of the book may therefore have arisen through the combination of two originally independent collections.
Hatred and strife, v. 12 observes the disruptive effect of hatred on social relationships. The 'covering' of offences by love is commensurate with forgiveness (cf. Jas 5:20). In v. i8a the LXX reads 'Righteous lips conceal hatred', which gives a contrast with i8fc (cf. NEB). If the Hebrew text is retained, the thought is either that the ill-will concealed through lies is as bad as open slander, or that lies and slander are both expressions of a deep-seated hatred (cf. 6h).
For the most part sayings appear to be randomly organized with only the occasional small topical grouping. Recent studies have suggested the significance of catchwords, sounds, and various other rhetorical devices in the formation of subunits within the collection, which provide a context for the individual saying. However, it is seldom evident that such subunits display a corresponding thematic coherence, and the individual saying still seems to be the significant unit (Martin 1995: 54-61). (10:1-32) Wise and foolish children. Following the parental appeals in chs. 1—9, this section appropriately begins with a proverb observing the effect on parents of the wisdom or folly of their child (v. i; cf. 15:20; 17:21, 25). Not only is the joy or sorrow of parents at stake, but also the family's reputation (cf. 28:7) and its prosperity (cf. 29:3). The righteous and the wicked. The sayings on the righteous and the wicked in this part of the book reinforce the earlier teaching of the two ways and the theory of retribution on which it rests (cf. esp. 2:9—22; 4:10—19). In some sayings retribution is presented as part of the natural order of the world (e.g. 11:5-6), while in others God himself acts to uphold his moral order by punishing the wicked and rewarding the righteous (e.g. 10:29;I2:2)-
(11:1—31) Commercial malpractice. The use of false weights and measures (v. i, cf. 16:11; 20:10, 23) is condemned in the law (Deut 25:13-16) and the prophets (Am 8:5; Mic 6:11). Ancient Near-Eastern law codes also prescribed against it. 'An abomination to the LORD' conveys the strongest possible displeasure (cf. 6:16). v. 26 appears to have in view traders who stockpile grain in times of scarcity to force up the prices and increase their profit. Their selfishness invites a curse upon their heads from their customers.
Pride and humility, v. 2 observes that pride goes before a fall (cf. 16:18; 18:12; 29:23) and commends the wisdom of humility. 'Disgrace' is literally 'lightness' and suggests both the contempt for and the lack of importance people of good sense will attach to the self-important. 'Humble' is a rare word. It is found again (as a verb) only in Mic 6:8 of'walking humbly' with God.
The righteous will enjoy a long and fulfilled life with the satisfaction of their needs and desires, while the wicked will be frustrated at every turn and will in the end meet with an untimely death (w. 3, 24, 27—8). The 'dread' of the wicked (v. 24) may refer to divine punishment or reflect a basic sense of insecurity—fearing the worst (cf. 25). It contrasts with 'fear' of the Lord (v. 27). After their deaths, the reputation of the righteous will live on and be prized by the community, while the name of the wicked will rot with their bones (v. 7)-
The righteous and the wicked. Several sayings in the chapter are further variations on the theme of the fate of the righteous and the wicked, w. 3, 5-6, recall the benefits of wisdom as a guide and guard in 2:8—11. While the righteous walk securely along straight paths, the wicked become victims of their own Machiavellian schemes and devices (cf. 2:12-15). w4> 2^» are further reflections on the profitlessness of wealth without righteousness (cf. 10:2). v. 7 is difficult. Following the LXX, it has been proposed to emend the first line to read 'when the righteous die their hope does not perish'. If this were to be the correct reading, the notion of an afterlife need not be implied (see 10:7). v. 9 returns to the malicious and
Several sayings centre on the difference between the speech of the two groups. The words of the righteous are of great
413 PROVERBS
situation. The healing property of a well-chosen word is also remarked in v. 25 (cf. 16:24).
destructive speech of the wicked (cf. 10:6). It is unclear whether gb means that the righteous will be delivered from their malevolence or will deliver others from it (cf. NEB). The social consequences of the words (and deeds) of the righteous and wicked for the body politic are summed up in v. n— making v. 10 self-evident. For the metaphor of the 'tree of life' (v. 30) see PROV 3:18.
Lying. As already in 6:17, 'lying' is condemned as an 'abomination to the LORD' (v. 22). The thought of v. 19 is not so much that the liar will be quickly found out and punished, but that lies are short-lived and ephemeral since they have no basis in reality. Only the truth endures.
Gossip. Those who speak disparagingly of a neighbour show a lack of sense (v. 12), and those who betray his confidence a lack of trustworthiness (v. 13). Both disrupt good relations between friends and neighbours, and as 'whisperers' are close companions of the perverse man who spreads strife (16:28).
False witnesses, v. 17 is the first of a number of sayings on giving false witness (cf. 14:5, 25; 19:5, 9, 28; 25:18). Perjury is the sin condemned in the ninth commandment (Ex 20:16). It is the worst form of lying, since it mocks (19:28) and defeats the ends of justice (25:18).
Laziness. Diligence is the path to the top of the social ladder and laziness the path to the bottom (v. 24). 'Forced labour' is possibly a reference to debt slavery (cf. Deut 15:12; Lev 25:3940). The sense ofv. 27 is uncertain. Drawing on the imagery of hunting, it may be a comment on the inability of a lazy person to carry a project through to its successful completion (cf. 19:24). Again diligence is the path to success.
A gracious woman. In v. 16 the NRSV adopts the longer text of the LXX. The Hebrew text contains only the first and last lines (cf. RS V). The saying seems to contrast the honour that a woman obtains through her natural disposition with the effort men must expend to acquire wealth (McKane 1970: 431). With a humorous note, v. 22 observes the incongruity of the beauty of a woman who lacks 'sense' (lit. taste).
(13:1-25) Parental discipline. The expression 'loves discipline' (v. i) rests on an emendation of the Hebrew 'instruction of [his] father'. The Hebrew text lacks a verb and possibly 'heeds' should rather be supplied as understood from its occurrence in the parallel line. The verse reinforces the parental appeals of chs. 1-9. Refusal to heed correction places wisdom beyond reach of the 'scoffer' (cf. 9:7—8; 14:6; 15:12). Though always having more to do with a listening ear, the word 'discipline' is also used of physical chastisement (v. 24), which is viewed as an essential component in the upbringing of a child. The contrast between 'hate' and 'love' underlines the importance the wise attached to it (cf. 20:30; 23:13—14).
Generosity, v. 24 points to the paradox between generosity and enrichment and miserliness and impoverishment. In v. 25 'enriched' is literally 'made fat', a figure for abundance and prosperity (cf. Deut 32:15). The sayings may have giving to the poor in view (cf. 28:27). (12:1-28) The fool. The sayings in w. i, 15-16, 23, reflect on central characteristics of the fool as portrayed in Proverbs. By reason of his innate stupidity and self-conceit, the fool is as impervious to a word of advice as to a word of rebuke (w. i, 15; cf. 18:2; 28:26). The sense to recognize sound advice and to act upon it—not least by those used to giving it (v. 26)—is a mark of wisdom. The fool also lacks self-control, both of his temper (v. 16; cf. 14:17, 29; 29:11) and his tongue (23; cf. 10:14; I5:2> 18:6-7). The eagerness with which he speaks his mind and offers his opinions (cf. 18:2) advertises his folly, and contrasts with the disciplined, restrained speech of the wise ('conceals knowledge') (cf. 10:19; !7:28).
Rash speech, v. 3 is a warning against garrulousness or rashness of speech. Not only can it be harmful to others (12:18), but also it can land the speaker in trouble (cf. 10:14; 21:23). Poverty and wealth. The general point made by v. 7 is that appearances can be deceptive. Behind it may lie the thought that ostentation is as reprehensible as miserliness or that true richness and poverty are not measured by a person's possessions. The first line ofv. 8 points to an advantage of wealth. A rich man has the resources to pay what is demanded when kidnappers or robbers threaten his life. The second line is literally 'but a poor man does not heed rebuke', which the NRSV probably rightly takes to mean that the poor are never threatened in this way, since they have nothing worth extorting. Here—but ironically—the advantage lies with the poor. In v. ii wealth gained through manual labour is contrasted with the kind of wealth that is achieved overnight. The reference is perhaps to the returns on speculative investments in trade and commerce rather than to dishonest gain. The first kind of wealth is substantive and enduring, while the latter is fleeting and ephemeral (cf. 27:23—7). v. 18 is one of several sayings in Proverbs which view poverty as a consequence of folly (cf. 10:4; 21:17, 2O)- If me NRSV rendering ofv. 23 is sustainable (cf. McKane 1970: 462—3), this verse observes that the poor do not always have themselves to blame. The poor may reap a good harvest from their meagre plot of land only to have it extorted by greedy, unscrupulous men (cf. 22:16; 30:14).
The good wife. 'Good' (v. 4) is literally 'strong, firm'. It is the word that occurs in the expression 'men of valour' (e.g. Josh 1:14). In Ruth 3:11 it describes the heroine. Here it means strength and nobility of character, embracing both her capabilities as a housewife (cf. NEB) and her integrity (cf. NIV). This is a wife who enhances her husband's honour and reputation (cf. 31:10—31). Her opposite is a wife whose behaviour brings her husband into disrepute and saps his energy like a wasting bone disease.
Slander. The metaphor of the words of the wicked as 'a deadly ambush' (lit. ambush of blood, v. 6) echoes the words of the robbers and murderers in 1:11. Here, the reference is to their false and slanderous accusations. Through their wisdom and knowledge, the righteous have the verbal skills to defend themselves—or perhaps to defend others ('them')—against their attacks (cf. 11:9). Going a step further, v. 13 observes that the words of evil men weave a web of intrigue in which they themselves will be ensnared (cf. 1:18; 11:6).
Rash words. Potentially just as dangerous and destructive are rash words (v. 18; cf. 29:20). However well intended, words hastily spoken are apt to wound. It is the judicious, considered speech of the wise that brings healing in a difficult
PROVERBS 414
(cf. 17:5), while to show kindness and generosity towards them is to honour him.
Desires fulfilled, v. 12 reflects on the psychology of human desire and its disappointment or realization. The thought recurs in the first line of v. 19, but the second line of this verse seems quite unconnected.
(15:1—32) Words, v. i contrasts the conciliatory reply that soothes a situation and makes for reasoned discussion and the acrimonious reply that inflames it and makes intelligent discussion impossible. 'Gentle' (v. 4) points either to the conciliatory or to the healing quality of words. Such speech promotes life, in contrast with twisted or perverse speech, which causes injury and brings death (cf. 18:21). v. 23 expresses the satisfaction that comes from a timely word for both the one who gives it and the one who receives it. Out of 'season' the best of words are ineffective and counter-productive. In v. 26
The teaching of the wise. The expression 'fountain of life' in v. 14 (cf also 10:11; 14:27; 15:4) is perhaps a distant echo of the rivers that watered the garden of Eden (Gen 2:10—13; cfProv
3:18). Wisdom teaching is the source of life's vitality and growth for those who heed it (cf. v. 13). The imagery of the second line is of Death as a hunter laying traps to ensnare the unwary and uninstructed (cf. PROV 1:12).
(14:1—35) Wisdom's house. As rendered by the NRSV, v. i seems to be a comment on the value of the good wife as homemaker, and may be so (cf. 31:10-31). But the phrase translated 'the wise woman' raises difficulties, and 'the foolish' is literally 'folly'. The verse is most reminiscent of personified Wisdom building her house in 9:1 as the antithesis of Folly and her house in 9:14 and may be making much the same point: what Wisdom is at pains to build, Folly is at pains to demolish.
'pure' expresses God's approval of gracious words, i.e. words spoken to promote harmony and well-being, over against his abhorrence of evil and malicious schemes. The second line is often emended to read 'but the words of the pure are pleasing to him' (so RSV; cf. NIV).
God's scrutiny. Echoing 5:21, the theme of v. 3 is the allseeing eye of God, from which nothing can be hidden. The implication is that the good will receive his blessing and the evil will be condemned and punished (cf. 22:12). v. n makes much the same point. 'Abaddon' (lit. destruction) is a poetic synonym for Sheol. If the depths of Sheol are 'naked' before God (cf. Job 26:6), how much more are the thoughts, motives, and intentions of the human heart exposed to divine scrutiny (cf. Ps 44:21).
The fool. Whereas the words of fools get them into trouble, the judicious and economical speech of the wise keeps them safe (v. 3). 'Rod for their backs' is an emendation of the Hebrew 'rod of pride'—an obscure image, which, if retained, would make the first line a comment on the arrogance underlying what a fool says. The most natural sense of 'misleads'
Prayer and sacrifice, v. 8 is one of the few sayings in Proverbs that deal with cultic practice. The point is not the superiority of prayer, but that only sacrifices offered in sincerity are acceptable to God. So in v. 29 the prayer of the wicked likewise falls on deaf ears. Though v. 8 closely echoes prophetic passages on the theme (e.g. Isa 1:10—17), it also has parallels in Egyptian wisdom literature.
(lit. 'is deception') in v. 8 is to mislead others, but the parallelism suggests that here the word may mean to mislead onself ('is self-deception'). By contrast, the wise give careful thought to the course of their conduct and have a clear understanding of its consequences, v. 16 draws a similar contrast between the cautious and prudent conduct of the wise and the arrogant recklessness of the fool. Since the speech of a fool is not informed by knowledge, his company should be avoided (7; cf. 13:20). The meaning of v. 9 can only be guessed (cf. the English versions).
Joy and sorrow, w. 13, 15, are further comments on joy and sorrow (cf. 14:10, 13). The first contrasts the inner joyfulness that makes for a healthy body and a glowing complexion
(cf. 17:22) with the sorrow (lit. painfulness of heart) that debilitates the body and leaves its etchings on the face, v. 15 comments on the inner happiness that can overcome adversity.
Joy and sorrow, w. 10, 13, are pensive reflections on joy and sorrow in human experience. Others cannot share the depths of an individual's sorrows and joys; and even the most joyous moments are clouded by sorrow with grief never far away.
True enrichment. While wealth may be good and advantageous in many respects, it can lead to 'turmoil' and breed moral and spiritual blindness (cf. 11:28; 30:8—9). Fear of the Lord (v. 16), righteousness (16:8) and a good name (22:1) are better things—things that truly enrich.
The simple, v. 15 contrasts the prudent conduct of the wise (cf. v. 16) with the credulity of the simple (see PROV 1:4). Without the benefit of instruction in wisdom, the simple are on the way to becoming fools (cf. v. 18, NRSV fn.).
Anger. The antithesis between the quick-tempered and the schemer in v. 17 does not seem very apt. It is perhaps better with the RSV to follow the LXX and translate the second line 'but a man of discretion is patient', v. 29 makes the same point (cf. 12:16). The word 'passion' in v. 30 is a fairly general word for deep emotion, including envy and jealousy (6:34; 27:4) as well as anger. This verse shows insight into the effect of the state of the mind on the health of the body (cf. 3:8).
Planning and counsel, v. 2 2 states the principle that the key to a successful venture is sound planning and wide consultation. The saying most of all has in view the rulers and leaders of the nation. In 11:14 it is applied to affairs of state, and in 20:18 to the conduct of war.
Divine justice. God champions the cause of the widow by protecting her boundaries and breaking down the house of the proud (v. 25). Here the proud are those whose estates have been built up through their appropriation of the property of the poor and needy. Removing the landmarks marking the boundaries of the family inheritance was a serious offence
Rich and poor. v. 20 points to a social advantage enjoyed by the rich over the poor. The saying is not a sardonic comment on the dubious value of wealth's new-found friends (cf. 19:6) but a frank comment on human nature. In v. 31 the social obligation of caring for the poor (cf. v. 21) is grounded in the common humanity of rich and poor alike as the creatures of God. To oppress the poor is to show contempt for their creator
(Deut 19:14; 27:17; cf. Prov 22:28; 23:10-11).
(16:1-33) God's purposes, w. 1-9 (except v. 8) form a small group of sayings dealing with divine providence over human
415 PROVERBS
Old age. v. 31 reflects the thought that longevity is the reward of a righteous life. Old age is the fitting climax and fulfilment of a life well lived (cf 17:6; 20:29).