Part 47
(holi)'. The servant at one level was the suffering community; at another level the figure was used of that part of the community which was being restored through God's saving power. The poet goes well beyond literal attention to detail in his fancy that Gentile observers would picture themselves as sheep going astray, but here, just as in the references to the supposedly God-fearing Cyrus, we are reminded of the power of poetry to stretch the imagination in ways it had never previously considered. (53:7-9) The picture in these verses is clearly of the death of the servant, and the appropriateness of the NT application to Jesus is clear enough, given the presuppositions of its writers. Less impressive have been the efforts of historical-critical scholars in their arguments as to whether or not someone's literal death is here implied. Too often they have tried to ignore the poetic context and to make the lines refer to some, in principle, identifiable individual. In any case as Whybray (1978: esp. 92-106) has shown, much of the language here used is that found in Psalms of Thanksgiving as a means of expressing the desperate plight of the sufferer before God's saving action became apparent. Indeed such expressions as 'they made his grave with the wicked' tell us more about the expectations of the servant's enemies in plotting his death than about the 'actual' fate of the servant.
(52:13—53:3) Some scholars (e.g. Whybray 1975) have regarded 52:13—15 as distinct from the 'song of thanksgiving' which follows, but the majority view has been to see a larger unity. The specific reference to the 'servant' at 52:13 seems to be balanced by the only other such reference, at the climax of the poem, in 53:11. At the outset the established identity of the servant with Israel poses no problems; the theme of the restoration of Israel following humiliation is a familiar one in these chapters, v. 15 makes it clear that recognition of what is being achieved by and through the servant extends well beyond the community ('many nations', 'kings'), but this theme has been implicit in much of Isaiah and explicit in references such as those to Cyrus. The verb translated 'startle' in NRSV has been rendered in many different ways: the traditional 'sprinkle' (so KJV) seems unlikely and the most probable meaning is that conveyed by LXX: 'many nations shall be astonished at him'.
The following verses take further the theme of the servant and the unpromising circumstances of his rearing. The language used is vividly personal, but does not prevent its application to the community. We need to remember that this is poetry, and that precise reference is not to be expected. In one sense 53:1—3 does clearly differ from what has preceded; there is now reference to a 'we', a group reflecting on the significance of the experiences of the servant. They have been very variously identified: the disciples of the prophet; a group of faithful Israelites; and so on. But perhaps the traditional interpretation should not be neglected—the nations and kings who were so amazed by what was referred to in 52:15 are now given voice. The language used is that of the Psalms, in particular the 'individual P salm of Thanksgiving' (Whybray 1978: 109 ff), in which a description of suffering and rejection is followed by a cry of thanksgiving for God's restorative power. As in the Psalms it is difficult to decide how far the description of sickness and rejection is to be taken literally, and how far it is figurative language, regularly employed in this particular literary genre. (53:4-6) Here there arises the question of vicarious suffering. These verses have played a prominent part in Christian expositions of doctrine, applying the sufferings of the servant to Jesus, and understanding his sufferings as effective for the whole range of human sin. For many who may not themselves
(53:10—12) Finally we reach the point of the thanksgiving: God's wonderful deliverance of the faithful servant. Comparison is appropriate with another individual Psalm of Thanksgiving embodied in Isaiah: the Psalm of Hezekiah in 38:9-20. That was expressed in the first person, being placed in the mouth of Hezekiah, against the third-person usage here. But the sentiments, of the wonderful providence of YHWH in delivering his servant from the power of death, are basically similar. In this passage, however, the language used is widerranging. The servant is likened to an 'asam (offering for sin), a term most frequently found in Leviticus, though it should be noted that the text here has often been thought to be corrupt (Whybray 1978: 63-6; cf. BHS and NRSV marg., noting the uncertainty of the meaning). If it is accepted as it stands the poetic fancy of the writer envisages the suffering of the servant as comparable to that of a blameless animal victim, like the lamb of v. 7.
There are again textual uncertainties in v. n, but the striking point here is in the use of the root s-d-q, 'righteous'. In the first part of the book this theme was overwhelmingly used as a requirement of human behaviour, whereas from ch. 40 onwards ithas been descriptive of God's action (Rendtorff 1994: 162—4). Here the two are combined: God's righteousness is now to be a characteristic of the whole community. This whole section needs to be seen as a dramatic reversal of the state of
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33:20—2, is now elaborated; the 'righteousness' which had once lodged in her (1:21), will be restored once more. Links with the servant poems are provided by the description of the city as 'afflicted' (v. n; cf. 53:4), and by the theme of those who are taught (v. 13; cf. 50:4). Another familiar theme is picked up in w. 16—17: that of YHWH as the ultimate creator, whose power lies behind all human creating. Whereas earlier the stress had been on the creation of idols, here it is weapons that are fashioned by human hands. They will be of no use against God's community. The chapter ends with a summary reminiscent of those we have noted in 14:26 and elsewhere. Unusually here the reference is to the plural 'servants of the Lord', s-d-q language is again used, but is somewhat obscured in NRSV by the translation 'vindication' for the word rendered 'righteousness' in v. 14.
affairs described in 1:4. There the people were laden with iniquity' (fawori); now the servant will 'bear their iniquities' (fdwdnotdm). There are other correspondences with earlier material which repay detailed study, such as the 'division of the spoil' motif found in v. 12 and in the Davidic oracle of 9:3. Whatever the historical origin of this poem, at a literary level it fulfils a very important function in the development of the book of Isaiah as a whole. One might indeed suppose that such a note of triumph would make an appropriate point at which to complete the book (the four Gospels would provide an obvious parallel to such a structure), but the remaining chapters make it clear that warnings must continue to be intermingled with the note of confidence. (54:1-3) This is the beginning of a poem, perhaps extending to v. 10, with a feminine subject corresponding to the masculine servant. (Sawyer 1989 offers some reflections upon this juxtaposition as well as a more detailed discussion of this poem.) Barrenness was a cause of shame in ancient Israel, and so many stories, in Genesis and elsewhere, focus on this theme; indeed the word fdqdrd, 'barren one' is never found elsewhere in the Prophets, but is used to describe Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, Manoah's wife (Judg 13), and Hannah (Pfisterer Darr 1994: 179). Here the poem offers hope for the barren one, just as the suffering of the servant had not been the end of his story. As elsewhere in these chapters the community is to look forward to a time when the alien nations will be part of their own possession—again a warning against too readily seeing an undifferentiated universalism here. (54:4-8) Here some remarkable claims are made. For YHWH of hosts to be called the people's 'maker' and 'redeemer' is not unexpected; more striking is his description as 'husband'. It is probably right to see an implied reference to Zion or to the community at large, but in the first instance, as in the servant poems, the language is individual, and here clearly refers to a woman. Still more astonishing is the assertion that the troubles which have befallen her are the result of YHWH casting her off, abandoning her, hiding his face from her. Frequently in the Psalms the claim is made that YHWH has neglected his people's plight; here such an acknowledgement is both expressed in more personal terms and put into the mouth of God himself.
(55:1—5) This section of the book concludes with a poem which is formally unique in Isaiah. It has been compared with the cry of the water-seller, or perhaps more plausibly with the invitation of Woman Wisdom in Prov 9:1—6 (Whybray 1975: 190). At first it would seem as if the invitation is to all and sundry, but as the poem proceeds it becomes clearer that it is specifically addressed to the Israelite community. A characteristic theme in the prophetic literature of the exilic and Second Temple periods was the assurance of a new or renewed covenant (Jer 31:31-4; Ezek 34:23-31). In literary terms it is noteworthy that these promises occur at very similar points in the overall structure of the prophetic book. They are united also by the fact that in each case there is a strong Davidic link. (In Jeremiah this is found in the fuller development of the covenant theme in ch. 33.) Here the point had already been mentioned in 54:10; now it is taken further. NRSV, like most modern translations, makes the Hebrew expression hasde Dawid refer to God's love for David, but it could equally mean (and the Hebrew usage would be more natural) the mercies of David. In any case it appears as if the covenant with David, described for example in Ps 89, will now be extended to the whole community (Eissfeldt 1962). This 'democratization' (Williamson 1994: 112) is a characteristic theme of Isaiah, with its concern for the community, but it does not necessarily exclude hopes centred in the Davidic line as well. If we are to read the book as a whole we shall need to see this in the light of 9:2-7. In the present context, however, the main stress is the summons to the community to fulfil a role comparable with that which God had allotted to David.
(54:9—10) The poem ends with another of the allusions to earlier traditions, now probably regarded as what would later be called Scripture, which are characteristic of this part of the book (cf 51:2). Here the comparison is with the great flood and more specifically with Noah, but it is made in a way which significantly changes the emphasis from that found in Genesis. The focus here is on the postscript to the Genesis story, the promise that there would never again be such a flood. Admittedly this impression is strengthened by an unacknowledged emendation in the NRSV text, which reads 'days of Noah' where the Hebrew twice has 'waters of Noah'. The flood itself is regarded as no more than the occasion for God to promise the continuance of his steadfast love (hesed) and of peace (salom). (54:11-17) Whereas in the previous poem the reference to Zion was allusive, here the address is more directly to the city. So far the city is 'not comforted', but that will now be put right. The theme of glorious restoration, touched on in
(55:6—9) The basic notion of 'seeking' and 'calling upon' YHWH implied engaging in the appropriate cultic worship.
Some, emphasizing the links between Isaiah and the Jerusalem cult, would suppose that is the underlying meaning of v. 6; others would see a more generalized sense. In this unit it is still assumed that the wicked and the unrighteous, perceived as such by the prophetic author, may change their pattern of belief and behaviour. In the last chapters of the book that hope seems to fade away, and those from whom the prophet differed are more harshly rejected.
(55:10-11) The theological reflection begun in w. 8-9 is here continued, with special emphasis on the word of YHWH. An obvious way to understand this is to take it as a claim by the prophetic author to be the recipient of God's word. However that may be, we have here the beginnings of what seems to
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among other like states, but in the later period their descendants were essentially a religious community, bound by the laws of membership of that community. What was to be the attitude to those from outside? The literature of Second Temple Judaism offers the whole spectrum of answers to that question; here is one of the most open and affirmative responses. It is possible for foreigners to be the 'servants' of YHWH, an important acknowledgement in view of the status of the servant set out in earlier chapters. They must of course keep the sabbath, but they are thereby rendered able to maintain the covenant. In these circumstances they can bring offerings for sacrifice in the same way as native-born Israelites. The passage reaches a climax with the promise of the availability of the temple to those from any nation. Quotation of this passage is of course attributed to Jesus in his dispute with the temple authorities of his time (Mk 11:17). The bringing in of foreigners is pictured as being on a par with the restoration of exiled Israelites.
have been a new understanding of God's word, which would assume major importance in later writings such as the prologue to the Gospel of John. The theme of these verses is closely comparable to 40:8, and in so far as chs. 40-55 form a distinct unit within the whole book, these two sections form an indusio, the end matching the beginning.
(55:12—13) A recurring theme running throughout the book of Isaiah is that of paradise regained (Whybray 1975: 195). In 11:6-9 it was animal life that was transformed; here we are reminded of the 'briers and thorns' of the early chapters (5:6 and elsewhere), though the actual words used here are different. In the present vision such threats to agriculture will be replaced by cypress and myrtle, symbols of God's transformation of the wilderness (41:19). Then, in a way which contributed to the vision of St Francis, the trees can join mountains and hills in praise of God. Not all apocalyptic visions are as attractive as this.
(56:1) Though conventionally regarded as the beginning of Trito-Isaiah' there are few signs of a new start here. The summons to maintain justice (mispat) and do right (sedaqa) are reminiscent of the early chapters of the book, where the lack of these qualities had led to the city's degradation (1:21). But there is an important linkage here which is very difficult to bring out in translation. The word translated 'my deliverance' in NRSV is sidqatt—the same word but now used, as for example in 46:12-13, in the sense of YHWH's saving power. Such a wordplay is surely not accidental. Here, more clearly than anywhere else in the book sedaqd as a human requirement, parallel with mispdt (justice), and as a divine blessing, parallel with yesu'd (salvation), are brought together (Rendtorff 1994: 185-9).
(56:9—12) This passage comes as something of a shock after the edifying sentiments which have preceded it. This bitter condemnation of the inadequacies of the community's leaders reminds us of the attack on the rulers in ch. i, and some scholars have thought it likely that this oracle originated in pre-exilic days (see the discussion in Emmerson (1992: esp. 16, 21)). The leaders are likened to watchmen ('sentinels'), a term most commonly used of prophets, who were expected to warn the people of imminent dangers, and to shepherds, applied to political leaders in Ezek 34 and elsewhere. The point seems to be that the hope for deliverance and salvation must not obscure the need for proper leadership.
(57:1—10) NRSV here departs from its usual practice and prints an extended section as a single paragraph. In fact w. 1-2 are extremely difficult, with awkward shifts between singular and plural, largely masked by the NRSV translation. It seems that a contrast is being drawn between a group of whom the prophetic tradition approves and others who are strongly condemned. The word saddiq, righteous, comes from the same s-d-q root as we have been considering; at a later stage it was used of particular strictly observant religious groups; whether that is the case here cannot certainly be established. But this group is in any case mentioned only briefly; as is usual with religious polemic, those being attacked receive far more detailed attention, and their evil practices are now spelt out at length and in unattractive terms. Their parentage is attacked
(56:2) After the theological heights of the first verse this may seem to be something of a let-down. The only specific example offered of the ideal behaviour demanded is to keep the sabbath. Very clearly the sabbath was an important identifying mark for Second Temple Judaism, and the solemnity of Jeremiah's 'Confessions' is similarly broken with a bitter attack on those who fail to keep the sabbath (Jer 17:19—27).
(56:3—5) In fact, of course, for members of a specific religious grouping within which the Isaiah tradition was handed down, the issue of who were legitimate members of that community was a sensitive one. Sabbath-keeping was one marker; now the issue arises of the status of eunuchs and foreigners. First mentioned is 'the foreigner joined to the LORD', presumably forerunners of the Godfearers of later times, but reflection on the status of foreigners comes in the next stanza. Here the concern is with eunuchs. According to Deut 23:1 they were to be excluded from the covenant community, but here they are envisaged as being able to keep the covenant, pictured once again primarily in terms of sabbath observance. The reference to 'house' and 'walls' may imply the existence of the Second Temple, but as we have seen throughout Isaiah it is dangerous to base dating on allusions in poetry. Clearer perhaps is the link between v. 5 and 55:13; the hope for the eunuchs is comparable to the paradise picture set out in the earlier passage. (56:6-8) Attention now turns to the status of foreigners. Down to the exile Israel and Judah had been nation-states
(v. 3); then they are accused of apparently childish behaviour (v. 4); finally unspecified sexual offences and even childsacrifice are attributed to them (v. 5). Not surprisingly Hanson (1979: 186) headlines his discussion of this passage 'The Conflict grows acrimonious'! It seems unlikely that we can gain any objective picture of those being attacked; these are the standard terms of religious abuse. It looks as if the following verses may yield more sense, but this hope proves unwarranted when we discover that the 'you' of NRSV is sometimes masculine plural and sometimes feminine singular. All we can say is that various practices were regarded as idolatrous by those from whom these oracles originate, and that in the structure of the book as a whole we are reminded that the prostitution of the city described in 1:21—3 is a continuing
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who had sufficient leisure to attend to them: it is the one who oppresses the workers rather than the workers themselves who is addressed.
danger. The promise of divine deliverance so vividly set out in the preceding chapters is not unconditional.
(57:11—13) These verses seem to continue the preceding condemnation, v. 12 must surely be ironic, a point rather obscured by NRSV 'concede' for RSV 'tell of. 'Concede' suggests a genuine lawsuit, but the poet can scarcely have seriously accepted the sedaqa (righteousness) of those who have just been condemned so bitterly. The poem ends with a mockery of idols reminiscent of chs. 44 and 45, and an assertion of the impregnable position of those who take refuge in YHWH. The 'holy mountain' reminds us not only of 56:7, with its aspirations for the temple, but also of 11:9, with its picture of paradise restored.
(58:6-90) Fasting is no longer the subject of concern. Instead, the theme of social justice is taken a stage further, in a passage which has become a classic as an expression of one vital side of the prophetic movement. Not least among its attractions for religious people down the ages is the fact that it is couched in the form of an exhortation, with a powerful promise attached, rather than in terms of condemnation. Again it is clear that it is the upper strata of society who are being addressed; those who have bread and a house, as against the hungry and the homeless poor. (58:9^-12) This and the following passage (w. 13-14) are similar in form: a series of conditions followed by a spelling out of the results which will follow obedience to those conditions. The contents, however, differ. Here we have a continuation of the promise already made in w. 6-ga. Active concern for the needs of others will ensure that God's saving activity becomes available. It is doubtful how far the language of restoration in v. 12 is to be applied literally, for example as picturing the restoration of ruined Jerusalem. It is at least as likely that this is a metaphor for the renewal of the community, a theme which runs through so much of Isaiah.
(57:14—21) The double imperative reminds us of the series of such usages found in chs. 49-55, and this stylistic indication of a new start is borne out by the consoling contents of this passage, a strong contrast with what has preceded. The 'high and lofty one... whose name is Holy' offers an obvious link with 6:1-3, and there follows an assurance of God's continuing presence with the contrite and humble. This positive approach to the humble is somewhat unexpected; the root involved, s-p-l, has been used several times in Isaiah but always previously in the negative sense of being humbled (e.g. 2:9). The theme will recur again (cf 66:2); some scholars would see in it a pointer to the socially excluded status of those responsible for this part of the book (Hanson 1979: 78-9). The most natural reading of the following verses is to suppose that those now being praised had turned from unacceptable ways, rather than that a different group is spoken of inv. 17. But in w. 19—20 a clear contrast is made between those accepted by God and 'the wicked', and in this context the refrain, encountered already at 48:22, fits naturally into its context. (See the comment on 48:22 for the function of this refrain.)
(58:13—14) It might seem logical that, having rejected the need for fasting, sabbath-observance could also be considered otiose. But poetry and religious practice have a habit of resisting logical demands. As in ch. 56, sabbath-keeping is to be an essential feature of the community. It is the 'holy day of YHWH', and we have seen enough of the importance of holiness in Isaiah to know that this is a guarantee of its status. (59:1-8) After the encouragement implicit in the exhortations of ch. 58 the harsh condemnations of these verses provide a striking contrast. The theme of YHWH as saviour, implicit already in the name Isaiah itself, has run right through the book from ch. 12 onwards, yet salvation still seems afar off. This is not due to any lack of capacity on YHWH's part. It is the result of the iniquities (once again the word used is 'awori) of the community, or at least of those opposed by the Isaiah group. A whole catalogue of wrongdoing follows. For some of the items a literal understanding is possible, though not required (false dealings in the lawcourts, v. 4). Other accusations defy precise interpretation ('They hatch adders' eggs and weave the spider's web', v. 5).
(58:1—5) We have seen that proper observance of the sabbath was important for the Isaiah community. Another characteristic religious observance, fasting, receives a more qualified endorsement. It is most conspicuously practised by those described in 57:20 as wicked, and in these verses their devotion—to outward appearance at least—seems manifest. It seems unlikely, therefore, that they should simply be identified with the idolaters of 57:3-10, unless, as some scholars have supposed, relations between two groups which were at first no worse than strained deteriorated rapidly so that all kinds of attacks could be launched. There is evidence from Zech 7-8, Joel, and Ezra that the desirability of fasting was an issue in the early Second Temple period (and many have supposed that this part of Isaiah originated at that time). Joel 1:14 and Ezra 8:21 approve of fasting, whereas as in Zech 8:19 fasting is apparently rejected. So here fasting is seen as too readily accompanied by unacceptable behaviour.
w. 7—8 are quoted by Paul in Rom 3:15—27, following a quotation from Ps 14, and then by a curious error these verses came to be incorporated in the Book of Common Prayer version of Ps 14, with which they have no original connection. (59:9-150) A lament follows. It is not easy to decide whether we are to envisage the 'they' of v. 8 as now speaking in the first person, or whether this reflects tensions within the community. The latter is perhaps easier: the lack of mispat (justice) among those condemned has had an invasive effect, and this leads to the true worshippers feeling themselves to be deprived of mispat and sedaqd. In the Psalms most laments are in effect protestations of innocence, with the fault for present troubles lying elsewhere. Here, by contrast, there is a confession of sin (w. 12-13).
v. 3 raises two important points. First, this passage stands within the prophetic tradition, best known from Amos but well exemplified as a major theme in Isaiah (cf. 1:10-17), which warns that religious practice is worse than useless if not accompanied by true social justice. Secondly we are reminded that prophetic words were characteristically addressed to the upper strata of society—presumably those
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(59:i5^'-I9) YHWH's response to these troubles is now set out. This describes YHWH as the Divine Warrior, an image running through much of the HB from Ex 15:3 on, and frequently used in Isaiah (e.g. 51:9-11). Here the conflict is spelt out in greater detail. The threat to peace is found in the lack of justice; there is no one else to intervene, so YHWH himself, pictured as clad like a warrior, brings a retribution which will be acknowledged in world-wide terms (Hanson 1979: 124). The wording provided the author of Ephesians with the basis for his picture of the Christian's warfare, but it is a theme which was to have an ominous future in the history of religion, as various fanatical groups have identified themselves with God's supposedly warlike purposes. (59:20-1) The first verse is better seen as the climax of the preceding poem, stressing that Zion, so prominent in the Isaiah tradition, will be the locale of the divine triumph manifested to those who 'turn from transgression'. It is not specified who is involved here. The following verse, one of the rare prose elements in this part of the book, seems unrelated to its context. It is not clear who is being addressed; it may be an assertion of the lasting validity of the words of YHWH spoken through prophets, and the promise of the spirit provides a link with 61:1.
the book which speaks of divine vengeance on enemies (cf 63:1—6). The remainder of the present passage, however, is more concerned with spelling out the exalted state of Zion than with the fate of its enemies. It is unwise to try to use poetry of this kind as a guide to the rebuilding of Jerusalem after its destruction; Williamson (1989: 149) has noted that v. 13 has been used as a proof that the temple both has been and has not been built. In a vivid figure of speech at the climax (v. 16) Zion is pictured as a suckling infant—a remarkable transformation of the whore of 1:21. But though still at the breast (of kings!) Zion is mature enough to know what 'the Mighty One of Jacob' has done for her. The verse is clearly meant to be read with 49:26. What had there been shown to 'all flesh' is now perceived by Zion herself.
(60:17—22) salom and sedaqd, such prominent terms throughout Isaiah, are now pictured as in full control, guiding the fortunes of the restored city. With such overseers and taskmasters oppression is far away and yesffd ('salvation', another constantly recurring expression) and tehilld ('praise', a much less frequently found term, though cf. 42:10, 12; notice also that the Hebrew name for the Psalms, with which Isaiah has so much in common, is tehillim) will become the basis of trust. It is clear that here a tendency already implicit in what has preceded is taken further: we are moving into the world of apocalyptic imagery, in which the realities of daily living are swept up into a vision of divine possibilities. In 65:17 this is taken even further into the thought of new heavens and a new earth. Perhaps equally visionary and removed from everyday reality is the hope that 'your people shall all be righteous (sdddiqim)', but the prophetic vision extends even to this possibility. Finally, in words reminiscent of Gen 12:2, a population explosion is envisaged. What might today seem a threat was in the ancient world an occasion of joy. (61:1-4) II:2 had promised that 'the spirit of the LORD' would come upon God's chosen one; here in language reminiscent of the servant passages in chs. 40—55 the claim is made to indwelling by that spirit and through God's anointing—mdsah, the word from which 'messiah' is derived. Not surprisingly, therefore, the figure here depicted has been understood as an ideal king (Eaton 1979: 90), though the bringing of good news suggests that prophetic elements are also present. As in 11:4 the role of this spirit-filled figure is to bring about justice, particularly to those most liable to be the victims of injustice. It was natural that Luke should find this an appropriate passage on which to base his presentation of the ministry of Jesus (4:18-19). The themes of'release' and of a particular 'year of favour' recall the Jubilee described in Lev 25, whereas 'the day of vengeance' has already been mentioned in Isaiah (34:8). But whereas the earlier passage described that vengeance in gruesome detail, here it is no more than a passing allusion, perhaps introduced as a wordplay with the following promise of comfort. (The words for 'vengeance', naqam, and 'comfort', ndham, are very similar in Heb.) The comforting provides a link with 40:1, and it is then elaborated using a variety of metaphors. The destruction which has played so prominent a part early on in the book will now be restored.
(60:1—3) Chs. 60—2 are often regarded as the high point of the last part of Isaiah, providing many links back with 40—55. Certainly we shall see themes here which encourage us in our reading of the book as a whole. The promise of salvation, muted in chs. 56—9, now comes strongly to the fore once again, not least in these opening verses. In some ways it almost seems as if the vision in ch. 6 undergoes significant modification. There the whole earth was full of the glory of YHWH; here the glory appears over the saved community, whereas darkness covers the earth. We are warned against too easy a universalism; light and brightness come to other nations and kings only by way of Israel. This last theme is strikingly similar to 2:4.
(60:4—7) Th£ gathering of the nations is now described in greater detail, though throughout this chapter it is noteworthy that the nations described are not those who had ruled over Israel (Assyria, Babylon, Persia), but those referred to in its traditions, especially Genesis. Within Isaiah itself there are literary links, first between v. 40 and 49:18, which are identical, and then more generally with such passages as 49:22, spelling out the privileged status of the community's offspring, and also with some Psalms, notably Ps 72 with its description of the bringing of tribute. The gold and frankincense of v. 6 provide part of the literary background to the story of the wise men in Mt 2. Only in its conclusion, with its emphasis on the temple, is the stress somewhat different from the other passages. (60:8-16) As this extended section moves forward it becomes increasingly clear that it is the holy city Zion which is being apostrophized, v. lob could serve as a summary of a large part of the book as a whole, spelling out how God's wrath against his city and people has turned to favour. In all this foreigners, the former oppressors, have their part to play, so that v. 12 strikes an unexpectedly harsh note. It is often understood as prose (BHS), and some regard it as 'a secondary interpolation' (so Emmerson 1992: 42), but it does represent one strand in
(61:5—7) Th£ ambivalent attitude to foreigners which has run through the whole book is found again. Here strangers and foreigners are welcome, but only in a subordinate role; it is the
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by the identity of the last part of v. n with 40:10. The restoration proclaimed as it were from a distance in the earlier chapter is now coming more sharply into focus. This is emphasized by the names given to the community in v. 12. The transformation begun in v. 4 is complete; what once was called 'forsaken' shall be so no longer.
community itself which will enjoy the wealth and riches of other nations. The community itself is to be given priestly status; and here difficulties of interpretation arise. Is this to be taken literally, for example as providing scriptural warrant for the belief held by some Christian bodies in the 'priesthood of all believers'? Or is a sociological reading appropriate, so that the thrust of this passage is against those who claimed an exclusive priestly status in Second Temple Israel? Or is it better simply to see here a metaphor, comparable to many others in these chapters, a way of expressing the favoured status of the true community? v. 7 is difficult; there seems to be a link with 40:2 (which would argue against the NRSV emendation of Heb. 'your' to 'their'), but the exact force of the language is not easy to capture ('quite unintelligible', Whybray 1975: 243).
(63:1—6) From these rarefied heights it seems a steep descent to the bloodthirsty language of this passage. The nineteenthcentury hymn-writer may have found himself able to read these verses in terms of Christ's passion ('Who is this with garments gory | Triumphing from Bozrah's way?'), but such an understanding is alien to a natural reading of the passage. (The poem also underlies the American 'Battle Hymn of the Republic', which links it with Christ's triumph, but in terms closer to the original: 'Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord; | He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored'.) The poem portrays YHWH as the Divine Warrior, as does 59:15—19, with which there are several links: cf. 59:16 with v. 5 and 59:18 with w. 4 and 6. The form used at the outset is that of the watchman demanding to know the identity of the fearsome figure approaching the city. His questions provide the opportunity for a divine warrior hymn, exulting in the victory that has been won. Edom, referred to in v. i, was assigned typical status as the enemy in Second Temple Judaism (cf. Ps 137 and Obadiah), and later symbolized such enemies of Judaism as the Roman Empire and the Christian church (Dicou 1994: 204). In this passage the symbolic element is already present, for the hymn is concerned with any hostile nation, not just Edom. But ch. 34 has already shown that this anti-Edom strand is an important element in Isaiah, and the references to Edom and Bozrah should certainly be retained, against the widely held emendation, still suggested by BHS, to words meaning 'stained red' and 'one who treads grapes' (Whybray 1975: 253). The reply takes up once again the theme of 'vindication' (sedaqd), thereby providing a strong link with what has preceded. The metaphor of the winepress is reused in Rev 19:15. (63:7-9) It is widely and probably rightly held that 63:764:12 constitute a single extended unit, comparable to the community laments found in such Psalms as 44 and 74. We shall look at the constituent elements, while trying to bear in mind the presence of a larger context, a context which reminds us once again of the close links between the language of Isaiah and that of the Jerusalem temple. The lament begins with the characteristic recall of past times, when God had been personally active in protecting his people (cf. Ps 44:18). As in 61:10 the T' seems to denote a prophetic voice, but it plays no further part in the lament.
(61:8-11) v. 8 is put into the mouth of YHWH himself, but in the rest of the section the T is the prophetic voice. The need for justice (mispat) is again reaffirmed. NRSV then follows some ancient versions and the majority of modern commentators in reading 'robbery and wrongdoing', and this may be right. But MT 'robbery with a burnt offering' is not to be ruled out; it would tie in well with 1:11, and serve as a warning to the community that justice must accompany their sacrifices. The covenant theme is then picked up from 55:3. As in v. 5 foreigners have a subordinate position, as those who will acknowledge Israel's blessed condition. The chapter ends with the Zion community expressing its thanksgiving to God in psalmlike language and with very varied metaphors for the blessings that have been promised.
(62:1—3) Thgre has been much dispute as to the identity of the T' in v. i; is it a prophetic voice or YHWH himself? The same problem arises later in the chapter (Emmerson (1992: 76-8) provides a brief survey). We must ask, however, whether we should expect poetry to yield an objective answer to such a question. Clearly the poem sees as essential to the divine plan the 'vindication' (sedeq once again) and 'salvation' (yesu'd) of Zion. Here the nations are no more than witnesses of the astonishing transformation that is envisaged. A series of blessings for Zion is spelt out: a new name and royal status. The first of these will be spelt out more fully in the next oracle.
(62:4-9) Th£ giving of a new name did not necessarily mean the abandonment of the old one; Jacob was called Israel (Gen 32:28; 35:10), but still continued to be known as Jacob. The destruction of Jerusalem in 587 seems to have led all the main prophetic traditions to envisage a new name for the restored city (Jer 33:16; Ezek 48:35), and the renaming here is in line with that pattern (Pfisterer Darr 1994: 198—200). The 'desolate' land described in 1:7 is now transformed. Here, perhaps more clearly than anywhere else in the book, the picture of YHWH as the marriage-partner of the city emerges. With v. 6 the imagery changes once more to that of a city and its inhabitants (and the issue of the first-person reference emerges again). Now the foreigners are no more than witnesses of all that YHWH is achieving for his own community.
(63:10—19) A very characteristic feature of this and of the laments in the Psalms is the vivid description of the disasters that have befallen the community. There are links also with Lamentations, but there the disaster is largely regarded as inexplicable; here the context is immediately provided by the acknowledgement of the people's rebellion (v. 10). The usage, 'holy spirit of God' is rare in the HB, and this passage was seized upon by the writer to the Ephesians (4:30) in the development of a distinctive Christian understanding. The references to Moses are unique in Isaiah; it would be unwise to build anything on the NRSV description of Moses as
(62:10-12) We return to the double imperatives which have been a marked feature of the book from ch. 40 onwards. The link with ch. 40 is strengthened by the building of the highway, the processional way leading up to the restored city, and
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here in w. 12—13 (Sweeney 19880: 23). This section is clearly a picture of a community rejected because of practices regarded as idolatrous. Less certain is the attempt to reconstruct what those practices actually were. We are back in the world of religious polemic, in which any practice, however appalling, can be attributed to one's enemies.
'servant'; this is based on an emendation to the Hebrew text, and a more natural modification would offer 'Moses and his people' (Hanson 1979: 84). The example of the deliverance at the Exodus is used, both because it was the paradigm of God's saving power, and also because it was so closely juxtaposed in tradition with the community's wilderness rebellion. With v. 15 we reach the next stage of the lament; the complaint that God is taking no notice of his people's fate. It is as if he has forgotten them. v. 16 has been understood by some (esp. Hanson 1979: 92—3; Achtemeier 1982:115—18) as indicative of a division within the community, with the names 'Abraham' and 'Israel' standing for a rival group. But this is surely to read too specific a reference into allusive poetry. More naturally we may suppose that the poet is hoping that though Abraham and Israel (Jacob) are long gone, the continuing power of YHWH could and should be used on the people's behalf. In v. 18 it is natural to see a reference to the destruction of the Jerusalem temple, and to identify that with the Babylonian attack of 587/6 (2 Kings 25:9), but once again we should be aware of the danger in attempting precise cross-reference; poetic allusions and historical statements occupy different frames of reference.
(65:8—16) Whereas the first part of the unit i—16 was concerned only with the looked-for fate of idolaters, here a series of contrasts is drawn, introduced atw. 8 and 13 by the prophetic messenger formula 'says the LORD'. On the one hand is the promise to those who are judged to have remained faithful
(w. 8-10); on the other further idolatrous practices are listed, ensuring the condemnation of those engaged in them (w. n12). Following the second prophetic introduction the contrast becomes even sharper as it sets out the different fates awaiting 'my servants' (here regularly in the plural; a divided community cannot be addressed as 'servant') and 'you'. The thirdperson references of w. 1—7 are now pictured as spoken directly to the offenders. This contrast is an important difference from the early chapters of the book, where the community as a whole was apparently condemned (though even there there were presumably those who shared the standpoint of the author of the poems and expected to escape judgement). In v. ii NRSV translates the Hebrew words gad and mem as 'Fortune' and 'Destiny'; this is the only direct biblical reference to their worship, though Gad is frequent as one element in place names. The theme of delighting and of right and wrong choice in v. 12 provides another link with 1:29, and strengthens the impression of a deliberate rounding-off ofthe completed collection.
(64:1—12) This extended section continues to reflect the characteristic features of the communal lament. There is a good deal of repetition, but that is not to be regarded as a weakness in this kind of poem. So v. i reflects 63:15; w. 2-4 recollect God's past mighty deeds in a way analogous to 63:7-14. Then comes the renewed acknowledgement of the people's sin, now made more direct by the use of the first person plural (v. 5; cf 63:10). This description of sin is further elaborated here, with the interesting logic in v. 7 that they have ceased calling on God because he doesn't listen. The notion of God hiding his face is most characteristic of the Psalms (cf. Ps 44:24), but we should also see a link with Isa 8:17 and with 45:15 where the 'hiddenness' of God allowed a measure of hope which is scarcely present here. But amid this despair the community still has a claim upon God as its father, recalling the theme of 63:16, and the poem ends with a final plea that God will be so moved by the unhappy state into which the places of his worship have fallen that he will stir from his apparently unending silence. Questions of God feature frequently in lament psalms, but usually in the body of the psalm (Ps 44:24; 74:10-11); here the lament ends with the question still being asked. We are warned against supposing that the confidence of many of the later chapters of the book tell the whole story.
(65:17-25) The bitterness ofthe preceding poem gives way to a new promise. 'For' at the outset suggests a link with what has preceded, but this may be an asseverative usage: 'Surely I am!' YHWH as creator has been a recurrent theme since ch. 40, and the last two chapters ofthe book take this to a climax with a complete renewal of heaven and earth (cf. 66:22). The 'former things' played an important part in the lawcourt-like material of ch. 41; now, as in 43:18, they are to be set aside. The cosmic picture of v. 17 then narrows down to hopes for Jerusalem in 18-19, but perhaps in view of the way the city is idealized in Isaiah the shift is less dramatic than it seems. The blessings promised in the following verses are characteristic of the hopes of an agricultural community in the ancient world. The allusion to a tree in v. 22 may be a deliberate contrast to the rejected trees of 1:29—31, in view of other allusions to that section in these final chapters (Sweeney 19880: 23). However that may be, it is clear that v. 25 offers deliberate allusions to 11:6-9, several phrases from which are brought together in an idealized description of Jerusalem, 'my holy mountain'. The prophetic formula is added as in w. 8 and 12 to provide additional authenticity to the vision. It is a picture akin to, but not yet fully developed into, the apocalyptic visions of a later period. (66:1-2) Another messenger formula introduces an oracle which begins conventionally enough, but then develops unexpectedly. Where is God's dwelling? It is natural, particularly in the light of the immediately preceding reference to 'my holy mountain' to speak of God as dwelling in heaven and not confined to an earthly house (cf. 57:15). Much more unusual is
(65:1^7) This is the first part of a longer unit, which extends to v. 16. YHWH himself is now pictured as speaking, and in that sense this provides an obvious response to the anxious pleas of the previous chapter. We are invited to see that idolatrous practices are the cause of the people's continuing rejection. In many ways, that is to say, we are back in the situation depicted in ch. i, though with an important development. Ch. i seemed to offer hope to those who would mend their ways (e.g. w. 18— 20); here it seems as if that door has been closed, and there is now no alternative to punishment (Carr 1993: 73-4). However that may be, the links between these verses and ch. i are striking. The 'gardens' of v. 3 recall those in 1:29, a verse in which the themes of choosing and delighting are picked up
ISAIAH 484
book. It is also poetry, which reminds us that we should not take 'all flesh' literally.
the apparent rejection of the temple at the end of v. i. It is most unlikely that there is a reference here to a sanctuary other than the Jerusalem temple. It is possible that deliberately exaggerated language is being used, but in any case it is likely that we have a warning, comparable to 1:10-17, against excessive trust in any earthly building—even the very temple itself (Emmerson 1992: 58). That God is indeed pictured as speaking from the temple emerges clearly from v. 6. Just as the earlier passage went on to spell out what was required of God's true worshippers, so here v. 2 emphasizes what God really looks for.
(66:17) A curious prose note is inserted. Someone felt it necessary to be more explicit about what were regarded as abominable practices carried on in the 'gardens' to which 65:3 has already referred. The avoidance of food which is not kosher is a widespread religious concern.
(66:18—21) Another prose passage, but this time of a very different temper. If v. 17 stressed what seems to us a negative viewpoint, here the positive attitude to foreigners found in ch. 56 is taken further. Though the reference to the coastlands is characteristic (cf. 11:11), the actual list of foreign places in v. 19 is unexpected, owing more to Ezek 27 than to anything in Isaiah (though cf. Davies (1989: 95) for links within Isaiah). Still more astonishing is the thought, underlined as being a divine oracle, that some of these foreigners might be enrolled as priests and Levites—a far cry from what is found elsewhere in the HB, e.g. Num 18:7 (Emmerson 1992: 106).
(66:3—5) The dangers of false worship are now spelt out more fully, though unfortunately not more clearly. The Hebrew consists of a series of four pairs of statements, the first in each pair describing normal cultic practice, the second an offensive action. There is no indication of the connection between them. Thus 30 could be translated 'The one who slaughters an ox, the one who kills a human being'. Most ancient versions and most modern translations (e.g. NRSV) insert a comparison ('is like'), with the implication that all sacrificial worship is unacceptable. This scarcely seems likely. Perhaps more plausible is to suppose that those in charge of the cult are being condemned, their legitimate actions being no better than the grossest syncretism. (There is a helpful discussion in Schramm 1995: 166-70.) v. 5 seems to stand somewhat apart from what has preceded, and acts as a summary. It is introduced by the solemn formula 'Hear the word of the LORD' found in a similar context at 1:10. The divisions within the community seem less sharp than in the preceding verses, difficult though those are. Here those who are being opposed are still 'your own people', even if they hate and reject you. (66:6) is taken by NRSV as an isolated verse, but it is perhaps best seen as linked with the preceding, and claiming that God will denounce from the temple those whom the poet regards as his enemies. The contrast with the doubts about the temple in v. i is striking. (66:7-9) The theme of Zion as the mother of children is taken up again, as in 54:1-3. But the most striking contrast is with 37:3. There children came to the birth, but there was no strength to bring them forth. Now, by means of a rhetorical question, YHWH gives assurance that he will bring to birth (NRSV: 'open the womb', the same verb as in 37:3). By an extraordinary metaphor YHWH is pictured as a midwife—so effective in the task that there will be no labour pains.
(66:22—3) The last poem in the book takes up again the 'new heavens and new earth' theme of 65:17, linking it first with the idea of perpetuity ('shall remain'), then with the concern for new moon (not otherwise characteristic of Isaiah) and sabbath (much emphasized in 56 and 58), and finally universalizing it. In v. 16 'all flesh' was to be destroyed by the sword; here it is to come to worship. We are reminded for a last time of the dangers of too literal and referential a reading of poetry. (66:24) The high note of v. 23 might have seemed an appropriate closure, and indeed in synagogue readings it is customary to read v. 23 again after v. 24. For in this last prose note we have a sombre warning, of the possibility of lasting judgement on the rebellious, with the same rare word 'quenched' as we found in 1:31. The HB is often thought of as harsh, so it is ironic to note that this is virtually the only passage in all its contents to speak of lasting judgement— and that it is a passage seized upon by the New Testament (Mkg^S).
It seems appropriate as we reach the end of the book briefly to reflect upon what we have been reading. As with most collections of poetry it is inappropriate to ask for a 'meaning', but we can readily see that certain themes recur: the hope of salvation, expressed in the name Tsaiah' (= God saves) and repeated through the book; the need for God's sedeq to be expressed in the community of his worshippers; the concern for Zion as potentially the best and too often in practice the worst of God's creation. This linkage with Zion is underlined by the many allusions to and cross-references with the Psalms. Dating of all this material is difficult, and is most unlikely to follow the order of the complete book, but a period of 200—300 years may well be implied. Within all this poetry are a number of prose passages, linking it with Isaiah and using episodes from his life as providing a structure for the whole. Some ofthese passages may well have been taken from 2 Kings; to what extent they enshrine reliable tradition or whether any of the poems go back to Isaiah himself we have no means of knowing. Readers will differ in their perception whether or not this uncertainty is a serious loss. What we do have is a collection of superb poems driven by their authors' conviction that God was active in all the ups and
(66:10—11) There have been many references to daughter Jerusalem in the book; now Jerusalem as mother is the centre of celebration. Whatever divisions the community may display, the holy city is pictured as the kind of faithful city envisaged at 1:26.
(66:12—16) The promise to Jerusalem is underlined by the introductory messenger formula, with a message of comfort reminiscent of ch. 40. But the comfort is not universal. As is too often the case in the ancient and the modern world, the reassurance of one group bears with it the assurance of punishment on those perceived as enemies, and the language of the last two verses, using once again the motif of the divine warrior, is as harsh as anything we have found in the whole
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23. Jeremiah KATHLEEN M. O CONNOR
entourage. Inner anarchy triggered a third invasion and deportation in 582.
A. 1. To read the book of Jeremiah is to enter a colloquy of voices. These voices contend with one another to give meaning to a national tragedy so devastating that it defies simple explanation and rational analysis. Poetry and narrative, metaphor and myth, sermonic exhortation and theological defiance converge in what can seem like a cacophony of nonmelodic speech. When expectations of linear development and the search for historical origins are set aside as primary criteria of interpretation, however, a multifaceted conversation emerges from the book. By its very open-ended nature, that conversation moves towards healing and hope for a radiant future.
4. Historians judge that exilic life in Babylon was not as onerous by ancient standards as it might have been (Hayes and Miller 1986: 430—5). Judean exiles settled, married, and may even have engaged in business dealings with the native population. Rather than submit to Babylon, however, some Judean survivors escaped to Egypt and forced Jeremiah and his companion Baruch to accompany them (Jer 43). About life in Egypt and in occupied Judah little is known, though the book of Lamentations is traditionally ascribed to a remnant in Judah.
5. Many aspects of this version of Judah's history evoke heated debate among historians. One problem is thatthe chief sources of information about these events are biblical texts that receive scant corroboration from other sources and which themselves are fragmentary, contradictory, and interpretative rather than descriptive and referential. Biblical texts are not historical documents in the modern critical sense. They do not narrate events to tell precisely what happened. As theological literature, they portray events to interpret and explain them, to persuade the community to act in particular ways, to challenge and shape its identity, and to sow seeds for a new future (Perdue 1994: 7—11)-
2. In current Jeremiah scholarship, issues of critical introduction are greatly disputed and thoroughly intertwined. Unsettled matters include aspects of the book's historical background, audience, dating, history of composition, and relationship to the historical Jeremiah. Summary discussions of these matters follow. Herrmann (1986) provides a detailed survey of introductory questions.
B. The Tragedy. 1. From the beginning to the end of its fiftytwo chapters, the subject of Jeremiah is the fall of Judah to Babylon in the sixth century BCE. This national catastrophe and subsequent struggles for survival were the catalysts that produced the book, and they haunt every chapter. Events reflected here reach a climax in the siege and fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE, but international and internal troubles afflicted the nation well before and after that defining period (Herrmann 1986: 7-27; Hayes and Miller 1986: 416-36; Ackroyd 1968: 50-61). 2. The waning of the Assyrian empire in the late seventh century BCE opened the door to competition between Egypt and the emerging neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) empire for dominance in the region. In response to international pressure, Judah divided into political factions that supported Egyptian or Babylonian alliances. Many in the Judean governing classes were pro-Egyptian, whereas Jeremiah and his followers, including some leading families, supported Babylon. A decisive victory over Egypt at Carchemish in 605 gave Babylon control of the region but did not quiet the political strife in Judah.
6. What this brief narrative does reveal, however, is that the book of Jeremiah emerged from perilous, chaotic, and conflictual times (Seitz 19890). Prior to 587, Judah experienced occupation by foreign powers who interfered in internal affairs, exacted tribute and political allegiance, and created longlasting internal divisions. The Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in 587 caused starvation and death for many, destroyed national and family life, and shook theological and political foundations of the people's identity. Survivors lost loved ones, land, and livelihood; many were deported. Beyond physical and emotional devastation, there was also symbolic wreckage. The destruction of palace and temple meant the collapse of political, ideological, and theological symbols that had long provided identity and stability for the nation (Stulman 1995). Because national identity had been linked to YHWH's promises to dwell in the temple and to protect the Davidic monarchy (2 Sam 7; Isa 1—12), the loss of these institutions and of the promised land led to profound upheaval. Nor did conflict abate after the invasion during the exilic period. Events called out for interpretation; survival of the community was in serious doubt; new leadership and symbolic understandings needed to emerge.
3. In 597, Judah revolted against Babylonian sovereignty. This resistance provoked an invasion of Jerusalem, the capital city, and led to the deportation of King Jehoiachin and other leaders, and the installation of puppet King Zedekiah upon the throne (2 Kings 24—5; Seitz 19890). A second Judean revolt under Zedekiah caused an even more disastrous attack on Judah and Jerusalem ten years later. After a long siege, the Babylonians breached the city walls in 587/6. They burned the king's palace, destroyed the temple, and exiled more citizens to Babylon. The Babylonians then appointed Gedeliah governor of conquered Judah, but a group led by a surviving member of the royal family assassinated him and massacred his