Part 35
(40:15—24) The task of overcoming pride becomes concrete in the two descriptions that follow. Both Behemoth and Leviathan demonstrate what it means to encounter pride near at hand. The word Behemoth is a plural form of the usual word for cattle; it may be a plural of majesty, representing cattle par excellence (cf the plural form of wisdom, hokmot,
JOB 354
that his previous knowledge of YHWH was second-hand
(obtained through a rumour) or that he has just now really listened, in obedience to the divine command to hear, so that he is prepared to understand the meaning of the theophany, a seeing also? The next verse has built-in problems. The verb ma'as requires an object but has none, as has occurred earlier in the book; likewise, wenihamti fal may carry opposite meanings. The range of interpretation includes, among others, the following possibilities: (i) 'Therefore I despise myself and repent upon dust and ashes'; (2) 'Therefore I retract my words and repent of dust and ashes'; (3) 'Therefore I reject and forswear dust and ashes'; (4) 'Therefore I retract my words and have changed my mind concerning dust and ashes'; and (5) 'Therefore I retract my words and I am comforted concerning dust and ashes'. The first translation implies humiliation; the second and third refer to symbols of mourning; and the fourth and fifth signify the human condition (Newsom 1996: 629). Some interpreters think the remark carries heavy irony; Job conceals his rebellion to the end. Others believe that he abandons his lawsuit, acknowledges his finitude, and finds comfort in the simple fact of having come before God and survived, his own stated condition for full vindication (cf. 13:16).
Albertz, R. (1981), 'Der sozialgeschichtliche Hintergrund des Hiob-
buches und der "Babylonischen Theodizee" ', in J. Jeremias and L. Perlitt (eds.), Die Botschaft und die Boten: Festschrift fir H. W. Wolff (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neuldrchener Verlag), 349-72. Alonso-Schokel, L. (1977), 'Toward a Dramatic Reading of the Book of
Job', Semeia, 7: 45—59. Andersen, F. (1976), Job: An Introduction and Commentary (Downers
Grove, 111.: InterVarsity Press). Clines, D.J.A. (1989), 'Job', in B. W. Anderson (ed.), The Books of the
Bible, (New York: Scribners), 181-201. Crenshaw, J. L. (1972), 'Wedorek 'al bamote 'ares', CBQ34: 39—53.
(1980), 'Impossible Questions, Sayings, and Tasks', in J. D. Crossan (ed.), Gnomic Wisdom (Chico, Calif: Scholars Press), 1934; repr. in Crenshaw (1995), 265—78. (1986), 'Youth and Old Age in Qoheleth', HAR 10: 1-13; repr. in Crenshaw (1995), 535-45.
(1992), 'Job, Book of, ABD iii. 858-68; repr. Crenshaw (1995), 426-68. (1995), Urgent Advice and Probing Questions (Macon: Mercer University Press). Criisemann, F. (1980), 'Hiob und Kohelet: Fin Beitrag zum Verstand-
nis des Hiobbuches', in R. Albertz et al. (eds.), Werden und WiAen des Alten Testaments: Festschrift fur Claus Westermann (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht), 373-93. Damico, A.,andYaffe,M.D. (eds.) (1989), Thomas Aquinas: The Literal
The Prose Epilogue (42:7-17)
Exposition on Job (Atlanta: Scholars Press). Dekker, H. (ed.) (1952), Sermons from Job: John Calvin (Grand Rapids:
The conclusion consists of two parts: YHWH's rebuke of Job's three friends (w. 7—9) and the restoration of Job (w. 10—17). Astonishingly YHWH commends Job for speaking correctly about him. It is difficult to imagine Job's rebellious speeches struck YHWH as truth, so interpreters assume a different story, one that must have been removed to make room for the poetic debates. Moreover, the restoration of Job comes as something entirely unexpected after the poetic debate, which shattered the concept of a moral order. One could argue that the truth behind Job's remarks was his honesty and that the restoration is an act of grace, but significant problems remain. This suggests that irony lies at the heart of the book. The happy ending uses the rare Hebrew word sib'and, which the LXX takes as a doubling, to specify the number of Job's sons. If this is correct, the narrative subtly indicts YHWH for criminal action, for which twofold restoration was mandated (cf. Ex 22:4,7, 9 (MT 3, 6, 8)). YHWH's treatment of Job's friends on the basis of the retributive principle adds further irony. How can an arbitrary deity who treats Job in the manner described in the prose and poetry be the source of moral order? Furthermore, the happy ending confirms the truth of what Job's friends predicted. Repentance brought restoration in the end. Job completes his life surrounded by a wife, fourteen (or seven) sons, three beautiful daughters, and plenty. In favour with God and people, he lives two additional lifespans and sees four generations of descendants. Like the patriarchs, he dies 'old and full of days'. A moral order is alive and well, at least for the author of the prose. Or is it? Those who have read the poetic debate can no longer be content with such a simple answer to life's deepest enigma. Divine mystery remains, along with a human inability to comprehend the suffering of innocents. Job has succeeded, however, in that the Deus absconditushas become the Deus revdatus (the hidden God has become manifest).
Baker Book House). Dhorme, E. (1967), A Commentary on the Book of Job (London: Nelson). Fishbane, M. (1985), Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford:
Clarendon). Geller, S. A. (1987), 'Where is Wisdom? A Literary Study of Job 28 in
Its Setting', in J. Neusner, B. Levine, and E. S. Frerichs (eds.}, Judaic Perspectives on Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress), 155—88. Girard, R. (1987), Job: The Victim of his People (Stanford: Stanford
University Press). Glatzer, N. N. (1969), The Dimensions of Job (New York: Schocken). Good, E. M. (1988), 'Job', HBC407-32.
(1990), In Turns of Tempest: A Reading of Job with a Translation (Stanford: Stanford University Press). Gordis, R. (1978/5738), The Book of Job (New York: Jewish Theological
Seminary of America). Gutierrez, G. (1987), On Job: God Talk and the Suffering of the Innocent
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books). Habel, N. C. (1985), The Book of Job (Philadelphia: Westminster). Hausen, A. (1972), Hiob in derfranzosischen Literatur (Berne: Herbert
Lang). Hoffman, Y. (1996), A Blemished Perfection (Sheffield: Sheffield Aca-
demic Press). Hurvitz, A. (1974), 'The Date of the Prose Tale of Job Linguistically
Reconsidered', HTR 67: 17-34. Jung, Carl (1954), Answer to Job (Cleveland: World). Kahn, J. H. (1975), Job's Illness: Loss, Grief and Integration (Oxford:
Pergamon). Keel, O. (1978), Jafowes Entgegnung an Ijob, FRLANT 121 (Gottingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht). Koch, K. (1955), 'Gibt es ein Vergeltungsdogma im Alten Testament?'
ZTK 52: 1—42; ET in J. L. Crenshaw (ed.), Theodicy in the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress), 57—87. Linafelt, T. (1996), The Undecipherability of BRK in the Prologue to
Job and Beyond', Biblical Interpretation IV 154—72. MacLeish, A. (1956), J.B. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin). Newsom, C. (1996), 'Job', NIB (Nashville: Abingdon), iv. 319-637. Pope, M. E. (1973), Job, AB 15 (Garden City, Doubleday).
355 PSALMS
Rouillard, P. (1983), The Figure of Job in the Liturgy: Indignation,
Weiss, M. (1983), The Story ofJoVs Beginning (Jerusalem: Magnes). Wilcox, J. T. (1989), The Bitterness of Job: A Philosophical Reading (Ann
Resignation, or Silence?', in D. Duquoc and C. Floristan (eds.), Job and the Silence of God, Concilium, 169 (New York: Seabury). Tilley, T. W. (1989), 'God and the Silencing of Job', Modern Theology,
Arbor: University of Michigan Press). Wilde, A. de (1981), Das Buck Hiob, OTS 22 (Leiden: Brill). Zhitlowsky, C. (1919), 'Job and Faust', in P. Matenko (ed.), Two Studies
5: 257-70. Tsevat, M. (1966), The Meaning of the Book of Job', HUCA 37:
in Yiddish Culture (Leiden: Brill), 75-162. Zuckerman, B. (1991), Job the Silent: A Study in Historical Counterpoint
73-106. Wahl, H.-M. (1993), Der Gerechte Schopfer, BZAW 207 (Berlin: de
(New York: Oxford University Press).
Gruyter).
18. Psalms C. S. ROOD
guide me on level ground', and GNB offers the paraphrase: 'Be good to me, and guide me on a safe path'.
A. Problems of Interpretation. 1. Interpretation of the Psalms is not simple. This will surprise many people, for some of the psalms are the best loved parts of the OT. Poetry in every language, however, is less easily understood than prose. The formalized structure, the use of rare words, the many metaphors and other figures of speech, all contribute to the difficulty. The problems are increased when the language is not one's mother tongue, and it is not possible to be immediately aware of overtones of emotion and fine nuances of meaning in words and phrases. With the Psalms these difficulties become even more severe because of the nature of the Hebrew language and the forms of Hebrew poetry.
4. The meaning of some of the words which the poets use is occasionally uncertain. There are three aspects of this. First, some words appear only once in the whole Hebrew Bible. When this occurs it is not possible to compare different contexts in order to gain an insight into the exact meaning of the word, and recourse has to be had to such things as similar words in other related languages (Akkadian, Aramaic, Ugaritic, and Arabic are the main ones), how the ancient versions understood the word, and the meaning in Jewish tradition. In Ps 58:8 NRSVoffers 'snail'for a word that is found only here in the OT, but REB derives it differently as meaning 'an abortive birth', which is certainly a better parallel to 'stillborn child' in the second line. Secondly, there are a large number of homonyms in Hebrew (words in the same form but with different meaning). Scholars are sometimes not sure which of two or more possible words was intended by the poet. Sometimes, indeed, a rare word may be the same in form and sound as a fairly common word, and the common word has driven out the rarer one. Only careful study of the related languages and the versions enables scholars to recover the lost meaning. The word which NRSV translates 'company' in Ps 24:6 is the normal word for 'generation'. REB takes it to be a homonym with the meaning 'fortune'. One reason why NEB contains so many novel translations is that a large number of new meanings of Hebrew words was adopted, many of them rejected by REB. Thirdly, no word has exactly the same meaning in any two languages. At most there is only a large area of overlap. This means that often a range of English words may be needed to express what the poet intended, and it is impossible to be absolutely certain that the correct one has been selected. When the poet uses the verb 'to judge', is the sense to pass a sentence on someone who is accused, or to vindicate him? NRSV translates it by 'vindicate' in three psalms (Ps 26:1; 35:24; 43:1), and in Ps 72:4 has 'may he defend the cause of the poor', but elsewhere it sticks to 'judge', 'pass judgment', 'do justice' or 'try'. The other modern versions offer a somewhat wider range of translations. In each case the translators had to decide what the nuances of the verb were in each context, and they may have been right or they may have been wrong. 'Righteousness' is even more difficult, since it is almost entirely a churchy word in modern English. Although NRSV retains 'righteousness' in many places, REB prefers 'justice' and NJB has a number of synonyms, including 'right' and 'upright'. Sometimes, however, the Hebrew word has a bias in favour of the helpless (Snaith 1944: 68-74; in post-biblical
2. If several English translations of the psalms are compared, differences, sometimes quite startling, will quickly be found, and the reader may well wonder how learned scholars can arrive at such different interpretations of the meaning. NRSV translates Ps 12:4: 'our lips are our own—who is our master?' (cf GNB: 'We will say what we wish, and no one can stop us'), and REB: 'With words as our ally, who can master us?', but NIV marg., rather startlingly offers: 'our lips are our ploughshares'. Instead of NRSV's version of Ps 58:7: 'like grass let them be trodden down and wither', REB provides: 'may he aim his arrows, may they perish by them', and NIV: 'when they draw the bow, let their arrows be blunted'. In Ps 77:4 NRSV reads: 'You keep my eyelids from closing (cf. GNB's banal: 'You keep me awake all night'), while REB has 'My eyelids are tightly closed'.
3. Like English, Hebrew possesses no case endings. In prose the word order and a particle which marks the object of the verb normally make the sense entirely clear. Hebrew poetry, on the other hand, is highly compressed. The poetic lines are short. The sign of the object is rarely used. Word order is varied. It means that often the three or four words in a line can be construed in more than one way. In Ps 143:10 the problem lies in knowing what is the relation between 'your spirit' and 'good', and what is the subject of the verb 'leads me'. If the Hebrew accents are followed the meaning is probably as RV: 'Thy spirit is good; lead me...'. To take the words as 'Your good spirit' involves unusual Hebrew syntax. The verb can either be the third person, 'she will lead (she leads, may she lead) me', or second person, 'lead me'. Hence NRSV translates the phrase: 'Let your good spirit lead me on a level path' (following a few Heb. MSS in the last word rather than the main MT tradition), REB has: 'by your gracious spirit
PSALMS 356
would profess to understand it completely. In prose the context makes the sense relatively clear. This is far from the case in poetry. One of the most striking differences between the English translations of the Psalms is the way the verbs are translated. Is Ps 63:9—10 an expression of the psalmist's confidence in future destruction of his enemies, or a prayer (contrast NRSV/NIV and REB/NJB)? Should the verbs in 67:7 be past (NRSV/REB/NJB), future (NIV), or is the verse perhaps a prayer? Is Ps 120:1—2 a description of a prayer for divine help in the past (so REB), or part of the present petition (as NRSV/NIV)? On one view of the tenses Ps 8:5-6 should be translated: 'But you have made him a little less than God, | and you will crown him with glory and honor | You will make him master over the work of your hands; | you have set everything beneath his feet' (Craigie 1983: 105).
Hebrew it came to mean 'almsgiving, benevolence'), and translators have tried to capture this. Hence Ps 65:5: 'deliverance' and 35:28: 'saving power', REB. Moreover, the meaning of the word also approached ideas of victory (cf Isa 41:2), and NRSV translates it in this way in Ps 48:10 (REB adds Ps 65:5; 118:19; 119^123). Further the familiar 'sacrifices of righteousness' (Ps 4:5; 51:21) probably does not mean offering righteousness as a sacrifice and in place of an animal offering but sacrifices offered with the correct ritual or in the right spirit, or even such sacrifices as are YHWH's due, as most modern translations recognize. And the overtones of goodness must probably go from Ps 23:3: the 'paths of righteousness' are simply 'right paths' by which the shepherd leads the flock to pasture.
5. The Psalms have been copied and recopied over the centuries, and although very great care was taken by the later Jewish scribes (the Masoretes) to ensure the absolute accuracy of the scrolls, errors had crept in earlier. Such textual corruptions sometimes make it impossible to determine the poet's meaning, and occasionally the Hebrew defies translation. At one time scholars resorted to wide-scale emendation of the text. Today this is much rarer, and normally support from the ancient versions is demanded for any changes that are made. Few would deny that some emendation is necessary, however, but all such changes introduce some uncertainty as to the poet's meaning. A stock example is Ps 49:11, where all modern translations present the sense of NRSV: 'Their graves are their homes for ever' (transposing two Heb. letters), instead of the AV 'Their inward thought is, that their houses shall continue for ever' (the italics reveal how much had to be read into that translation). Usually the Eng. versions inform the reader that the text has been altered, and supply the support from the ancient versions, but not always (cf. Ps 27:8, where NRSV makes several changes to produce: ' "Come," my heart says, "seek his face" ', without any footnote; the Heb. appears to be lit. 'To you (masc. sing.) my heart said, "Seek (masc. plur.) my face" '). Some passages are so corrupt that it is impossible to obtain any sense without emendation, and even then the meaning is doubtful.
This is possibly the most serious difficulty in interpreting the psalms. (For a brief account of the issues see ibid. 110-12.)
8. But no translation exists on its own. The translation is linked inextricably with the way the translator understands the whole background of the psalm—when it was written, how and where it was sung, whether it formed part of a cultic activity or was the work of a solitary poet, who it is written for or about, and many other questions. There is never a translation that is not at the same time an interpretation, and a large part of that interpretation depends upon the wider view of the place of the psalm in the life of ancient Israel. Indeed, translation and understanding of the entire religious life of ancient Israel are intertwined so intimately that they cannot be separated.
9. One further feature of modern translations should be noted. Every translation loses part of the richness of the original, but increasingly modern translations have sloughed off vital details. Hebrew verbs express gender as well as number and person. No English translation can represent this for the second person, since 'you' is used for both singular and plural, masculine and feminine, and this disguises important distinctions and changes of person in the Hebrew Psalms. Further, the attempts by NJB, NRSV, REB, and NIV Inclusive Language Edition to avoid sexist language have introduced a wide range of paraphrases which remove the reader even further from the original poet. Thus masculine singulars are very frequently translated by plurals, and even by 'we' or even more extensive modifications. Sometimes it is of little moment, as in Ps i where 'those' replaces 'the man', although it obscures the patriarchal society in which the psalm was written. Often, however, such rewriting distorts the original psalm. Most people today accept that women are fully equal to men, and that language can reflect and reinforce a male domination. What is more contentious is whether the Scriptures should be rewritten in order to eliminate such language. Ancient Israelite society was plainly patriarchal, despite the presence of some forceful women. In this it was even more extreme than some of the surrounding countries. For example, all the other law codes from the ancient Middle East that have been discovered include arrangements for inheritance of the property by widows. In ancient Israel widows could not inherit property from their husbands, and daughters could only do so if there were no sons. Within the Psalter, in Ps 45 the king's bride is told that her husband is her master and she must bow down to him. The masculine language
6. Hebrew letters express only the consonants: the vowels are represented by various signs placed round or in the letters, and these vowel signs came in fairly late in the history of the text, although they express the traditional pronunciation. It is not always certain that the vowels were those intended by the poet, and alternative vowels can often produce a better sense. NRSV frequently makes such changes without drawing attention in a footnote and GNB hardly ever tells the reader.
7. An even greater difficulty in many of the psalms is the tense of the verbs. English possesses a very large number of tenses, simple and compound, most of which indicate the time when the action takes place, though some point to additional features, such as whether the action occurs only once at a single point in time or is continuous. Even in English, however, tenses do not always express the time or the aspect of the action that they appear to. The verb in T am going to Scotland on Wednesday' is present continuous, but means something like, 'Next Wednesday I shall go to Scotland' (or even T intend to go'). Hebrew possesses only two main forms of the verb, which primarily express aspect rather than tense. The verbal system is highly complex, however, and no one
357 PSALMS
context. The historical interpretation came to the forefront of psalm study from the time of the Enlightenment, and much modern study has been devoted to determining the date and authorship of individual psalms. Conservative scholars presented arguments for Davidic authorship, while liberal ones proposed a wide range of datings, some as late as the second century BCE.
found in all the psalms is a feature of that society. Sometimes, of course, male terms are used to include both men and women, as was common in English until recently, and in such places modern English requires the removal of purely masculine forms. On the other hand, most of the references to men were intended to apply to men alone, and a proper understanding of the psalms in their original context requires the retention of male terms there (cf. Gerstenberger 1988: 32). The use of patriarchal texts in modern worship is a quite different issue, and cannot be discussed here, vitally important though it is.
5. Form Criticism. It is now generally agreed that it is possible to determine the historical origin of very few of the psalms because of the lack of evidence—who, after all, would be able to discover when and by whom a nineteenth-century hymn was written simply from the hymn itself? A new approach was needed, and a decisive step in the study of the psalms came with the work of Hermann Gunkel (Gunkel and Begrich 1933), who is generally regarded as the father of form criticism. First classifying the psalms according to their type or genre, he then looked for the ways the various types of psalm were used in ancient Israel (see E below for the main types of psalm). Gunkel argued that the original psalms were hymns that were sung in Israelite worship, although he regarded the psalms in the OT as written by poets in imitation of these earlier psalms. Later scholars have tended to limit their attention to the formal structure of the psalms, but Gunkel himself had a sensitive appreciation of Hebrew literature and paid attention to such features as mood and content as well.
B. History of Interpretation. 1. Over the centuries the way Christians have used, studied, and interpreted the Psalms has changed.
2. Prophecy. The first Christians regarded the Psalms as prophecy, and searched for phrases and verses which foretold events in the life of Jesus. This can be seen in the NT itself. Indeed, some scholars have suggested that the passion narrative has been moulded by reference particularly to Ps 22 and 69. In the second century Justin Martyr argued for the truth of the Christian faith on the grounds that the Messiah had been foretold many centuries before the time of Jesus, and this interpretation persisted up to modern times. It is reflected in the description of several Psalms as'messianic'(e.g. Ps 2; 101; no).
3. Allegory and Typology. A somewhat modified form of this view of the relation between the OTand the NT is found in allegorical interpretations and typology. Allegory need not be totally uncontrolled, and rules were developed about the various levels of meaning of the text: literal, moral, allegorical, and anagogical (see PS 114). Often the Psalms retained their spiritual value for those Christians who sang them because they were allegorized. Typology became another method for relating the Testaments, and again, OT figures and ideas were perceived as types of later Christian characters and thought.
6. The Cult. The next important stage in the interpretation of the psalms was taken by Sigmund Mowinckel (1921-4), who argued that the OTpsalms were in fact cultic hymns, and on this basis set out to reconstruct the festivals at which they were sung. But as with the earlier approaches, the evidence has proved insufficient for this to be carried through convincingly. It is highly probable that many, perhaps most, of the psalms belong to Israelite worship rather than being compositions of individual 'romantic' poets, but the rubrics are lacking, and the other books of the OT provide few glimpses of how they were used. The historical books might be thought to favour a historical interpretation (see e.g. 2 Sam 22, where Ps 18 has been inserted into the text, and the catena of psalm quotations in i Chr 16). On this view the titles provide a context within which the psalms can be read, while the psalms offer personal responses by David that can be taken into the narratives, somewhat like the speeches that Greek historians inserted into their narratives.
4. Historical Interpretation. These approaches existed alongside historical interpretations, and one of the 'senses' which Scripture was believed to possess was the historical, even when greater value was placed upon the other interpretations. Attempts at providing historical occasions for the creation of the psalms, often in the life of David, can be seen in the headings of many of them. It is probable that these are not original but were added later (the LXX contains headings which are absent from the Heb., or additions to headings, in some forty-four psalms: e.g. Ps 70 (MT 71): 'Of (by) David, of the sons of Jonadab, and of the first who were taken captive', and Ps 143 (MT 144): 'Of (by) David, concerning Goliath'). Some of the traditions found in these titles are echoed in the Mishnah (e.g. M. Tamid 7.4 sets out the seven psalms which 'the levites used to sing in the Temple' on each of the days of the week: Ps 24 (LXX 'A psalm of (by) David on the first day of the week'); 48 (LXX 'on the second day of the week'); 82; 94 (LXX 'on the fourth day of the week'); 81 (the Old Latin has 'fifth day of the week'); 93 (LXX 'on the day before the sabbath when the earth was inhabited; praise of a song of David'); 92, where the MThas 'A Song for the Sabbath Day', showing that they are genuinely Jewish and not peculiar to the Old Greek version. When, according to Mark, Jesus quoted Ps no (Mk 12:36), both he and his hearers accepted that David had written the psalm and that its meaning was to be found in that
7. Literary Approaches. In the light of the failure of these attempts to interpret the psalms within historical Israel, it is no surprise that some scholars today, influenced by movements in general literary studies, have virtually abandoned the quest and have treated each individual psalm as a literary artefact in its own right. The particular interpretation varies, whether structuralism, rhetorical criticism, reader-response criticism, deconstruction, or other methods that have become fashionable. Emphasis has been placed upon the structure and wording of the psalms, and often little attention is paid to the cultural context of ancient Israel. Jonathan Magonet
(1994) has pointed out that such an approach has antecedents in rabbinic study. (For a study of Ps 18 which incorporates textual, form-critical, rhetorical, and reader-oriented approaches see Berry (1993); cf. Mays's similar exposition of Ps 3 (Mays, Petersen, and Richards 1995: 147-56).)
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fully recognized that simply to repeat words in a different historical situation (and twenty-first century Europe or North America is far removed from ancient Israel) is to say something vastly different from the psalmist's original meaning. The modern congregation comes to the Psalter with its own presuppositions, attitudes, memories, and emotions, and the psalm, sung to Anglican or Gregorian chant, in the Gelineau version or as a metrical psalm, will resonate in very different ways from those which the Israelite attending worship at the Jerusalem temple experienced. Historical criticism, therefore, is vital, not because it alone provides the key to the 'real' meaning of the text, but because it provides another way of reading the psalms and enables modern readers to move to and fro between the world of ancient Israel and the culture of today, expanding their vision of God.
8. Canonical Criticism. In stark contrast to the atomistic approach of much literary analysis of the psalms, some scholars have emphasized that the only reason why the OT has been preserved and is still read and studied is because it is canonical Scripture. No interpretation, therefore, is valid which does not take this into account. The emphasis is placed upon the completed book of Psalms and their use in other parts of the Bible, including the NT. Indeed, the key to the interpretation of any passage is found in this 'final form' of the writing. Brevard S. Childs (1979: 504—23) stresses this. He argues that the placing of Ps i as the introduction to the Psalter leads to the psalms, which originally were human songs and prayers, being taken as God's word itself. The compilation of psalms (e.g. in Ps 108) is a factor in their movement from a cultic setting towards their apprehension as sacred Scripture. Similarly the fact that the royal psalms are scattered throughout the Psalter, with special prominence given to Ps 2, is a transformation of cultic psalms into messianic ones, and the increased eschatological emphasis in many of the psalms is another mark of this changing theology. Most interestingly, he finds in the relating of thirteen psalms to specific incidents in the life of David a shift of emphasis from the original cultic function to understanding the king as a human being who has the same troubles and joys as ordinary people, thus enabling all kinds of people to relate to them. (For an assessment of Childs's work see Noble 1995.)
12. Modern Translations. Modern, and modernizing, translations of the Psalms become a hindrance here, for they give the impression to the reader that the words of the psalms are immediately related to present Western society. The removal of much masculine-oriented language from NRSV tends to obscure the fact that ancient Israel was a patriarchal society, and the paraphrasing interpretation of GNB destroys much of the poetic imagery. These translations may be more accessible to the hearers, but they imprison them in a twenty-firstcentury world, when what the Psalms (and indeed all Scripture) should be doing, among other things, is to open up spiritual and moral dimensions of life which the modern world has crippled or destroyed.
9. Each of these stages has importance for an appreciation of the psalms.
13. Literary Approaches. What then of literary criticism? The presence of eight acrostic psalms within the Psalter (1.14) is an indication that some, perhaps all, of the psalms are selfconscious poetic creations. Certainly an awareness of the skill of the poet will add to our appreciation of the psalms. There is, nevertheless, a danger that modern conventions and fashions will misrepresent the intentions and art of the poet. Once again we are faced with the 'then' and the 'now', and every literary approach needs to be tempered with a sense of the historical.
10. Prophecy. While most Christians outside the conservative evangelical, pentecostal, and charismatic groups no longer accept that the truth of their religion is confirmed by OT predictions of incidents in the life of Jesus, they acceptthat the God of the NT is the same God as that of the OT. It might be expected, therefore, that there will be a certain congruence between the Testaments. This is what lies behind typology.
Moreover, whenever Christians spiritualize such features of the psalms as the condemnation of enemies or the calls for support in war, features which have now become morally unacceptable, this is akin to the earlier allegorizing, though now no longer with an explicit raison d'etre. It might even be argued that without such spiritualizing it would be impossible to continue to use the psalms within Christian worship. Many of the hymns of Watts and the Wesleys explicitly reinterpret the psalms in a Christian sense, as, for example, Charles Wesley's fine hymn based on Ps 45, 'My heart is full of Christ, and longs | Its glorious matter to declare'.
14. It will be seen that the demands made upon the commentary writer are immense. Certainly it is quite impossible to include all the methods that have been outlined. No single approach applied to all the psalms will be attempted here, although some emphasis will be placed upon genre and setting, since only if we know what kind of text we are reading can we grasp its meaning. In this commentary each psalm will be discussed on its own, using whatever approach appears to offer the greatest insight into its meaning, but always with an awareness that we are reading poetry written in a foreign language and coming from an alien culture and a distant time.
11. Cultural Setting. Everyone today is strongly influenced by the historical awareness which is one of the major gifts of the Enlightenment. Today it is often claimed that the meaning of a historical text cannot be limited to the meaning which its author intended and some would go further and argue that the author's intentions are both impossible to discover and irrelevant to the meaning. While the author's meaning may seem central to the understanding of some kinds of literature, with the psalms authorship is of less importance, and it is no devastating loss if we are unable to identify the writers. What is important is that the cultural setting is recognized. Here historical criticism and form criticism meet. Both direct the reader's attention to the original setting of the psalms, although travelling to that point by different routes. It is now
C. The Titles of the Psalms and Sela. 1. Although the titles of the psalms are not part of the original poems, they are important as revealing some of the earliest interpretations, and NEB was mistaken in omitting them (REB has put them back; GNB includes abbreviated, and misleading, forms of the titles as footnotes). The main details supplied by the titles are names (David, Solomon, Moses, Asaph, the sons of Korah, Heman the Ezrahite, Ethan the Ezrahite, and perhaps Jeduthun), situations in the life of David, descriptions of the
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in the temple and infer that this is where they were sung, although the Mishnah does not say that they were, and others again take it to refer more generally to festal processions.
type of psalm (psalm, song, prayer, song of ascents, maskil, miktam), an expression of unknown meaning which NRSV translates as 'To the leader', and a number of varied words and phrases which are usually thought to be the titles of the tunes to which the psalms were sung (e.g. 'the Dove of the Dawn'), or the accompanying instruments (e.g. 'with stringed instruments', 'for the flutes') (Anderson 1972: 43—51, Mowinckel 1962: ch. 23, and Kraus 1988: i. 21-32 provide good surveys). 2. The titles probably have little historical value. The phrase translated 'of David' (ledawid) almost certainly intends authorship, despite claims that it means 'on behalf of or 'for' David (i.e. dedicated to the Davidic king at the time) or 'belonging to the Davidic collection of songs'. (For the tradition of David as a musician and author of psalms see i Sam 16:15—16, 23; 2 Sam 1:17-27; 3:33; 6:5; 23:1-7; i Chr 23:5; Am 6:5; Sir 47:8-10; 2 Sam 22 ascribes Ps 18 to David; in the Mishnah a casual reference speaks of the 'Book of Psalms by David' (m. 'Abot 6.9), and the same belief is reflected in Mk 12:36—7; Rom 4:6— 7; 11:9—10. According to i Chr 6:39; 15:17; 16:5—6; 2 Chr 5:12 Asaph was one of David's chief musicians, a further example of the Davidic tradition.) Since, however, nothing is known about David outside the OT, there is no way of determining whether he wrote any of the psalms, and, indeed, the date of most of them is unknown. The editors of the Psalter appear to have searched the books of Samuel and Chronicles for suitable occasions in which to place the psalms, and added such references to thirteen psalms (Ps 3; 7; 18; 34; 51; 52; 54; 56; 57; 59; 60; 63; 142: only one title (Ps 7) cannot be readily linked with the biblical narratives).
10. For the leader (lammenasseah) is the NRSV and REB translation of a term of very uncertain meaning, found in the titles of fifty-five psalms and also in Hab 3:19. The LXX appears not to have known what it meant and rendered it 'To (for) the end'. The Targum offers 'for praise'. Mowinckel (1962: ii. 212) proposed 'for the merciful disposition (of YHWH)', 'to dispose YHWH for mercy', or even 'for homage
(to YHWH)', linking the word with a verb in i Chr 15:21, but the meaning there is probably 'to make music'. Possibly the meaning is 'for musical performance'. RSV has 'To the Choirmaster', as does NJB, and NIV's 'For the director of music' gives the same sense, all linking the word with a verb meaning 'to excel, lead, be at the head, direct' in i Chr 23:4 and 2 Chr 2:2. The meaning is really unknown. 11. To (according to) Jeduthun (lidutun) (Ps 39; 62; 77). Jeduthun is the name of one of David's musicians in i Chr 16:41, and while it may refer to him in the psalm titles it has also been proposed that the word signifies 'confession'.
12. For the memorial offering (lehazkir) (Ps 38 and 70). Mowinckel (1962: ii. 212) thinks the psalm is to 'remind' YHWH of the psalmist's distress, and it may be linked with the memorial sacrifice (Lev 2:2; 5:12).
13. With stringed instruments (binegindt) (Ps 4; 6; 54; 55; 61; 67; 76) refers to accompaniment with harp and lyre, probably in contrast with other noisier instruments.
14. The Gittith (fal-haggittit) (Ps 8; 81; 84) is of unknown meaning. The LXX translated it 'for the wine-press'. Other suggestions are 'a vintage melody', 'according to the Gittite melody', 'with the Gittite lyre', and even that it refers to Obededom, the Gittite (2 Sam 6:10-11), and hence is related to a procession with the ark.
3. Within the length of this commentary it is not possible to comment on all the terms found in the titles, but the following brief notes discuss some of them. Where a word or phrase occurs only once it is noted in the commentary.
4. Psalm (mizmor), found in the titles of fifty-seven psalms, occurs only in the Psalter and probably denotes a religious song accompanied by harp or other stringed instruments. The LXX translated it by psalmos, hence our word.
15. Do not destroy (al-tashet) (Ps 57—9; 75). Mowinckel (1962: ii. 214) notes that all four psalms contain references to pagan oppressors and suggests that it may refer to some rite which the psalm accompanied. It is often supposed that it is the name of a tune (cf Isa 65:8).
5. Song (sir) (Ps 18; 30; 46; 48; 65-8; 75; 76; 83; 87; 88; 92; 108) is the normal word for religious and secular songs. It occurs with 'psalm' in all but two psalms (Ps 18; 46), and the difference between the two terms is unknown.
16. Seld is found within the body of thirty-nine psalms, seventy-one times in the MT and ninety-two in the LXX (details in Kraus 1988: 29). Outside the Psalter it is found in the psalm in Hab 3:3, 9,13. The meaning is totally unknown, but various guesses have been made. Aquila, Jerome, and the Targum translated it 'always, for ever', and the LXX diapsalma
6. Prayer (tepilld) (Ps 17; 86; 90; 102; 142; in the rubric in Ps 72:20, and in Hab 3:1) is the normal Hebrew word for prayer. It has been suggested that it denotes laments, although there are far more laments in the Psalter than those with the title.
7. Miktam is found in Ps 16; 56—60. The meaning is unknown. The LXX and Targum translated it by 'pillar inscription'. Luther's 'golden jewel' linked it with the Hebrew word for gold. Mowinckel (1962: ii. 209) connected it with atonement.
(presumably, 'interlude'). If it comes from a verb meaning 'to lift up', it might refer to 'lifting up' one's voice ('sing louder'), 'lifting up' one's eyes ('repeat the verse'), or 'lifting up' the music (with loud instruments or an instrumental interlude). An alternative derivation suggests that it indicated points when the congregation fell prostrate in worship. Kraus
8. Maskil occurs in the titles of Ps 32; 42; 44; 45; 52—5; 74; 78; 88; 89; 142, and Ps 47:7; 2 Chr 30:22). The Hebrew root from which this word comes is usually taken to mean 'to have insight, to teach, to prosper', and hence 'efficacious song', 'didactic song', 'meditation', 'artistic song' have been suggested.
(1988: 28) draws attention to the LXX translation of Ps 9:16, 'song of diapsalma', which seems to suggest the 'singing' or 'sounding' of the 'interlude' and may point to a musical intermezzo or a doxology.
9. A Song of Ascents (sir hamma'alot). This is usually held to indicate a pilgrim psalm, but some think (improbably) that it refers to their 'step-like' structure, others connect the fifteen psalms with a reference in the Mishnah (m. Middot 2.5) to the fifteen steps from the court of the women to the court of Israel
D. The Development of the Psalter. 1. While the titles provide little historical information about the individual psalms, they are important evidence for the development of the Psalter as a collection.
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of smaller collections that may have existed independently at some stage, and there is a general movement from laments, which dominate the first two books, to praises at the end of the Psalter. Such ignorance is not unexpected, given the long period of use and reuse of the psalms and the wide range of situations in which they have been sung and prayed.
2. The division into five books (Ps 1-41; 42-72; 73-89; 90106; 107—50) could hardly have been made before the collection was complete. If, however, Ps 41:13, 72:18—19, 89:52, and 106:48 are doxologies inserted when the arrangement was made, this must have been before the time of the Chronicler, since i Chr 16:36 includes Ps 106:48 in the quotation of part of that psalm.
3. Before this fivefold arrangement was made (possibly in imitation of the five books of the Torah) some smaller collections of psalms were already in existence. The most obvious of these is Ps 120—34 which all have the title 'A Song of Ascents'.
E. Classifying the Psalms. 1. Despite some scepticism as to the value of classifying the psalms and then attempting to determine the original situations in which the types of psalm were sung (cf. Rogerson and McKay 1977: 8), no study can neglect this approach. The evidence is quite insufficient for us to discover the original historical contexts (even such an apparently clear reference to the Exile as Ps 137 is not unambiguous), and similarities in structure, content, and mood between groups of psalms immediately suggests that classifying by the type of psalm may be a valuable way of treating them. This does not mean that there were any rigid structures to which each type of psalm had to conform, and those textbooks which set out the supposed forms are liable to mislead. Few psalms manifest the ideal structure of the types which scholars have proposed. Gunkel was right to adopt a more flexible approach than some later advocates of form criticism. Moreover the types are not rigidly distinct, and it is less than helpful to suppose that any development from 'pure' forms to 'mixed' ones occurred. In this commentary the types will be treated very generally.
4. Eleven psalms are attributed to 'the sons of Korah' (Ps 42; 44-9; 84-5; 87-8) and twelve to Asaph (Ps 50; 73-83), and these were probably separate collections. Why some of the psalms became separated in the completed Psalter is unknown. 'The prayers of David son of Jesse are ended' (Ps 72:20) seems to have stood at the end of a collection of Davidic psalms. In the present form of the Psalter the psalms ascribed to him are not so neatly arranged. 'Of David' is found in the MT titles of Ps 3-9; 11-32; 34-41; 51-65; 68-70; 86; 101; 103; 108-10; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138-45, and in a further fifteen psalms in the LXX. It is commonly supposed that two main collections of Davidic psalms consisted of Ps 3—41 (probably without 33), and 51-71 (possibly even including the Solomonic Ps 72). Whether all the Davidic psalms originally formed a single collection is uncertain, and the titles of these psalms after Ps 72 may be due to the tendency to ascribe ever more psalms to David. There seem to have been smaller collections or groupings ofmaskil and miktam Davidic psalms in Ps 52-5; 56—60. Cutting across these collections, however, are Ps 42— 83, the so-called Elohistic Psalter, in which YHWH is found relatively seldom and the Hebrew word for God ('elohim) much more frequently, almost certainly due to the work of an editor (cf. Ps 53 where 'God' has been substituted for the YHWH of Ps 14, and the curious T am God, your God' in Ps 50:7, where the original would appear to have been 'YHWH, your God').
2. Laments of an Individual. These form the largest class of psalms. Similarities with the Laments of the Community (E. 6) have led some scholars to group both types as Laments or Complaints. The worshipper is in distress and calls on God for deliverance. Usually the suffering is described in very general terms, and often different kinds of trouble are included in the same psalm. Illness (e.g. Ps 6; 22; 38; 88) and attacks from enemies (e.g. Ps 3; 5; 17; 109) are frequently mentioned. Who the 'enemies' are is uncertain (see G.2). It has been suggested that some of these laments were prayers by those who had been unjustly accused of some offence, were appealing to a higher court, perhaps the temple priesthood, or were awaiting an ordeal to test their guilt (e.g. 7; 26; 27). In some of these psalms the tone changes dramatically towards the end, and the psalmist affirms his confidence that God has heard his prayer (e.g. Ps 6:8—10; 13:5—6; 31:19—24). This has been interpreted in four ways: (i) it may be that a fragment from a different psalm has been attached to the lament; (2) it may be the prayer of the psalmist after his prayer has been answered; (3) it may reflect the alternating moods of the sufferer; or (4) between the two parts of the psalm the psalmist may have received a sign that his prayer had been heard, perhaps through an oracle by a cult prophet, or some indication that his sacrifice had been accepted by God. In some psalms the note of confidence is extended so greatly that the psalm may really be a prayer of thanksgiving, in which the psalmist recalls his suffering and his earlier prayer. Confidence dominates a few psalms (e.g. Ps n; 23; 62; 131), and here it hardly seems correct to count them as laments: some treat them as a separate type of psalm.
5. Whether it is possible to discover the principles upon which the Psalter was put together is doubtful. Delitzsch
(1887) suggested that catchwords (e.g. 'shall never (not) be moved', Ps 15; 16), similarities of theme (Ps 50; 51 both think sacrifice of little value; Ps 12—14 are lamentations, general— personal—general), psalm pairs (e.g. Ps 3—4, morning and evening prayers), or the grouping of similar psalms, such as the 'Hallelujah' psalms (Ps 111-13; J46-5o), could explain the ordering, but this is a piecemeal approach. The psalms in praise of the law (Ps i; 19; 119) have been seen as markers of one stage in the growth of the Psalter. Wilson (1985) points to the presence of royal psalms at the main divisions of the first three books (Ps 2; 72; 89), and traces an overarching scheme ofYHWH's covenant with David (bks. 1-2), the failure of that covenant (bk. 3), and the answer to this in the kingship of YHWH (bk. 4), with book 5 as an answer to the plea for restoration from exile in Ps 106:47. To combine form-critical criteria with ancient Israelite intentions appears rash. (For details of other attempts to identify small collections within the Psalter and to account for its growth see Day 1990: 10922; Gillingham 1994: 232-55, McCann 1993/7.) 6. It must be concluded that it is impossible to trace the development of the Psalter, although there is clear evidence
3. Thanksgiving by an Individual. When the psalmist received an answer from God or was delivered from his distress,
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ing the importance of the king in ancient Israelite society. On this understanding a large number of psalms are held to be certainly royal psalms, with others probably belonging to this category. It is difficult to decide between these two positions. Not all of Eaton's arguments are equally convincing, such as the claim that the enemies are always foreigners or Israelite rebels or that there was a distinctive royal style, and a decision ultimately depends on whether the reader is convinced by the reconstruction of the cultic worship into which the psalms are fitted. (See F for a discussion of the New Year Festival.)
he would offer thanksgiving, often accompanied by a sacrifice.
Such psalms sometimes contain an account of the distress from which the psalmist has been saved, and it is often not easy to determine to which of the two types a psalm belongs (e.g. Ps 30; 32; 34; 66; 116).
4. Hymns. These normally consist of a call to praise YHWH, followed by an account of the reasons for worshipping him, usually introduced by 'for' or 'because' (e.g. Ps 29; 33; 100; 103; 104; 117; 145-50). There seems no need to distinguish between those psalms which describe YHWH's character (e.g. Ps 33:4—5) and those which relate his actions in creating the world or saving his people Israel (e.g. Ps 136:425). The hymn often ends with a renewed call to offer praise. Some of these hymns have similarities with Canaanite religion (see PS 29) or Egyptian hymns (see PS 104).
8. Smaller Classes of Psalms. Besides these main types of psalm a number of smaller classes have been posited.
9. Wisdom Psalms have similarities with the wisdom writings in the OT (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Sirach) and those from Egypt and Babylon. The exact number of psalms to be included in this category depends upon what criteria are used to define wisdom. Many accept Ps i; 37; 49; 73; 112; 127; 128; 133. Like the wisdom writings they fall into two main types, collections of proverbs, mainly optimistic and expressing a philosophy that goodness will be rewarded and evil punished (e.g. Ps i; 112), and meditations on what may be termed the problem of theodicy (cf. Job; Ps 49; 73. Ps 37 is more like the first group but recognizes that life does not always work out neatly).
5. Within this general class two groups of psalms have been singled out, and have led to striking proposals for reconstructing the worship of the Jerusalem temple:
a. Songs of Zion, where the main theme is YHWH's deliverance and protection of Jerusalem (Ps 46; 48; 76; 84; 87; 122). Opinion is divided over whether these psalms belong to the Jerusalem cult and express a faith in divine protection of the city, possibly as part of a cultic drama, or were occasioned by a spectacular deliverance of the city, perhaps at the time of
10. Torah Psalms. The great psalm in praise of the law is Ps 119, an elaborate acrostic, each of its twenty-two stanzas consists of eight lines, each line beginning with the appropriate letter of the alphabet. The law is referred to under eight synonyms. Ps 19:7-11 (or 7-14), which may be a separate psalm or psalm fragment, also praises the law under a range of expressions. Ps i is often placed in this category rather than among the wisdom psalms.
Sennacherib's siege (2 Kings 18:13-19:36; Isa 36-7).
b. Enthronement Psalms which are characterized by a phrase which has been variously translated as 'The LORD is king', 'The LORD reigns', 'The LORD reigns (now)', and 'The LORD has become king' (Ps 47; 93; 96-9). The different translations reflect different interpretations. Some follow Mowinckel in positing a great New Year Festival in the autumn as part of the Feast of Tabernacles (Ingathering) in which the kingship of YHWH was celebrated and he was enthroned anew. Others question whether such a festival existed in Israel, and argue that to assert that YHWH became king implies that he had ceased to be king, rather like the dying and rising gods of other cultures in the ancient Middle East. But to say that his enthronement was celebrated annually need not imply this, and the psalms certainly gain in vividness if some such annual celebration is imagined.
11. Entrance Liturgies. The question and answer in Ps 15; 24:3—6 suggests that these two psalms may have been the catechism of pilgrims as they approach the temple, whether on an ordinary occasion or, perhaps more probably, for one of the great annual festivals. Isa 33:13-16 has similarities with these liturgies.
12. Pilgrimage Psalms. It is commonly accepted that the title 'Song of Ascents' in Ps 120-34 indicates psalms which pilgrims sang as they made their way to Jerusalem. Possibly Ps 84 and 122 also belong to this type, although Ps 84 has some of the features of an entrance liturgy and a hymn of Zion, and Ps 122 seems clearly related to the latter.
6. Laments of the Community. When famine or defeat in war threatened the nation, a fast would be called and the people would express their grief and call upon YHWH for help (cf i Kings 8:33-40). Ps 44; 74; 79; 80 are examples of the prayers that would be offered. Whether these were general petitions or were evoked by specific historical events, such as the fall of Jerusalem in 586, is impossible to determine.
13. History Psalms. Accounts of events in Israel's history play such a large part in Ps 78; 105; 106 that they are often described as history psalms. Each, however, has its own features. Ps 78 has some of the characteristics of wisdom, Ps 105 is a hymn of praise, and the stress on the past sins of Israel in Ps 106 makes it a corporate confession. There is considerable debate as to whether these psalms (or any of them) are dependent on the narratives of the Pentateuch. In the past they were regarded as examples of'salvation history' theology, but some scholars now question whether this is an adequate term, regarding it as ambiguous and meaning nothing more than that Israel survived when the historical circumstances made it unlikely. It is better to refer simply to Israel's history.
7. Royal Psalms. These are psalms of various forms which have the king as the central figure, either as the one for whom the prayer is offered or the one who makes the prayer. There is intense debate about the number of such psalms. The absolute minimum number is Gunkel's list of Ps 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 72; 101; no; 132; 144:1-11, with doubts expressed about 89:4752 (Gunkel and Begrich 1933:140). Atthe other extreme Eaton (1986) argues that in principle all the Davidic psalms belong to this group, which are characterized by 'royal' language and motifs, are in first-person form (or use the third person rather like the royal 'we'), and combine individual and corporate features, indicating that the psalmist is in some way the representative of the community. He supports this by stress-
14. Acrostics. Eight psalms are acrostics, each line or verse beginning with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet in correct
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Zion to the temple, and YHWH entered his temple as victor over his foes (Ps 24; 47).
sequence (Ps 9-10; 25; 34; 37; in; 112; 119; 145). This is difficult to reproduce in translation, but NJB has followed the letters of the English alphabet in the initial words of each verse of Ps 25, beginning with 'Adoration I offer, Yahweh' and ending with the additional v. 22, 'Ransom Israel, O God'. Of the most recent translations only NJB indicates the Hebrew letters in all eight, though NIV does so in Ps 119. The purpose of the acrostic form is debated. It is unlikely that it was an aid to the memory, or had magical significance. An attractive suggestion is that it expressed completeness, the A to Z, as it were, of the theme. Alternatively it may simply be an artistic device. Acrostics are found both in OT writings outside the Psalter (e.g. in Lam 1-4 and Prov 31:10-31) and in Babylon
5. Ritual Combat. At some unknown point in the festival there was a ritual combat in which YHWH defeated his enemies, pictured both as the cosmic forces of chaos and the enemies of Israel (Ps 46:8—11; 48:8—9; 149:5—9).
6. YHWH as Lord of Morality. YHWH was also worshipped as Lord of universal morality. This is presented in two ways: he saves his people only as they are loyal to his covenant, and at the festival they renew their vows (Ps 24:1—6; 95:7—11; 97).
7. Defeat of the Gods. YHWH's victory over the kings of the nations has its counterpart in heaven. The gods of the nations have been guilty of rebellious misrule, but YHWH will subdue them and himself take over the rule over the world (Ps 82), leading to universal peace (Ps 46:8-10; 98). 8. The King. The Davidic king played a central part in this celebration. The historical books portray the king, God's anointed, as sacrosanct and the representative of the nation, the welfare of which depends upon his righteousness (i Sam 9:16; 10:1; 24:6; 26:9; 2 Sam 1:14; 21:1; 24; i Kings 18:18). The covenant between YHWH and the Davidic monarchy (2 Sam 23:5; Ps 89:28—37; 132:11—18) was described as 'everlasting', and the king is sometimes referred to as the (adopted) son of God (Ps 2:7; 89:26-7), revealing the lofty place the king held in Israelite thought.
(though these are not alphabetic since cuneiform is syllabic). Moreover, there is evidence of deliberate art in the construction of many of the other psalms. This, therefore, seems to be the most likely explanation.
F. The Pre-exilic New Year Festival. 1. It is quite impossible to reconstruct the rites and liturgy of the worship in the pre-exilic temple. The Torah is largely limited to sacrificial practice and the broad outline of the main pilgrimage feasts, and the psalms neither reveal whether they formed part of the worship nor give sufficient details to enable that worship to be recovered. Nevertheless, the work of Mowinckel (1962), Johnson (1967; 1979) and Eaton (1976/1986) has produced an attractive picture of a cultic drama involving the king and celebrating the enthronement of YHWH, which may also have had an eschatological aspect within it, or alternatively have been essentially sacramental. The main difficulties with such reconstructions lie in the sparsity of corroborative evidence outside the psalms themselves, and the circular argument of reconstructing the cultic drama from the psalms and then fitting the psalms into that worship. On the other hand it has to be admitted that the hypothesis has succeeded in bringing the psalms to life in a vivid way, which few other proposals have managed to do. (For an excellent discussion of the issues see Day 1990: 67—108.) Here only the broadest outline of the rites and some of the evidence which has been drawn upon will be set out.
9. Humiliation and Rescue. Like the Babylonian king at the Akitu festival, it has been suggested that the Israelite king was almost defeated by his 'enemies' and ritually humiliated, before being saved by YHWH on account of his loyalty and faithfulness to the covenant (cf. Ps 89:38—51; 18; 118). After his vindication the king seems to have been proclaimed as the adopted son of YHWH and enthroned supreme over his enemies to rule them as God's vicegerent (Ps 2; 21; no).
G. Concepts from a Different Culture. 1. If the culture of Israelite society and the meaning of some common terms used by the psalmists are not appreciated, there is a danger that the psalms will be misread. Out of a large number of words and concepts which might be considered, three are of special importance: enemies, the poor, and life after death.
2. New Year Festival. It is clear from Ex 23:16; 34:22; Deut 16:13; Lev 23:34—43; i Kings 8:2; 12:32 that the most important feast at the time of the monarchy was Ingathering. It took place at the 'going out' (Ex 23:16) or the 'turn' (Ex 34:22) of the year, and these terms, plus the later links with the hornblowing of New Year (Lev 23:24—5; Num 29:1—6) suggest that part of the festival may have been the celebration of the New Year. The late passage in Zech 14:16-17 links the coming of the autumn rains and the kingship of YHWH, and may provide some support for the connection of the enthronement psalms with the festival.
2. Enemies. No reader of the psalms can fail to notice how often the psalmists complain to God about their enemies. Several different Hebrew words are used, as well as longer descriptions of their actions. A term found in thirteen psalms (Ps 5:5; 6:8; 14:4; 28:3; 36:12; 53:4; 59:2; 64:2; 92:7, 9; 94:4, 16; 101:8; 125:5; 141:4, 9) was formerly translated 'workers of iniquity' but modern translations favour 'evildoers'. Outside the Psalter it is limited to Isaiah, Hosea, Job, and Proverbs. Mowinckel (1921; 1962) argued that it referred to sorcerers, but few have followed him completely, although several accept that in some of the psalms this may be the connotation.
3. YHWH as Lord of Nature. The main celebration appears to have been the worship of YHWH as the Lord of nature, the one who secured the autumn rains and hence prosperity for the coming year. This is described in Ps 29; 93; and 95 in terms of his victory over the cosmic sea and his being proclaimed as king.
3. To understand why there should be so many references to enemies and who these enemies are is difficult. A useful approach is to note where the terms occur.
4. In hymns, laments, and other psalms of the community the enemies are obviously foreign nations or kings (e.g. Ps 44:10; 74:3—8). In royal psalms the enemies are the king's foes, either actual or ritual (e.g. Ps 2:1-3; 45:5; IIO:I» 5~6; some think that 21:8-10 is addressed to the king rather than to
4. Procession with the Ark. A prominent feature in the ceremonies seems to have been a procession in which the ark, symbol of YHWH's presence, was carried up the hill of
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the fatherless, and the resident alien (Ps 94:6, cf. 10:17—18), but the interpretation is complicated by two things: the poor are commonly regarded as 'righteous' (even in Am 2:6), and there is evidence both in the OT and in the other countries of the ancient Middle East that 'poor' possessed overtones of 'pious'. Thus an Egyptian votive stele describes the god Amun as 'lord of the humble man' who listens to the voice of the 'poor', and a Hittite king prays to the god Telepinus as father and mother of the oppressed and the lowly.
YHWH), and since the king is the representative of his people, his enemies are also the nation's.
5. In some psalms the enemies are described as the enemies of YHWH (e.g. 66:3; 83:2; 92:9), and are linked with mythological actions (e.g. 89:10; cf 74:12-17).
6. The majority of references to enemies, however, are found in individual laments and thanksgivings, and this causes the greatest difficulty. Those who attribute many of the individual laments to the king naturally treat the enemies as foreign nations or rebels within the king's own people. This is supported by the fact that in some psalms of the individual (e.g. 3:6; 27:3; 55:18; 56:1; 59:3; 62:3) they are depicted as an attacking army, but this is not totally convincing for all the psalms that have been claimed as 'royal'.
12. Certainly YHWH is expected to protect the poor and defend the oppressed (e.g. Ps 140:12), and the king, as his vicegerent, does the same (e.g. Ps 72:2-4,12-14). But equally it has to be kept in mind that 'poor', and even 'oppressed' may be part of the language of piety, without any implications that the psalmist is destitute (e.g. Ps 37:14 places side by side the 'poor and needy' and 'those who walk uprightly'; while Ps 40:17; 86:1, and many other psalms use 'poor and needy' much as in the Egyptian prayers). In ancient Israel the poor would also be illiterate; it is surely doubtful whether those who composed and wrote down the psalms intended them as the prayers of those who were destitute. If many of the laments are the king's prayers the language is even more likely to refer to religious piety rather than economic poverty. On the other hand, there are those who remain firmly confident that the poor in the psalms are indeed the poor (Kraus 1988: 92-5).
7. If some of the psalms are prayers by men who believe themselves to be wrongly accused, the 'enemies' will be their accusers.
8. A group of psalms remains, however, where sickness and enemies occur together. Here the enemies might be those whom the psalmist believes to have resorted to sorcery. Alternatively, or perhaps in different psalms, the enemies may be those who condemn the psalmist as a sinner and hold that his illness is God's punishment for his sin. Even so the vehemence of the psalmist's reaction to his enemies seems extreme, the way he describes them as actively attacking him rather than engaged in a whispering campaign, or refusing to consort with him, and many of the metaphors which are used to describe the actions of the enemies (laying snares, lying in wait, attacking him like dogs and wild animals, sharpening their teeth) hardly seem suitable to apply to those who, after all, are only expressing the orthodox belief in the connection between sin and suffering.
13. Life after Death. Despite the weakening of classical culture upon modern society, most people today probably think of human beings either as no different from the animals or as possessing a material body and a spiritual 'soul'. Ancient Israel was closer to the first than the second. Human beings were seen as animated bodies, physical beings into whom God breathed life (cf. Gen 2:7-8). At death the unit of life was broken up and the individual became 'like water spilled on the ground, which cannot be gathered up' (2 Sam 14:14). Although a few scholars (Schofield 1951; Dahood 1966—70) have argued otherwise, it seems almost certain that for most ofthe period ofthe OTno happy life after death was envisaged. It was only with the Maccabean martyrs and the apocalypses that hopes of a resurrection appeared (cf. Dan 12:2). Certainly within the Psalter the normal belief was that the shades ofthe dead went down to Sheol (corresponding to the Greek Hades, and Babylonian concepts ofthe 'land of no return', cf. Job 8:9— 10; 10:21; 16:22). This was pictured as a cavern under the earth, or more exactly under the waters beneath the earth, which stood upon pillars (Ps 18:4-5, 69:1-2,14-15; Jon 2:2-9; for the cosmology see Ps 24:2; 75:3; 136:6). There the dead continued a weak existence in a region of darkness, dust, silence, and forgetfulness, unable to praise God, and beyond his power (Ps 6:5; 88:3-6,10-12; 94:17; 115:17; Job 3:13-19. Ps 139:8 does not necessarily contradict this view of Sheol, since it may be a figure of speech describing the power of YHWH and his care for the psalmist.). Three other terms are found for this land ofthe dead, all translated in NRSV by 'the pit' (Ps 28:1; 30:3; 40:2; 88:4, 6; 143:7; 16:10; 30:9; 55:23; and 69:15). This is the background to all the psalms. It is possible that occasional leaps of faith in a future life are found in Ps 16:9n; 49:15; 73:24, but these do not constitute an established belief and their interpretation is uncertain.
9. Perhaps, therefore, these psalms are intended for use by many different individuals, and the troubles from which they seek God's deliverance are deliberately expressed in general terms that can be applied to a variety of situations. Even so, the wide extent of the references to enemies (they are absent from relatively few psalms), and the presence of illness and enemies in many psalms, is curious. (DCH provides an analysis of 'dyeb and 'doers of iniquity'; Kraus 1988: 95-9 has a good discussion of'enemies'.)
10. The Poor. The psalmists frequently refer to themselves as 'poor'. Several different Hebrew words are used for the poor, translated with various English synonyms (four of them occur in Ps 82:3-4: 'weak', 'lowly', 'destitute', and 'needy'; for 'lowly' REB substitutes 'afflicted', and NJB 'wretched'; NIV has 'weak', 'poor', 'oppressed', and 'needy'). The Hebrew word used most frequently in the Psalter for 'poor' possesses active and passive forms, but whether these signify any distinction between 'humble' and 'humbled, oppressed' is doubtful. Even if it does, the text is ambiguous in many places, and sometimes the qere and ketib record the active and passive forms.
11. There has been much debate about the meaning of these terms. Outside the Psalter they normally refer to those materially poor, who, in the same way as widows and the fatherless, are likely to be oppressed by wealthy and more powerful members of the village society (cf. Am 2:6; 4:1; 8:4, 6). This may be the meaning in many of the psalms (e.g. Ps 112:9), especially when they are found together with widows,
14. This comes as a shock to many Christians, who have taken it for granted that the Bible teaches life after death. The
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dominance of the resurrection of Jesus in the NT has often made it difficult to realize that Israelite worshippers of YHWH had a very different belief. The limitation of life to this world was probably one reason for the importance of retribution being worked out before death and the devising of a satisfactory theodicy. Christian use of the psalms, of course, has imposed Christian ideas upon them, so that beside the messianic interpretations have come readings which see in many phrases beliefs in resurrection, immortality, and life after death, while 'soul' came to be understood in the Graeco-Christian sense of that part of the human being which survived death (cf Peter's quotation of Ps 16:8-11 in Acts 2:24-32). 15. Soul. As has been mentioned, alongside these beliefs about life and death went a particular understanding of human personality. The older translations, with their frequent mention of'soul', give the impression that the Israelites thought in terms of body and soul. This is plainly incorrect, as Gen 2:7 shows: when God breathed life into the little clay man that he had made, the man 'became a living being (Heb. nepes). Often 'soul' (nepes) is used for a person's inner being or vitality, virtually the equivalent of 'life' or 'individual'. Commonly 'my soul' is a way of saying T myself. The Hebrew word nepes can also express emotions, such as greed, desire, and courage. In addition, many think that in a few places it carries the physical meaning of'neck, throat', as the cognate word does in Akkadian, and this has been adopted by most modern translations in Ps 69:1; 105:18, and by REB in 7:2 (and 31:9 marg.) in addition. It may have this meaning in Ps 63:5; 107:9, 18 and a few other places. (For a full discussion see Johnson 1964.)