Part 127
15. There are thirteen references to suffering in the epistol which have led some to suggest that Barnabas could have been a document (like i Peter, or Melito's Paschal Homily) written for and read at a paschal feast, when the whole redemptive work attributed to Christ (his death, resurrection, ascension, and parousia) would have been recalled and recited. Barnabas is closer to being a paschal homily than a baptismal liturgy. The explicit references to baptism at 6.11, 14; n.i-n; 16.8 would have been particularly appropriate, especially as the theme of death and resurrection is often associated with baptism, for instance as in Rom 6:1—14. Like me Didache,
2. And again, since he was established as a mighty Stone which crushes, the prophet says of him: Behold, I will insert into the foundations of Zion a Stone which is precious, chosen, a cornerstone, prized [Isa 28: i6a]. Then what does he say? And whoever trusts in him will live forever. I sour hope, then, on a stone? Not in the least! But he speaks in such a way since the Lord has established his flesh in strength. For he says: And he established me as a solid Rock [see Isa 50:7(7]. And again the prophet says: The very Stone which the builders rejected has become the cornerstone [Ps. 118:22]! And again he says: This is the great and awesome Day which the Lord made [Ps. 118:240; see 118:23].
Barnabas probably originated at the annual baptismaleucharistic paschal feast.
Barn. 2.4—10 and 13.1—7 are also particularly noteworthy for the way in which LXX citations are employed and for the author's linking of quotations from different books.
16. Among other main themes are that the day of judgement is close, that salvation lies in the future and that Christ, who had been pre-existent, suffered and died in the flesh to purify a once sinful people. Only he makes possible a correct interpretation of the Scriptures. All of this is justified by an appeal to Scripture (i.e. the OT) not to Jesus' sayings. Christ is expected as the judge at the end-time.
Bibliography: Windisch (1920); Kraft (1965); Prigent and Kraft (1971); Wengst (1984); Carleton Paget (1994); Hlavik (1996). The Greek text of Barnabas with an Eng. trans, is found in Lake (1912-13: i. 340-409).
E. Among other Apostolic Fathers to be considered, albeit briefly, are the pseudo-Clementine letters and the Shepherd of Hermas, all of which are found attached to fourthcentury biblical MSS. i and 2 Clement appear at the end of Codex Alexandrinus, the Shepherd is found at the end of
17. Barnabas and the NT. Barn. 4.14 knows the words found in Mt 22:14: 'When you note that great signs and wonders were performed in Israel but that [the Jews] have been abandoned, let us take heed lest we be found to be, as it is written,
EARLY CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 1314
Codex Sinaiticus. We shall then turn briefly to the Epistles by Ignatius.
The former has links with verses in the Sermon on the Mount in the NT. The latter parallels Mt 26:24 II Mk 14:211| Lk 22:22 and Mt 18:6 || Mk 9:42 || Lk 17:2, but it is unlikely that the author of i Clement was familiar with our written gospels: his sources are more probably oral traditions.
The Pseudo-Clementine Letters: i Clement
F. 1. This anonymous letter to the church in Corinth is claimed in later tradition to have been written by Clement, the third or fourth bishop of Rome. The letter, likely to have been written at the end of the first century, is concerned with church order and ministry. Roman authority and jurisdiction over the church in Corinth seem to have been taken for granted by its composer.
2 Clement
G. 2 Clement, like i Clement, is found in the Bryennios MS, in Codex Alexandrinus, and in the twelfth-century Cambridge Syriac NT, but not in Latin or Coptic. It is a homily on selfcontrol and repentance; it is not a letter and has a different authorship from i Clement. The date and provenance are unclear. Possibly it comes from Rome in the mid-second century. Its main value is as an example of early, unsophisticated, Jewish-Christian thought from that period.
2. The letter is in the Bryennios MS. As well as being in the Codex Alexandrinus, i Clement is found alongside the NT text in one of the two extant Coptic papyri, and in a twelfth-century Syriac NT (now in Cambridge). This suggests that i Clement teetered on the edge of the NT canon in several areas of Christianity over many centuries. Eusebius knew that it was read in churches. The epistle was used by Polycarp, and praised by Irenaeus, who quotes from it, as does Clement of Alexandria. There are a few links with the canonical i Corinthians and Hebrews. Links with the canonical gospels are more tenuous. Its doxologies, prayers, and trinitarian formulae are instructive for our understanding of late first-century liturgy.
Bibliography: An appendix given over to Greek, Roman, and other stories concerning the figure of the phoenix is to be found in Linnemann (1992). This book gives a detailed commentary on both i and 2 Clement. Other works on these letters are: Wengst (1984); Grant and Graham (1965); Welbourn, ABD i. 1055-60. The Greek text of i and 2 Clement with an ET is found in Lake (1912-13: i. 8-163).
3. The author preaches forgiveness and harmony to a church riven with discord and schism. Christians are urged to perform good deeds as a consequence of their faith, i
The Shepherd ofHermas
Clement sees the OT as a model for Christian practice (e.g. the Jewish priesthood is analogous to the Christian ministry). But a secular example, the phoenix, is taken in i Clem. 25333 psrsllel to resurrection and is set out as a proof for faith in a future resurrection of the faithful dead:
H. 1. Several MS copies of this text have survived, including the Codex Sinaiticus, where about a quarter of the Shepherd follows Barnabas. The Shepherd is cited by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Athanasius, and Tertullian, usually as scripture. The Muratorian Canon allows it to be read privately.
2. Hermas is the unknown author and it is he who is the hero of the story. The Shepherd is divided into three parts: five Visions after which come twelve Mandates (or Precepts) and ten Similitudes (or Parables). It has been suggested by several scholars that these sections may have come from different sources. The composition is likely to have developed in the mid-second century. Its aim is to inculcate a need for repentance. There are some links with material known to us in the NT, but there is no convincing evidence of direct copying. Vision 10 (the Good Shepherd) suggests parallels with Jn 10.
Let us consider the strange sign which takes place in the East, that is in the districts near Arabia. There is a bird which is called the Phoenix. This is the only one of its kind, and lives 500 years and when the time of its dissolution in death is at hand, it makes itself a sepulchre of frankincense and myrrh and other spices, and when the time is fulfilled it enters into it and dies. Now, from the corruption of its flesh there springs a worm, which is nourished by the juices of the dead bird, and puts forth wings. Then, when it has become strong, it takes up that sepulchre, in which are the bones of its predecessor, and carriers them from the country of Arabia as far as Egypt until it reaches the city called Heliopolis, and in the daylight in the sight of all it flies to the altar of the Sun, places them there, and then starts back to its former home. Then the priests inspect the registers of dates, and they find that it has come at the fulfilment of the 5ooth year.
Bibliography: Commentaries on the text are: Dibelius (1923); Joly (1968); Whittaker (1967); Kirkland (1990); Osiek (1999). See also Hahneman (1992), esp. ch. 2. The Greek and Latin text of the Shepherd with an Eng. trans, is in Lake (1912—13: ii. 6—305).
The same story (with variations) occurs in Herodotus and in Pliny.
The Letters of Ignatius
4. Among words of Jesus, two that occur in the letter (13.2; 46. yfc-S) are:
1.1. Ignatius of Antioch en route to his martyrdom in Rome, an event which probably took place £.107 CE, wrote letters to the churches in Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Rome, Smyrna, and Philadelphia, and to Polycarp. These letters were circulated and gathered together, and were quoted by Eusebius and Theodoret, among others. The original seven were interpolated, and spurious letters were added to the corpus.
For he spoke thus: 'Be merciful, that you may obtain mercy. Forgive, that you may be forgiven. As you do, so shall it be done to you. As you give, so shall it be given unto you. As you judge, so shall you be judged. As you are kind, so shall kindness be shown you. With what measure you mete, it shall be measured to you.'
Remember the words of the Lord Jesus; for he said, 'Woe to that man: it were good for him if he had not been born, than that he should offend one of my elect: it were better for him that a millstone be hung on him, and he be cast into the sea, than that he should turn aside one of my elect.'
2. The originals, known to Eusebius, survive in Greek, Latin, Syriac, and in other languages. (The long recension, containing interpolations to the genuine seven letters together with six additional letters, survives in Greek and Latin.)
1315 EARLY CHRISTIAN LITERATURE
The Epistle to the Romans had a different textual history as it was subsequently incorporated into a martyrology—witnesses to this epistle are extensive but of variable quality.
issue of blood, the good and bad thieves, Zachariah, and apostles who in the NT do not occur prominently in their own right—Andrew or John, for example. The main link between the 'apocryphal' and 'canonical' texts (to use those terms anachronistically when referring predominantly to first—third-century compositions) is not so much the genres of literature but the attempts in the apocryphal literature to amplify events and details about the dramatis personae found in the earlier canonical books and in some cases to fill perceived gaps in the canonical accounts.
3. Ignatius' friend Polycarp in his letter to the Philippians refers in ch. 13 to a collection of the martyr's letters, which he was forwarding to Philippi.
4. The main emphasis of Ignatius' seven letters is to defend an authoritarian episcopacy. The letters also contain warnings against a Judaizing heresy with docetic overtones. Whether this was one heresy or two—Judaco-Gnosticism or Judaism and Docetism—is debated. Jesus' divinity is stressed—he is called 'God' at least twelve times in these letters—but the corporeality and reality of his birth and death are taught. The life of Christ is said to be continued in the eucharist.
2. We are assuming for the moment that the apocryphal literature is in each case later than the books which were incorporated into the NT. If we assume the secondary nature of the apocryphal books and a date for their composition in and subsequent to the second century, we can see that one of the main motives behind the composition of these books was to satisfy the curiosity of the faithful about characters and events not always fully developed in the NT itself.
5. Ignatius was aware of a collection of Paul's letters. He quotes or alludes to i Corinthians nearly fifty times, although often in a free and paraphrastic way. There are allusions to most of Paul's other letters too. His letter to the Ephesians, 17.2—18.1, is a good example of his use of Paul:
3. We now turn to look at the different genres of literature within the apocryphal NT in more detail. These are categorized as gospels, acts, epistles, and apocalypses.
Why are we not all wise [cf. i Cor 4:10], since we have received the knowledge of God, namely Jesus Christ [Col 2:2] ? Why are we foolishly perishing [i Cor 1:18], ignoring the gift which the Lord has truly sent? My spirit is devoted to the cross, which is a stumbling block to unbelievers but salvation and eternal life to us [i Cor 1:18, 23-4]. 'Where is the wise man? Where is the debater? Where is the boasting of the so-called intelligent [i Cor 1:20]?'
4. Lost Gospels. Some gospels are known now only by their titles found in patristic and other sources, while extracts from some others are known from attributed citations in patristic works. Among the latter are Jewish-Christian gospels (e.g. the
Gospel according to the Hebrews, known from quotations in Origen and Jerome), the Gospel of the Egyptians, parts of which are quoted in the work of Clement of Alexandria, and the Preaching of Peter, parts of which are known from Clement of Alexandria and Origen.
6. In his letter to Polycarp, 2.1-2, Ignatius perhaps betrays a knowledge of the canonical gospels:
If you love good disciples, it is no credit to you [Lk 6:32]; instead, bring the more troublesome into subjection by gentleness. 'Not all wounds are healed by the same plaster.' 'Relieve convulsions by moist applications.' 'Be prudent as the serpent' in every matter and 'sincere as the dove' [Mt 10:16] always.
5. Extant Gospels. Some of these have survived complete or relatively so, others are fragmentary. The main apocryphal gospel texts are the Protevangelium of James, the Infancy Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, the Arabic Infancy Gospel, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, and the Gospel ofNicodemus.
7. Ignatius' Romans 7.3 with its reference to a future eucharist associated with the resurrection of believers has also been pointed to as example of Ignatius' knowledge of John's gospel, esp. 6:33, 51—8: T take no pleasure in the food of corruption or in the pleasures of this life. I desire the bread of God [ Jn 6:33], which is the flesh of Jesus Christ (who was of the seed of David), and for drink I desire his blood, which is imperishable love.' But perhaps Ignatius' memory of this material came from the oral tradition rather than his reading of the gospels.
6. Certainly it is true to say that although we have passion gospels and birth/infancy gospels, there is nothing now extant comparable to the canonical gospels. What have survived are texts that tell stories which could belong to the period of Jesus' ministry. Some are only small fragments containing sometimes only one episode, sometimes three or four stories. Again, we have no means of knowing the original scope or scale of the texts from which these fragments have chanced to survive.
Bibliography: Grant (1966); the Greek text of the Epistles of Ignatius with an ET is found in Lake (1912—13: i. 172—277).
7. The existence of additional stories and 'secret sayings' (to use this conventional, but erroneous, description) need not surprise us. The NT authors themselves did not claim to give a complete record of everything that Jesus did and said. The gospel writers made a selection of the material available to them in the oral tradition or in earlier written accounts (see for instance Jn 20:30-1). Some sayings of Jesus are known to us outside the gospels in Acts 20:35,or in Paul's letters (e.g. i Cor 7:10; 9:14; i Thess 4:15-17). It may well be that some of the sayings or stories of Jesus known to us from later accounts— the writings of a church father or, as here, in the apocryphal texts—are as authentic and as historic as those in the NT itself.
General Bibliography: On the Apostolic Fathers see Grant, (1964); Barnard (1966); Tugwell (1989). The whole question of the links between Jesus material and the Apostolic Fathers is investigated in the influential monograph by Roster (1957).
THE NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA
J. General Introduction. 1. Many of these texts tell of the deeds and pronouncements of characters who figure in the NT proper—Jesus of course, but also his parents, Joseph and Mary, Pilate, Paul, Peter, and other apostles. There is also a tendency in this literature to base stories around the many fringe characters of the NT narratives, the woman with the
Some modern scholars are even prepared to argue for a firstcentury origin of some of the following apocryphal stories and sayings.
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and pigs have wallowed night and day, and you have washed and scrubbed your outer skin, which harlots and flute-girls also anoint and wash and scrub, beautifying themselves for the lusts of men while inwardly they are filled with scorpions and unrighteousness of every kind. But my disciples and I, whom you charge with not having bathed, have bathed ourselves in the living water which comes down from heaven. But woe to those who...' (cf. Mt 15:1-20 and par.)
8. The most famous of these fragments of apocryphal gospels is the second-century Egerton Papyrus in the British Library. This contains four stories on the front and reverse of two fragments. The MS has recently been supplemented by an additional fragment known as P.K6ln255 (inv. 608), which enables the text in the London fragments to be extended slightly. These stories have biblical parallels, in particular the healing of a leper (cf Mt 8:2-4 and par.), paying tribute to Caesar (Mt 22:15-22 and par.) and the prophecy of Isaiah
The Fayyum fragment parallels Mt 26:3i/Mk 14:27:
(cf. Mt 15:7—8 and par); an episode with echoes of Jn 5:39,45— 6; 9:29.
[After supper as was the custom, he said], 'All] in this night will be offended as] it is written: I will smite the [shepherd and the] sheep will be scattered.' When] Peter [said], 'Even if all, [not I', Jesus said], 'Before the cock crows twice three times today will you] deny me.'
And behold, a leper approached him and said, 'Teacher Jesus, while journeying with lepers and eating with them in the inn, I myself also became a leper. If, therefore, you are willing, I am cleansed.' The Lord said to him, T am willing: be cleansed.' And immediately the leprosy departed from him, and the Lord said, 'Go, show yourself to the priests and make an offering for your cleansing as Moses commanded, and sin no more...'
10. Once more the question arises about the relationship, literary or otherwise, between the apocryphal stories and their canonical counterparts. Some answers to such a question inevitably have the effect of blurring the strict line of demarcation that is often drawn between the canonical and apocryphal texts. The work of Helmut Koester and his followers in particular has sought to emphasize the independence of such texts as the Gospd of Peter, P.Egerton 2, and the Gospd of
... came to him to tempt him, saying, 'Teacher Jesus, we know that you have come from God, for the things which you do bear witness beyond all the prophets. Tell us then: Is it lawful to render to kings what pertains to their rule? Shall we render it to them or not?' But Jesus, knowing their mind, said to them in indignation, 'Why do you call me teacher with your mouth, when you do not do what I say? Isaiah prophesied correctly when he said about you: This people honours me with its lips, but their heart is far from me; in vain do they worship me, [teaching as doctrines merely human] commandments.'
Thomas from the canonical gospels and even to give a date for the original composition of the sayings and stories in some of the apocryphal gospels earlier than the synoptic parallels. Such conclusions have not met with broad support. Frans Neirynck has been active in arguing against these theories by demonstrating that Mark and the other synoptic writings were the sources for works like P.Egerton 2 and the Gospd of Peter. The debate has guaranteed that the apocryphal texts are now examined alongside the canonical counterparts, especially in synopses, with the result that the later development of the synoptists' stories and sayings can be plotted and recognized.
Jesus said] to the lawyers, '[Punish] every wrong-doer and transgressor, and not me...what he does as he does it.' Then, turning to the rulers of the people, he spoke this word, 'Search the scriptures, in which you think you have life; it is they which bear witness to me. Do not think that I have come to accuse you to my Father; your accuser is Moses, on whom you have set your hope.' When they said, 'We know well that God spoke to Moses; but as for you, we do not know where you come from,' Jesus said in reply, 'Now your unbelief is accused to the ones who were witnessed to by him. If you had believed [in Moses] you would have believed me, because he wrote to your fathers about me.'
11. The Gospel of Thomas in its entirety was discovered at Nag Hammadi in 1945. The copy, written in Coptic, has been dated to £.350 CE. It contains 114 sayings, nearly all of them attributed to Jesus. As such, it may be comparable with the hypothetical canonical gospel source known as Q, usually said to have been a gospel containing sayings of Jesus, without narrative.
9. Among other fragments are the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 840 (P.Oxy. 840) of the fourth century and the Fayyum fragment of the third century, although the text they contain is likely to be considerably older. P.Oxy. 840 in its entirety contains the following story:
12. The concluding words of Thomas state that it is 'a gospel', but its opening words speak merely of 'sayings'. Its original language was Greek: three fragments of Thomas in Greek have survived, and were discovered in Oxyrhynchus at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century (P.Oxy. i, P.Oxy. 654, P.Oxy. 655). One fragment has been given a date of around 200 CE; the other two are third century. Until the Coptic text was unearthed, the relationship of the Greek fragments to one another and to a larger work gave rise to half a century of learned debate and speculation. The discovery of Thomas at Nag Hammadi answered many of the earlier questions and laid to rest much speculation, although the exact relationship between the Coptic and the surviving Greek fragments is still not entirely clear—the Coptic, for instance, is not an exact translation of the Greek and it seems as if Thomas passed through several recensions. Although the precise history of the text is disputed, it does seem as if the gospel was popular, being copied
[BJefore he does wrong he makes all kinds of ingenious excuses. 'But take care lest you also suffer the same things as they did, for those who do evil not only receive their chastisement from men but they await punishment and great torment.' Then he took them with him and brought them into the place of purification itself, and was walking in the temple. A Pharisee, a chief priest named Levi, met them and said to the Saviour, 'Who gave you permission to walk in this place of purification and look upon these holy vessels when you have not bathed and your disciples have not washed their feet? But you have walked in this temple in a state of defilement, whereas no one else comes in or dares to view these holy vessels without having bathed and changed his clothes.' Thereupon the Saviour stood with his disciples and answered him. 'Are you then clean, here in the temple as you are?' He said, T am clean, for I have bathed in the pool of David and have gone down by one staircase and come up by the other, and I have put on clean white clothes. Then I came and viewed the holy vessels.' 'Alas', said the Saviour, 'you blind men who cannot see! You have washed in this running water, in which dogs
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will be uprooted and it will rot."' Here the vine 'planted without the Father' is equivalent to the person in logion 41 'who has nothing'.
regularly over several centuries, and with a widespread distribution. It was translated, possibly more than once, into Coptic.
13. It is not clear if early patristic testimony to a gospel of Thomas is to this Gospd of Thomas or another, but there are parallels to some of its sayings in the writings of the thirdcentury father Hippolytus and in other patristic sources. It is, however, not certain if the parallels are due to direct dependence of the fathers on Thomas, or to a shared common heritage of oral sayings.
Logion 460: 'Jesus said, "From Adam to John the Baptist among those born of women no one is greater than John the Baptist." ' It could be argued that this logion is independent of Mt ii:n and possibly more authentic than the synoptic version (cf. logion 15: 'Jesus said, "When you see him who was not born of woman, prostrate yourselves on your faces and worship him: that one is your father." ').
Logion 54: 'Jesus said, "Blessed are the poor for yours is the kingdom of heaven." ' Cf. Lk 6:20 and Mt 5:3. Thomas differs from both, and may represent an independent and even a more authentic version of the beatitude.
14. The date of its composition seems to have been prior to 200 CE but whether it goes back to the first century or is even contemporaneous with the canonical gospels is uncertain. Most scholars accept that Thomas was written later than the NT gospels, but the degree of dependence, or relationship, between the apocryphal text and the biblical is debated. Modern synopses often show parallels to Thomas. An analysis shows that most of its logia are linked to NT sources, especially the gospels. Some links are mere allusions; others are deviant versions of the same saying; a few are almost exactly parallel. All of this opens intriguing questions about the history, origins, and significance of the sayings in Thomas.
Logion 55: 'Jesus said, "He who does not hate his father and his mother cannot be my disciple and he who does not hate his brothers and his sisters and does not take up his cross as I have will not be worthy of me.'" Thomas is closer to Lk 14:26—7 than to Mt. 10:37-8. There is no reference in Thomas to the wife and children mentioned by Luke or to the son and daughter of Matthew. The versions in Matthew and Luke are not identical: these two Q versions therefore stand alongside the form in Thomas and all have equal claims to independence.
15. It is easy to speculate: one could argue that the circle responsible for fostering the logia included in Thomas possessed, or at least knew, the canonical material in its present form or some of its sources (e.g. in the form of a document such as Q), or a digest of sayings previously abstracted from the NT gospels. One could even say that the author of Thomas (either an individual or a group) was familiar with sayings that were circulated only in an oral—and therefore in a changing and developing—context. That latter suggestion would explain the variety and range of sayings, including some which appear in the NT with virtually identical wording.
Logion 86: 'Jesus said, "[The foxes have] their earths and the birds have their nests but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head and rest." ' This is the only Son of Man saying in
Thomas (cf. Mt 8:20 or Lk 9:58). Thomas adds 'and rest', which can possibly be seen as a Gnostic addition, implying that the 'repose' is not on earth but within, which is a theme found in Thomas elsewhere (in logia 50, 51, 90).
Logion 96: 'Jesus [said,] "The kingdom of the Father is like a woman who took a little leaven, [hid] it in dough and made it into large loaves. He who has ears let him hear" ', cf. Mt 13:33; Lk 13:20—1. Thomas emphasizes the contrast between the small amount of leaven and the large size of the loaves.
16. Among sayings of Thomas that closely parallel the NT are:logion2o: 'The disciples said to Jesus, "Tell us, what is the Kingdom of God like?" He said to them, "It is like a grain of mustard seed, smaller than all seeds. But when it falls on cultivated ground it puts forth a large branch and provides a shelter for the birds of heaven.'" The main difference from the synoptic versions (Mt 13:31-2; Mk 4:30-2; Lk 13:18-19) is the 'cultivated ground'.
17. As far as other links with the NT are concerned, the parables found in Tfiomashave interesting parallels: logion 9 (parable of the sower): 'Jesus said, "Behold, the sower went out; he filled his hand, he sowed. Some seeds fell on the road. The birds came and gathered them up. Others fell on the rock and did not take root in the earth and did not produce ears up to heaven. Others fell among thorns. They choked the seed and the worm ate them. But others fell on good ground and it brought forth good fruit to heaven. These yielded six per measure and one hundred and twenty measures."' Among the differences in Thomas compared with the parable in Mt 13:3-8; Mk 4:3-8; Lk 8:5-8 are that the sower fills his hand, that the seeds sown on the rock do not put ears up to heaven, and the reference to the worm.
Logion 26: 'Jesus said, "The splinter that is in your brother's eye you see but the plank in your own eye you do not see. When you have taken the plank out of your own eye, then you will see to remove the splinter from your brother's eye." ' The saying is briefer than the form in Lk 6:42 or Mt 7:5 and it reduces the two questions there to a single statement.
Logion 31: 'Jesus said, "No prophet is acceptable in his own village; a physician does not heal those who know him." ' The second half of this saying looks like an expansion of Lk 4:23—4 but the structural parallelism in Thomas suggests that this longer form is the original.
Logion 57 (parable of the wheat and the tares): 'Jesus said, "The kingdom of the Father is like a man who had good seed. His enemy came by night; he sowed weeds among the good seed. The man did not let them pull up the weed. He said to them, 'Do not do so, lest when you go to pull up the weed you pull up the wheat along with it.' For on the day of the harvest the weeds will be conspicuous; they will be pulled up and burned." ' This parable is shorter than Mt 13:24—30. It could therefore be a summary of that version or be an independent writing-up from the oral tradition of only the essentials. The
Logion 41: 'Jesus said, "He who has something in his hand, will receive more; and he who has nothing, even the little he has shall be taken away from him"', cf Mt. I3:i2/Mk 4:25 = Lk 8:18, where the saying refers to the reaction to teaching in parables. At Mt 25:29; Lk 19:26 it concludes a parable. It is perhaps a piece of floating material which Thomas anchors to its preceding logion (40): 'Jesus said, "A vine was planted without the Father, but because it did not become strong it
EARLY CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 1318
I did not find any of them thirsting. And my soul was pained for the sons of men because they are blind in their heart, and they do not see that they came empty into the world; they seek to go empty out of the world. Now they are drunk. When they have shaken off their wine, then they will repent.'" Jesus' manifestation in the flesh is as in i Tim 3:16. The lament may be compared with that in Mk 9:19.
same judgement can be made of logion 63 (the parable of the rich fool): 'Jesus said, "There was a rich man who had considerable wealth. He said, 'I will use my money to sow and reap and plant and fill my warehouses with fruit so that I will lack nothing.' Such were his intentions. But in that night he died. He who has ears, let him hear" ' (cf. Lk 12:16—20).
Logion 64 (parable of the wedding guests): 'Jesus said, "A man had the habit of receiving visitors and when he had prepared the banquet he sent his servant to invite the guests. He went to the first and said to him, 'My master invites you.' He replied, 'Money is owed me by some merchants. They will come to me this evening; I must go and give them orders. I beg to be excused from the dinner.' He went to another and said to him, 'My master has invited you.' He said to him, T have just bought a house and am needed for a day. I have no time.' He went to another and said to him, 'My master invites you.' He said to him, 'My friend is about to be married and I have to prepare a wedding feast; I shall not be able to come. I beg to be excused from the dinner.' He went to another and said to him, 'My master invites you.' He said to him, T have bought a village and am on my way to collect the rent. I shall not be able to come. I beg to be excused from the dinner.' The servant returned and said to his master, 'Those whom you invited asked to be excused from the dinner.' The master said to his servant, 'Go out into the streets and bring in those whom you find so that they may dine.' Buyers and merchants will not enter the places of my Father." ' This is probably a Hellenistic rewriting of the synoptic account (Lk 14:16-24, cf. Mt 22:1-10) with a different structure, in which there are four instead of three guests, and with several other differing details.
Logion 77/7 (cf. P.Oxy. i, logion 30/7): 'Split the wood and I am there; lift up the stone and you will find me there.'
Logion 82: 'Jesus said, "He who is near me is near fire but he who is far from me is far from the kingdom." ' Origen, in Jer. 3.3 and Didymus, Exp. in Ps. 88.8, also know this saying.
Its antithetical parallelism and Semitic structure speak highly in favour of its originality.
Logion 97: 'Jesus said, "The kingdom of the [Father] is like a woman who was carrying a jar which was full of meal. While she was walking on a long road the handle of the jar broke; the meal spilled out behind her on to the road. She did not notice it; she was unaware of the accident. When she came to her house she put the jar down and found it was empty."' The precise meaning is unclear, possibly because the original context is now absent. It could refer to the imperceptible loss of the kingdom or to its coming unnoticed.
Logion 98: 'Jesus said, "The kingdom of the Father is like a man who wanted to kill a powerful man. He drew the sword in his own house and he thrust it into the wall so that he would know if his hand would be strong enough. Then he killed the powerful one." ' Jesus is represented as teaching the need for a thorough preparation for action, as in the parable of the king preparing for war in Lk 14:28—32. Jesus in both uses a popular proverb.
Logion 65 (parable of the wicked husbandmen): 'He said, "A good man had a vineyard. He leased it to some farmers so that they would cultivate it and he would receive the fruit from them. He sent his servant so that the tenants would give him the fruit of the vineyard. They seized his servant, beathim and almost killed him. The servant returned and told his master. His master said, 'Perhaps they did not recognize him.' He sent another servant. The tenants beat him also. Then the master sent his son. He said, 'Perhaps they will respect my son.' Those tenants knowing he was the heir of the vineyard seized him and killed him. He who has ears, let him hear." ' As in Lk 20:9—16, Thomas has no allusion to the preparation of the vineyard in Isa 5:1—2, a detail found in Mt 21:33-41 and Mk 12:1-9. The question is, have Thomas and Luke deleted earlier material or is the reference to Isaiah a later addition to the primitive form preserved in Thomas (and Luke) ? The synoptists' account may itself have been expanded from an earlier version in which the servants are to be understood as the prophets. The synoptists' conclusion, especially in Matthew, looks like a later attempt to clarify the meaning. As that conclusion is absent from Thomas, does that therefore mean that it is the more primitive?
19. The interpretation of some of these logia has sometimes been made to apply to or spring from Gnostic thought and teaching (see A3—4 above). Some other sayings are less ambiguous and seem to require a Gnostic provenance or interpretation. These include: logion i: 'And he said, "He who finds the interpretation of these sayings will not taste death." ' This seems to be an adaptation of Jn 8:52 applied to the acquisition of knowledge.
Logion 23: 'Jesus said, "I shall choose you, one from a thousand, and two from ten thousand, and they shall stand as a single one.'" The Gnostic leader Basilides was familiar with the sentiment expressed here to reflect the infinitesimal number of the elect. In Thomas men and women will become one, hence the final clause.
Logion 67: 'Jesus said, "He who knows the All but fails to know himself lacks everything."' Self-knowledge is an important element in Gnostic systems, hence this saying, whatever its origin, would be compatible with Gnosticism.
Logion 114: 'Simon Peter said to them, "Let Mary leave us, because women are not worthy of life." Jesus said, "Look, I shall lead her so that I will make her male in order that she also may become a living spirit, resembling you males. For every woman who makes herself male will enter the kingdom of heaven." ' This is another saying proclaiming that men and women must become one. It is stated here that the female must become male. Possibly the intention is that the creation of Adam alone will be re-established at the end of time with a return to the conditions before the Fall.
18. It will have been seen that some logia, although close to the synoptic parallels, none the less veer off at a tangent. On the other hand, there are sayings such as the following that have no obvious NT parallel. However, these could represent authentic, i.e. independent, Jesus tradition comparable to that found in the NT.
Logion 28: 'Jesus said, "I stood in the midst of the world, and I appeared to them in the flesh. I found all of them drunk;
1319 EARLY CHRISTIAN LITERATURE
century interests. Here in the birth story Jesus only seems to be human. His physical appearance on earth is described in the Arundel text as only a manifestation of divine light.
20. Because of sayings like these, the term 'Gnostic', usually intended as a pejorative term synonymous with 'heretical', has been applied to Thomas as a whole. In other words, a common judgement is that the community responsible for preserving and circulating Thomas in the form in which was eventually written out was a Christian group sympathetic to or influenced by Gnosticism. However, Gnosticism in varying forms flourished in the early Christian centuries and in many ways some of the teaching of Thomas was merely characteristic of second-century syncretism. This would mean that it did not originate in a fully-fledged Gnostic movement nor is it to be dismissed as unorthodox in its entirety. Often the mere fact that Thomas was found in the Nag Hammadi library is sufficient for some commentators to brand it, because of guilt by association, as a Gnostic work when all that may be deduced is that the Nag Hammadi library found it a congenial work to possess.
And [Joseph] found a cave and brought [Mary] into it, and left her in the care of his sons and went out to seek for a Hebrew midwife in the region of Bethlehem. Now I, Joseph, was walking, and yet I did not walk, and I looked up to the air and saw the air in amazement. And I looked up at the vault of heaven, and saw it standing still and the birds ofthe heaven motionless. And I looked down at the earth, and saw a dish placed there and workmen reclining, and their hands were in the dish. But those who chewed did not chew, and those who lifted up did not lift, and those who put something to their mouth put nothing to their mouth, but everybody looked upwards. And behold, sheep were being driven and they did not come forward but stood still; and the shepherd raised his hand to strike them with his staff but his hand remained upright. And I looked at the flow ofthe river, and saw the mouths ofthe kids over it and they did not drink. And then suddenly everything went on its course.
Bibliography: There is a vast secondary literature on the Gospel of Thomas. The fullest bibliography is Scholer (1971), regularly updated in Novum Testamentum.
And on the third day after the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ, Mary went out of the cave and, entering a stable, placed the child in the manger, and an ox and ass adored him. Then was fulfilled that which was said by Isaiah the prophet, The ox knows his owner, and the ass his master's crib.' Therefore, the animals, the ox and the ass, with him in their midst, incessantly adored him. Then was fulfilled that which was said by Habakkuk the prophet, saying, 'Between two animals you are made manifest.' Joseph remained in the same place with Mary for three days.
K. 1. We now turn to stories of Jesus' birth, childhood, passion, and descent to the underworld, as well as to stories from the Pilate cycle.
2. Birth stories. Three extracts from apocryphal nativity gospels are given. The first example (from the 2nd-cent. Protevangelium of James, 18:1—2) elaborates the account of the journey to Bethlehem. This seems to be the earliest reference to Jesus' birth in a cave. The narrative continues with a famous monologue by Joseph, who describes the wonders that accompanied Jesus' birth—in particular, the cessation of natural phenomena. The apocryphal writer obviously believed that the arrival on earth ofthe universal Saviour demanded cosmic recognition. The moving star in the biblical account was not sufficient: for this developed tradition the catalepsy of nature was introduced as an appropriate accompaniment to the birth. In this, of course, parallels can be drawn with the cosmic events that accompanied Jesus' departure from earth, notably the eclipse and the earthquake at the time of his crucifixion (Mt 23:51-2; Mk 15:33). The paralysis of natural phenomena may be compared with the silence in heaven at the opening of the seventh seal in Rev. 8:1.
As the time drew near, the power of God showed itself openly. The
maiden stood looking into heaven; she became like a vine. For now the end of the events of salvation was at hand. When the light had come forth, Mary worshipped him whom she saw she had given birth to. The child himself, like the sun, shone brightly, beautiful and most delightful to see, because he alone appeared as peace, bringing peace everywhere. In that hour when he was born the voice of many invisible beings proclaimed in unison, 'Amen.' And that light, which was born, was multiplied and it obscured the light ofthe sun itself by its shining rays. The cave was filled with the bright light and with a most sweet smell. The light was born just as the dew descends from heaven to the earth. For its perfume is fragrant beyond all the smell of ointments.
L. Jesus' Childhood. 1. In the apocryphal gospels events relating to the time of Jesus' ministry are virtually ignored; that period is well covered in the canonical gospels. Gaps in the story of his career were perceived to be located in his parents' background, his birth, and his early years. Several apocryphal gospels relate incidents about Jesus as an infant and a young boy. The biblical precedent for such stories is likely to be the account in Luke's gospel of Jesus in the temple at the age of 12. That story is to be found in a modified form in the Infancy
3. A variation of the stories in the Protevangelium is to be seen in the later Gospd of Pseudo-Matthew, which in its present form may date from the eighth century, although it drew on much earlier material. Here Jesus' birth is acknowledged not only by the shepherds and the wise men, but also by animals. In the second extract below, from Ps.-Matt. 14, will be seen the episode in which the ox and the ass adore Jesus. This wellknown scene is due to the influence ofthe OT, in particular Isa 1:3 and Hab 3:2. This represents an ongoing tradition in which various biblical passages were read as Messianic prophecies that were then said to have been fulfilled in the life of Jesus.
Gospel of Thomas—a second-century composition, which, together with the Protevangelium of James, seems to have had an enormous influence on Christian tradition thanks partly to their having been re-edited in other, later books such as the
Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew.
2. In Infancy Thomas the story of Jesus at the age of 12 is as follows:
Ps.-Matt.'s use of OT citations continues a Christian tradition as old as the NT itself. The third extract is from the medieval Latin nativity story known as Arundel MS 404. The cessation of nature at Jesus' birth is found here too. But the extract from Arundel 404 ch. 73 is given below for the description ofthe actual birth, which is the most Docetic in character in any of these apocryphal gospels and appears to reflect second-
And when he was twelve years old his parents went according to the custom to Jerusalem to the feast of the passover with their companions and after the feast ofthe passover they returned to their house. And while they were returning, the child Jesus went back to Jerusalem. But his parents supposed that he was in the company.
EARLY CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 1320
village; teach him to bless and not to curse. For he is killing our children.' (Infancy Gospel of Thomas, 4)
And when they had gone a day's journey, they sought him among their kinsfolk, and when they did not find him, they were troubled, and returned again to the city seeking him. And after the third day they found him in the temple sitting among the teachers, listening and asking them questions. And all paid attention to him and marvelled how he, a child, put to silence the elders and teachers of the people, elucidating the chapters of the law and the parables of the prophets. And his mother Mary came near and said to him, 'Why have you done this to us, child? Behold, we have sought you sorrowing.' Jesus said to them, 'Why do you seek me? Do you not know that I must be about my father's affairs?' But the scribes and Pharisees said. Are you the mother of this child?' And she said, 'I am.' And they said to her. 'Blessed are you among women, because God has blessed the fruit of your womb. For such glory and such excellence and wisdom we have never seen nor heard.' And Jesus arose and followed his mother and was subject to his parents; but his mother stored up all that had taken place. And Jesus increased in wisdom and stature and grace. To him be glory for ever and ever. Amen.
Now a certain teacher, Zacchaeus by name, who was standing in a certain place, heard Jesus saying these things to his father, and marvelled greatly that, being a child, he voiced such things. And after a few days he came near to Joseph and said to him, 'You have a clever child, and he has understanding. Come, hand him over to me that he may learn letters, and I will teach him with the letters all knowledge, and how to address all the older people and to honour them as forefathers and fathers, and to love those of his own age.' And he told him all the letters from Alpha to Omega distinctly, and with much questioning. But he looked at Zacchaeus the teacher and said to him. 'How do you, who do not know the Alpha according to its nature, teach others the Beta? Hypocrite, first if you know it, teach the Alpha, and then we shall believe you concerning the Beta.' Then he began to question the teacher about the first letter, and he was unable to answer him. And in the hearing of many the child said to Zacchaeus, 'Hear, teacher, the arrangement of the first letter, and pay heed to this, how it has lines and a middle stroke which goes through the pair of lines which you see, (how these lines) converge, rise, turn in the dance, three signs of the same kind, subject to and supporting one another, of equal proportions; here you have the lines of the Alpha.' (ibid. 6)
Some synopses such as Aland (1985) and Greeven (Huck 1981) print that story alongside the Lukan version. The relation between the two seems to show the secondary nature of the account in Infancy Thomas (e.g. in the elaboration of the references to Mary), but we need not see this as the result of direct copying by the author of Infancy Thomas. That author was a creative writer and not a scribe of Luke's gospel. Thus the version here is not a MS witness to the Gospel of Luke at this point. Possibly the author of Infancy Thomas knew Luke's story from the oral retelling of it in his own Christian community. Possibly he had read Luke. Either way his own retelling is a fresh, independent, albeit secondary account.
6. The episode of the schoolteacher was a particularly popular theme that recurs in different places. It would seem that the childhood story in Luke, where the 12-year-old Jesus confounds the teachers of the Jewish law, was the inspiration behind the apocryphal versions. However, the mystical interpretation of the shape of the letters in the Greek alphabet is obscure in the account in Infancy Thomas and obviously does not derive from Luke's story. Clearly, for believers in earlier centuries, these stories struck a favourable chord and were not seen as alien to their Christological teachings.
3. Except for the episode of Jesus in the temple at the age of 12 in Lk 2:41-50, the NT writings leave a tantalizing gap in the life of Jesus between his birth and his baptism at the beginning of the public ministry. Inevitably, the developing literary tradition, taking its cue from the childhood story in Luke, created a series of incidents that tell of events in Jesus' boyhood. Their main theme is to show Jesus' precocious awareness of his supernatural origin and his power over life, death, and nature.
7. The Arabic Infancy Gospel tells stories of the baby Jesus performing miracles during the Holy Family's exile in Egypt. The extract following contains the robbers who thirty years later are to be crucified alongside Jesus. These characters reappear, differently named, in other apocryphal texts.
And departing from this place, they came to a desert; and hearing that it was infested by robbers, Joseph and the Lady Mary decided to cross this region by night. But on their way, behold, they saw two robbers lying in wait on the road, and with them a great number of robbers, who were their associates, sleeping. Now those two robbers into whose hands they had fallen were Titus and Dumachus. Titus then said to Dumachus, T beseech you to let these persons go free, so that our comrades do not see them.' And as Dumachus refused, Titus said to him again, Take forty drachmas from me, and have them as a pledge.' At the same time he held out to him the belt which he had had about his waist, that he should not open his mouth or speak. And the Lady Mary seeing that the robber had done them a kindness, said to him, 'The Lord God will sustain you with his right hand, and will grant you remission of your sins.' And the Lord Jesus answered, and said to his mother, "Thirty years hence, O my mother, the Jews will crucify me at Jerusalem, and these two robbers will be raised upon the cross along with me, Titus on my right hand and Dumachus on my left; and after that day Titus shall go before me into Paradise.' And she said, 'God keep this from you, my son.' And they went from there towards a city of idols, which, as they came near it was transformed into sand-hills. (Arabic Infancy Gospel, 23)
4. The belief in Jesus' divinity is clearly orthodox in Christian doctrine, but the often sensational manifestations of his supernatural abilities displayed in the numerous childhood stories in apocryphal gospels tend to distort that belief. Extracts below from the second-third-century Infancy Gospd of
Thomas have the effect of portraying the child Jesus as an enfant terrible. Modern readers are struck less by the piety underlying the stories than by the destructiveness of many of Jesus' actions. Such a negative theme may be paralleled in the NT story of Jesus' blasting the fig-tree (Mk 11:12-14, 2O~4)> but the recurrence of this theme makes it the dominant feature of Infancy Thomas, and other apocryphal texts, such as the Gospd of Pseudo-Matthew.
5. Two of the stories in Infancy Thomas are:
After this he again went through the village, and a child ran and knocked against his shoulder. Jesus was angered and said to him, 'You shall not go further on your way', and immediately he fell down and died. But some, who saw what took place, said, 'From where was this child born, since his every word is an accomplished deed?' And the parents of the dead child came to Joseph and blamed him and said, 'Since you have such a child, you cannot dwell with us in the
M. Passion Gospels. 1. The account of Jesus' trial and crucifixion was obviously of central and paramount importance to Christians. Paul's theology is centred on the significance of
1321 EARLY CHRISTIAN LITERATURE
Now it was midday and darkness covered all Judaea. And they became anxious and distressed lest the sun had already set since he was still alive. It stands written for them: "The sun should not set on one that has been murdered.' And one of them said, 'Give him to drink gall with vinegar.' And having mixed it they gave it to him to drink. And they fulfilled all things and accumulated their sins on their head. And many went about with lamps [and] as they supposed that it was night, they stumbled. And the Lord called out and cried, 'My power, O power, you have forsaken me!' And having said this, he was taken up. And at the same hour the veil of the temple in Jerusalem was torn in two. (Gos. Pet. 4.10—5.20)
Jesus' death and crucifixion. A third of Mark's gospel is devoted to the last week in Jesus' life, and the preceding twothirds, with its controversy stories and passion predictions, may be seen as a preparation for the events in Jerusalem. The other canonical gospels similarly devote much of their space to building on that Markan framework. So it is not surprising that the rewriting and reassessment of Jesus' death were maintained even beyond the first-century gospels.
2. The main accounts of Jesus' death in apocryphal texts occur in the Gospel of Peter and in the Gospel ofNicodemus. The Gospel of Peter is likely to have been composed in the second century. Although it was known in antiquity, this gospel seemed to disappear without trace. Unlike many of the other apocryphal texts which have been preserved, often in multiple copies, no MSS of Peter were known until recently, when, at the end of the nineteenth century a partial copy was discovered during an archaeological excavation in Egypt. Since then one or possibly two tiny fragments have also come to light. A reading of the main text shows that its passion narrative parallels very closely the story in the four canonical gospels, and it seems clear that the writer of Peter has drawn on these NT accounts for his version of Jesus' passion.
When those soldiers saw this, they awakened the centurion and the
elders, for they also were there to mount guard. And while they were narrating what they had seen, they saw three men come out from the sepulchre, two of them supporting the other and a cross following them and the heads of the two reaching to heaven, but that of him who was being led reached beyond the heavens. And they heard a voice out of the heavens crying, 'Have you preached to those who sleep?', and from the cross there was heard the answer, 'Yes.' (Gos. Pet. 10.38-42)
5. One particular post-biblical characteristic found in Peter is the dominant anti-Jewish sentiment. Here Jewish malevolence is the motive for the intention not to break Jesus' legs; and the blame for the death of Jesus is laid firmly at the door of the Jews.
3. A motive for Peter may have been the desire to rewrite the four canonical accounts as one, although continuing curiosity about Pilate has resulted in a greater emphasis on Jesus' appearance before him than is the case with the canonical accounts. The Diatessaron, itself of second-century origin, is one such attempt to retell the separated stories about Jesus as one continuous composition, probably with the intention of replacing the four individual and differing versions. Much in Peter repeats material in the canonical stories and modern printed synopses often include parallels from Peter alongside the canonical passages.
6. The general consensus of scholarly opinion is that Peter is secondary to and later than the canonical passion accounts. Occasionally though, voices are heard giving the opinion that it is early, even first century, and is independent of the biblical gospels. In other words, that Peter's passion story is a fifth account of the events; but, in general, such arguments have not found favour (cf. f.io).
7. As the complete text of Peterhas not survived, we have no means of knowing if the original composition was a fullyfledged gospel like the canonical four, containing stories from Jesus' ministry prior to the arrest.
4. There are, however, some significant differences from the NT to look for in the extracts below. One is the cry of Jesus from the cross ('My power, O power, you have forsaken me!'), which some commentators would interpret as an indication that Peterhas been contaminated by unorthodox influences. A stronger heretical indication may be seen in the sentence, 'He held his peace as he felt no pain', which might imply that Jesus was incapable of suffering pain. If that is the correct translation, then it would indeed suggest possible Docetic influence. Nevertheless, our overall assessment of Peter is that the author was not self-consciously following unorthodox teaching, but that he was a typical unsophisticated and uncritical product of the second-century syncretism (fusing of different systems of religious belief) which characterized much of the Christian world. The Easter account describes the resurrection of Jesus in a dramatic and symbolic way. In contrast to the narratives in the canonical gospels, we now have an account of Jesus literally leaving his tomb.
8. One extract from the other main passion gospel, the Gospel ofNicodemus, is included below. The first half of that gospel, which is probably fifth to sixth century, is known as the Acts of Pilate and tells of Jesus' trial, death, and resurrection. The book is concerned with Pilate's role in the sentencing of Jesus. This extract tells of Jesus' first meeting with Pilate. In it we note that Jesus' power is shown to exceed that of the Roman state. The superiority of Christianity over earthly rule is one of the most dominant and, understandably, the most important themes throughout the whole range of apocryphal literature: it is perhaps the single most significant unifying element of teaching in a body of literature that is otherwise amorphous, heterogeneous, and widespread geographically and chronologically.
Now, when Jesus entered, and the ensigns were holding the standards, the images on the standards bowed down and worshipped Jesus. And when the Jews saw the behaviour of the standards, how they bowed down and worshipped Jesus, they cried out loudly against the ensigns. But Pilate said to them, 'Do you not marvel how the images bowed and worshipped Jesus?' The Jews said to Pilate, 'We saw how the ensigns lowered them and worshipped him.' And the governor summoned the ensigns and asked them, 'Why did you do this?' They answered, 'We are Greeks and servers of temples: how could we worship him? We held the images; but they bowed down of their own accord and worshipped him.' (Gosp. Nic. 1.5)
And they brought two malefactors and crucified the Lord between them. But he held his peace as he felt no pain. And when they had set up the cross they wrote: This is the King of Israel.' And having laid down his garments before him they divided them among themselves and cast lots for them. But one of the malefactors rebuked them saying, 'We are suffering for the deeds which we have committed, but this man, who has become the saviour of men, what wrong has he done you?' And they were angry with him and commanded that his legs should not be broken, so that he might die in torment.
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N. The Descent to the Underworld. 1. It is interesting to note that the apocryphal tradition did not seek to elaborate stories of Jesus' post-resurrection appearances. To a certain extent, one can see a development in the Easter stories in the NT from the comparatively simple account in Mark through the more detailed version in Matthew to the developed traditions in Luke and John. Comparable developments seem then to have ceased. Further elaboration is, surprisingly perhaps, not part of the apocryphal books. The apocryphal Acts do tell of several reappearances of Jesus, sometimes in different guises, to various characters, but these are not on a par with the biblical post-resurrection appearances, the main purpose of which is to convince the original followers that the crucified Jesus had left his tomb and been raised from the dead. What seem to replace stories of the risen Jesus in the NT apocryphal tradition are accounts in which the ascended Jesus communicates orally with believers: several apocryphal books containing discussions with the ascended Christ are recognized as a new genre, and are now sometimes classified as Dialogues of the Redeemer.
While Hades was thus speaking with Satan, the King of Glory stretched out his right hand, and took hold of our forefather Adam and raised him up. Then he turned to the rest and said, 'Come with me, all you who have died through the tree which this man touched. For behold, I raise you all up again through the tree of the cross.' With that he sent them all out. And our forefather Adam was seen to be full of joy and said, 'I give thanks to your majesty, O Lord, because you have brought me up from the lowest Hades.' Likewise all the prophets and the saints said, 'We give you thanks, O Christ, Saviour of the world, because you have brought up our life from destruction.' When they had said this, the Saviour blessed Adam with the sign of the cross on his forehead. And he did this also to the patriarchs and prophets and martyrs and forefathers, and he took them and sprang up out of Hades. And as he went the holy fathers sang praises, following him and saying, 'Blessed be he who comes in the name of the Lord. Alleluia. To him be the glory of all the saints.' (8.24)
3. Another text, which partly parallels the Descensus, is the Questions of Bartholomew, dated perhaps as early as the second century. In that book Bartholomew confronts Jesus in the period before his ascension. Among many questions and answers is one concerning Jesus' whereabouts after his crucifixion (when he is said to have vanished from the cross). Jesus' reply is remarkably consistent with the story in the Descensus.
2. The Christian affirmation of belief in Jesus' descent to Hades is in the Apostles' Creed and in the Athanasian Creed. The biblical origin for this belief, which became a major and normative part of Christian tradition, seems to be based on a particular interpretation of i Pet 3:19 ('in the spirit he (Christ) went and preached to the imprisoned spirits', my tr). That statement encouraged later generations of Christians to elaborate on what was meant by Jesus' appearance before imprisoned spirits. The apocryphal stories of Jesus' descent to the underworld reflect those elaborations. The main text describing these events is the fifthto sixth-century Descensus ad Inferos (Descent of Jesus to Hades), found in several MSS as the second half of the Gospel ofNicodemus, the first half being the Acts of Pilate.
0. Pilate. 1. Several apocryphal texts relate the end of Pilate. For many early Christians the role and fate of Pilate were enigmatic. Was he a just but weak ruler swayed by the Jewish mob, or a wicked, doomed man, guilty of deicide? What begins in the canonical tradition as an ambivalent attitude towards Pilate becomes fixed: Pilate is a puppet in the hands of the Jewish mob. This way of resolving the Pilate problem by the NT authors did not, however, finally settle the issue. The later, apocryphal, tradition reflects a continuing dilemma in judging his character. Possibly the change in attitude, especially in Western European sources, may be explained by the fact that the earlier goodwill of the Roman authorities had turned to officially inspired persecution. The ambiguous ways of treating Pilate are at their most apparent only when the apocryphal legends reach the death of Pilate. When a document such as the Acts of Pilate is treating the events of Jesus' passion we can still see the influence of the canonical traditions: the picture of Pilate in these Acts is close to the NT's portrayal. The version in the Acts of Pilate is an elaboration of the gospels' trial narrative. We again see that the apologetic tendency of the account in the Acts of Pilate is to show how Pilate tried to free himself from all responsibility for the death of Jesus by blaming it on Herod and the Jews.
In this tradition Jesus' arrival in Hades after his crucifixion spells the end of death as a permanent state. Hades, by transference, is the domain of Hades, known elsewhere in mythology as Pluto. He rules over the world of departed spirits, a realm comparable to the Hebrew Sheol. The age-old cycle of death and decay inaugurated by Adam's sin is now said to have been reversed by Christ's inability to be bound by death. This orthodox belief strongly present in the NT gospels and in Paul's writings is in effect dramatized in the Descensus. Another orthodox belief portrayed in this apocryphon is that the faithful will be raised from death because Christ is the first fruits of those raised. This belief is graphically illustrated by Christ leading Adam and the faithful dead out of Hades and into Paradise. Among those appearing in this gospel is a favourite character in the apocryphal writings, the repentant thief crucified alongside Jesus: he is on his way to Paradise direct, just as Jesus had promised, when he encounters the newly raised procession. This scene with Christ releasing the faithful from Hades (often called the Harrowing of Hell) was a popular episode in the Middle Ages. The text begins with the two characters, Satan (that supreme embodiment of evil, the devil, the adversary of God) and Hades, aware of Jesus' imminent arrival in their midst. They are powerless to stop his descent. This extract tells of Jesus' arrival and his triumph over Satan; the faithful are then released.
2. But as far as Pilate's later story is concerned, where a judgement on his career is expected, he is treated variously as a saint or as an outcast. In the eastern church, particularly in the Coptic and Ethiopic tradition, he was portrayed favourably. Those churches eventually canonized him. An apocryphal tale, usually known as the Paradosis Pilati (that is, the handing over of Pilate for chastising), shows how one eastern legend treated Pilate and his wife, named here as Procla: although Caesar has Pilate beheaded, Pilate's destiny is a triumph. The western church judged Pilate harshly: that tradition is represented by the extract below. It comes from the text called the Mors Pilati (the Death of Pilate). This text explains how Mount Pilatus on Lake Lucerne (Losania in the text) was so named. In that context another place name is explained: Vienne is said to
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even pass through closed doors (Jn 20:19, 2^)> h£ is spirited out of his binding cloths (Jn 20:7) and out of the sealed tomb (Mt 28:2-6).
be derived from the words Via Gehenna (Hell Road). That made it an appropriate, albeit temporary, resting place for the man who condemned Jesus to death.
5. But, as so often in the apocryphal tradition, those ideas are developed and, some would argue, distorted. For the writers of the apocryphal Acts it was even the incarnate Jesus who could adopt different guises (although, perhaps, it is the Transfiguration accounts in the NT—if these were originally referring to the Jesus of the ministry period—which gave the inspiration for the later apocryphal stories). One example from the Acts of John is when the hero relates his experience of the earthly Jesus:
When Caesar knew of the death of Pilate, he said, 'He has justly died a most disgraceful death, seeing that his own hand has not spared him.' He was therefore bound to a great block of stone, and sunk in the river Tiber. However, malignant and filthy spirits, rejoicing in his malignant and filthy body, kept moving in the waters, and in a terrible manner caused lightning and tempests, thunder and hail, so that everyone was in constant fear. Therefore the Romans pulled him out of the river Tiber and carried him off in derision to Vienne, and sunk him in the river Rhone. Vienne means the Way of Gehenna, because it became a place of cursing. But evil spirits were at work and did the same things there too, so the people, unwilling to endure a plague of demons, removed that vessel of malediction and sent him to be buried in the territory of Losania. The inhabitants there were also troubled by the same visitations, so they removed him and sunk him in a lake, surrounded by mountains, where to this day, according to the tales of some, sundry diabolical machinations occur.