Revelation 17:5
Rome does not exhaust the significance of Babylon, but Rome embodied the spirit of Babylon for the first-century churches in Asia Minor. A number of points make clear this connection with Rome.
First, like the earlier empire of Babylon, Rome destroyed the temple and enslaved many of God’s people. As Israel once experienced exile under the evil empire of Babylon, now they experienced the captivity of a new evil empire in Rome.
Second, and especially for reasons just noted, Jewish thinkers often compared Rome to Babylon. The connection came partly because of the interpretation of Daniel’s prophecies about the four kingdoms (; ); Babylon was the first of the kingdoms, and first-century Jewish interpreters understood Rome as the last.
Third, the woman sits on seven mountains (); ancient writers regularly portrayed Rome in this manner.
Fourth, the leader of Babylon may be a new Nero ().
Fifth, this empire rules over the other kings of the earth (). It rules the nations gathered around the sea because it is a maritime power ().
Sixth, Rome (and only Rome) traded in the same merchandise noted in .
These factors show that Rome was the Babylon, the oppressive empire, of John’s day; but many also view Revelation’s Babylon as the evil world system that in principle continues beyond Rome’s fall. Romans regarded as subversive those who prophesied Rome’s fall.
It is easy for modern readers to miss John’s audacity: banished to an island, he recounts a funeral dirge over the most powerful empire the Mediterranean world had ever known (). Rome was close to the height of its power; the church was growing but may have constituted less than 0.1 percent of the empire’s population. Yet because John knew that God’s people had outlived the earlier, powerful empire of Babylon, just as the prophets had predicted, he had every reason for confidence that the same would happen regarding other powerful empires, including the empire that he lived under. Within five centuries a weakened Rome was sacked. ◆
First-century coin depicting Roma seated on seven hills. John uses this ancient reference to Rome in .
Sestertius of Vespasian depicting Roma seated on seven hills and Capitoline Wolf, AD 71, verso, Roman coins, first century AD/Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome, Italy/De Agostini Picture Library/A. de Gregorio/Bridgeman Images
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name written on her forehead. Cf. ; ; speakers often developed a point by comparing or contrasting characters. Although headbands were not limited to prostitutes, some commentators suggest that prostitutes in Rome wore headbands with names; perhaps more helpfully, see . MOTHER OF PROSTITUTES. See note on vv. .
drunk with the blood of God’s holy people. Virtually everyone in the Mediterranean world found cannibalism horrifying. Scripture forbade drinking blood (), but it appears in terrifying prophecies (; ; ). A generation earlier, Nero had martyred many of God’s holy people, and, following Nero’s precedent, many subsequent emperors killed them in bloody amusements during festivals and on state occasions.
once was, now is not, and yet will come. Speakers often developed a point by contrasting characters. As the return of the dead evil ruler (v. ) parodies Christ’s resurrection, so the beast parodies “him who is, and who was, and who is to come” ().
seven heads are seven hills. Ancient writers regularly portrayed Rome as a city on seven hills or mountains. Each year Rome celebrated afresh its founding on seven hills with the festival of the seven mountains. Jewish prophecies likewise identified Rome as a city on seven hills (Sibylline Oracles 2.18; 11.109–113).
an eighth king . . . belongs to the seven. Daniel’s beast had ten horns and another horn that cast down three horns, which would then leave seven, not counting the new horn (, )—though Revelation typically enumerates items in sets of seven in any case. Assuming the correctness of early Christian tradition, the king who is must be Domitian; Nero is just three emperors before Domitian if one skips the three interim usurpers who reigned for only a few months between Nero and Vespasian. (By the time of Domitian, in the East apparently counted the three brief rulers only as usurpers.) That the eighth is not the current one but one of the previous seven, all dead, could allude to popular rumors of dastardly Nero’s return (see note on ; see also the article “
ten horns . . . are ten kings. Cf. , , . Probably John would have understood them as Rome-approved rulers of Rome’s client kingdoms; their number varied, but ten fits a rough average.
Lord of lords. A title for God in the OT (; ), it is here applied to Jesus. King of kings. In imperial propaganda, the emperor fancied himself ruler of all the other kings of the earth (v. ). Babylonian and Persian kings (; ; ) used the title “King of kings” and it remained the title of the Parthian ruler in John’s day.
bring her to ruin and leave her naked. Rome’s client kingdoms will prove as unfaithful as the prostitute with whom they have had intercourse. The unfaithfulness of a prostitute’s lovers was well-known; a figurative prostitute’s former lovers might betray her (), strip her (; ) or even kill her (). In the OT God stripped his people (, ; ; ), Nineveh () and Babylon () for infidelity, following an ancient Near Eastern penalty for sexual unfaithfulness. burn her with fire. Burning was the normal fate of conquered cities (e.g., ; ) and the promised fate of the beast (); it was also the penalty for what were deemed the most disgraceful acts of promiscuity (; ; ). Rome’s residents would have taken the threat of fire seriously; most of the city had burned three decades earlier, in AD 64.
put it into their hearts to accomplish his purpose. God often used evil peoples to judge other evil peoples (e.g., ; , ; ).
great city that rules over the kings of the earth. Parthians, Nubians, most Germans and many other peoples even near the empire were not subject to Rome, but imperial propaganda claimed authority over all the earth. By this period people in the empire spoke of Rome as the city that ruled land and sea to the ends of the earth (cf. the hyperbole in ). In the context of v. , however, it is clear that ultimately God rules the kings of the earth (; ).
Ancient sources often contrast the lamentation of funerals with the celebration of weddings. The mourning over Babylon in this section contrasts starkly with rejoicing over its fall that paves the way for the joy of a wedding (). Laments come from those who profited by sleeping with the prostitute—the client kings whose rule depended on Rome (vv. ) and the merchants whose prosperity depended on it (vv. ). By contrast, the heaven-dwellers would rejoice (v. ; ).
Laments over destroyed cities became a recognized literary form in antiquity. As an artistic way of announcing judgment on cities, the prophets sometimes used reports of laments (; ; ; ; ). Like the restoration of Zion (; ; ), an oppressor’s fall was good news ().
Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great! Recalls the dirge over Babylon in (cf. ; ). For the double “Fallen,” see note on . dwelling for demons. Some of these prophetic descriptions include creatures that the common Greek version of the OT calls demons (), including in judgments against Babylon (). a haunt for every unclean and detestable animal. When cities were depopulated no one could prevent animals from taking over. Thus Rome’s population decreased from as much as a million in John’s era to some 30,000 after its fall five centuries later. The prophets had announced such a fate for many powerful cities (; ), including Babylon (; ; , ) and (temporarily) Jerusalem (; ).
nations have drunk the maddening wine of her adulteries. God made Babylon a wine cup to make the nations drunk and drive them mad (; cf. ), inviting mourning over Babylon () and the flight of God’s people (, ; cf. ). In Rome’s propaganda, circulated by local elites whose own rank depended on Rome’s patronage, Rome brought good to many peoples. Three times, however, the text zeroes in on Babylon’s luxuries (vv. , , ). That the nations would mourn her destruction only reveals the extent to which they were “intoxicated” () and “bewitched” (see ) by her exploitive seduction (). kings of the earth . . . merchants of the earth. Writers sometimes briefly outlined in advance groups they would treat: kings mourn in vv. , and merchants in vv. .
that you will not share in her sins. In the same context that mentions that Babylon was an intoxicating cup for the nations and would be mourned (), God warns his people to flee from Babylon, lest they be destroyed because of “her sins” (; cf. ). (Jeremiah meant these words as a prophecy of future judgment rather than as a present warning, .)
sins are piled up to heaven. The context that warns God’s people to flee from Babylon warns that “her judgment . . . rises as high as the heavens” (; cf. ; ). Judgment sometimes waited until sins reached a particular level ().
Give back to her as she has given. Jewish tradition emphasized that God often punished people in ways that resembled their sin; Revelation might here paraphrase the idea in the last line of . pay her back double. Double payment was exacted from a thief (, , ), and from God’s people (; ). Babylon would drink “from her own cup” (cf. ; ; ; ).
the glory and luxury she gave herself. Rome glorified itself, encouraging the spread of the worship of the emperor and the goddess Roma, personification of Rome. queen . . . not a widow. Babylon claimed to be an eternal queen () and that she would never be a widow ().
Therefore. Like Babylon in Isaiah, Rome claimed to be an eternal city. Other Jewish visionaries also applied the prophecy of this verse against Rome. in one day. Babylon’s judgments would come on her all in one day (). consumed by fire. Because most of Rome had burned three decades earlier, in AD 64, the image is a graphic one. mighty is the Lord God who judges her. Cf. .
kings of the earth. Could be Rome’s client rulers, those who ruled kingdoms (e.g., earlier Herod the Great and Aretas IV) under Rome’s rule. The expression appears at least 15 times in the OT. Jesus is the “ruler of the kings of the earth” (; ), but they would gather against him (; ); and such rulers once became wealthy through Tyre’s trade ().
they will stand far off and cry. Kings and merchants (v. ) are terrified at her fall as people were terrified by Tyre’s fall (). Woe! Woe. Cf. .
Rome thrived on trade, especially via the sea; elites praised Rome, but Rome lived luxuriously on the basis of inequitable trade policies toward its provinces. The Roman elite practiced conspicuous consumption (see the article “Rome’s Imports”). The Roman province of Asia, John’s specified audience (), was the empire’s richest province. Yet landowners in Asia used so much land for profitable export items such as wine that Asia’s cities had to import grain at high prices.
Revelation evokes OT images not only about the political oppressor Babylon but also about the economic power Tyre (especially ), a prostitute (). Alexander the Great captured and brutally slaughtered the people of Tyre, an island city that most observers had previously considered invincible. Merchant kingdoms lamented over Tyre the economic prostitute (, ).
Transport was cheaper by sea. Rome’s port, Ostia, built roughly half a century before, held a large square full of offices for the merchants. In John’s day, pagan symbols were prominent at major Mediterranean ports and on most ships; aspects of the imperial cult affected even shipping lines and merchant guilds.
John adapts Ezekiel’s list of 40 products in which Tyre traded (), but updates it accurately for the trade realities of first-century Rome. Further, whereas Ezekiel’s list is arranged geographically, John’s is arranged topically, by cargo type. Although he includes some items that were not expensive (oil, though imported in massive quantities), John focuses on and lists many of the most expensive imports, overlapping substantially with the list of expensive items from the first-century Roman writer Pliny the Elder. The overlap is highlighted here, following the sequence of . The comments in this article follow especially the research of J. Nelson Kraybill and Richard Bauckham.
Rome’s new rich class in this period typically flaunted their gold and silver. Rome imported most of these metals from Spain, where it owned a number of mines, some confiscated from other owners. The slaves who worked such mines rarely lived more than a few years. Rome also imported precious stones, worn in men’s rings but especially by women, mainly from India. Many people regarded pearls as the epitome of luxury. They secured some pearls from the Red Sea, better ones from the Persian Gulf, and the most abundant source was India; some regard this as the most lucrative form of trade that Rome had with the East.
Rome imported fine linen from Spain, Asia Minor, and especially Egypt; it had begun to replace wool in Rome by this period. Purple had long been a symbol of affluence, imported especially from Tyre (see note on ); scarlet was also a symbol of luxury, derived mainly from kermes oaks in Asia Minor. Some silk was produced on a Mediterranean island, but Rome imported most of its silk from China. Most came through northwest Indian ports and some came overland through Parthia. Given the distance traveled, it is hardly surprising that it was a symbol of conspicuous consumption available only to the wealthy.
Citron wood originally came westward from the north African coast from Cyrene, but the supply was by this period so depleted that most such wood was imported from Morocco. Tables made of citron wood were so expensive and fashionable that one such table was sold for the price of a large estate.
Trade in ivory had nearly driven the Syrian elephant to extinction and few elephants remained in North Africa. Other costly wood would include maple, cedar and cypress, all of which were used as expensive luxury items. The most famous bronze in the empire was Corinthian bronze; the best iron was imported from the East, though available elsewhere; Rome imported marble from Africa, Egypt and Greece, especially for use in palaces.
Cinnamon bark provided an expensive spice, but trade focused especially on the tree’s wood; most probably came from Somalia. Ships involved in the east African trade went as far south as Zanzibar off the Tanzanian coast, in a two-year round trip voyage. The Greek term translated “spice” () designates an aromatic spice from southern India; incense was used for rituals and to perfume wealthy homes; myrrh was imported from Yemen and Somalia; frankincense, known as a luxury good, was from south Arabia.
Because the wine trade was more profitable than grain, wealthy Roman owners of large estates in the provinces cultivated vines more than grain. Italy produced some of its own oil but imported more in this period from Africa and Spain. Fine flour (in contrast to wine, oil and wheat) was considered a luxury good; the best was imported from Africa.
Africa and Egypt supplied most of Rome’s wheat via thousands of ships run by merchants but regulated by the state. Much of this wheat came from taxes on the provinces; Rome imported an estimated 400,000 tons (363,000 metric tons) of grain each year to keep the people in the capital satisfied. An estimated 200,000 families in Rome received this grain free, while thousands of children in some of the grain-producing areas died from starvation and malnutrition.
Even the rich rarely ate beef; cattle were used especially as work animals. In the first century the rich procured as ranches large estates in Italy and (generally by confiscation or conquest) in the provinces. Some sheep were used for mutton, but Italy mainly imported sheep for rich estates that produced wool. Italy lacked sufficient pasture for many horses but imported them from Africa, Spain, and elsewhere for use in chariot races for public entertainment. Horses also pulled the wealthy’s four-wheeled carriages, sometimes plated with silver.
John concludes climactically with the mention of “human beings sold as slaves.” Rome no longer fought enough wars to supply many prisoners of war as slaves. Many poor people discarded babies they felt unable to raise, however; while many of these were eaten by dogs or birds, many others were raised by humans for lives of slavery. Asia exported a large quantity of humans to Rome, probably through the port of Ephesus. “Human beings sold as slaves” may evoke the Greek version of , where Tyre’s vicious trade included “human beings,” i.e., slaves. ◆
Roman Imports.
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The list of imports here fits lists of imports to Rome (see the article “Rome’s Imports”). Some Romans complained about Roman money being used for luxury goods from the East, like most of the fragrant substances mentioned here. Most items on the list are luxury goods, symbols of conspicuous consumption; some are basic staples, such as wheat, but imported in such massive quantities that residents of Rome ate free while many peasants in Egypt, where much of the grain was grown, were malnourished. The list climaxes with “human beings sold as slaves” (v. )—the gravest injustice of the empire (cf. ).
A few sources in John’s day acknowledged that Rome’s rich indulged themselves at the expense of the rest of the empire. Most Roman sources that criticized luxury, however, did so merely because it corrupted aristocrats and made them dependent. While perhaps sharing some of this critique (cf. arrogance in v. ), Revelation explicitly condemns Rome for profiting at the expense of the empire. The prostitute is decked with her imports (v. ; ), and oppression is partly in view (v. ).
luxury and splendor. Public speakers and some OT prophets used wordplays; in Greek, “luxury” and “splendor” is lipara and lampra.
by ship. Shipwrecks could ruin ship owners, but some grew wealthy enough to own many ships, reducing the risk. Ship owners grew wealthy especially from the grain trade with Rome; see notes on , , . The fall of Rome, however, would put both shipowners and their employees out of business.
throw dust on their heads. A traditional act of mourning by both Greeks and Jews (cf. ; ; ; ; ; ).
Verses and bracket this literary unit with the theme of vengeance for the blood of God’s people; see ; ; ; .
God has judged her with the judgment she imposed on you. On judgment fitting one’s crime, see note on v. ; cf. ; .
large millstone . . . threw it into the sea. God commanded Jeremiah to hurl a stone into the middle of the Euphrates to symbolize the permanent fall of Babylon (). Revelation amplifies the image as a millstone thrown into the sea, probably recalling Jesus’ warning that those who cause any little ones to stumble would be killed in this manner (; ). The Greek terms for “millstone” in these passages refer to the sort of huge millstone turned by a mule, not merely the kind a woman might use by hand. (Mules are strong, e.g., able to carry roughly 250 pounds [115 kilograms].) Such drowning was considered one of the harshest Roman punishments, and with such a heavy weight there would be no escape.
sound of a millstone . . . light of a lamp . . . voice of bridegroom and bride will never be heard in you again. When God judged Judah by means of Babylon, Jerusalem became desolate, without lighted lamps or the sounds of millstones or the joyful sound of newlyweds (; cf. ). Now Babylon, oppressor of God’s people, reaps what it sowed. Contrast ; , ; ; , .
By your magic spell all the nations were led astray. The Biblical prophecy drawn upon in vv. is also relevant here: once judged, Babylon would no longer protect herself or deceive the people by her magic spells (). But if Isaiah’s prophecy against Babylon supplies the concept, Nahum’s prophecy against Nineveh supplies the language: “a prostitute, alluring, the mistress of sorceries, who enslaved nations by her prostitution and peoples by her witchcraft” ().
In her was found the blood of prophets and of God’s holy people. Babylon’s demise depicted in v. draws on , where Babylon would fall because of killing God’s people, just as Babylon had killed many throughout the earth ().
Ancient writers often developed points by contrasting characters. This passage contrasts the fate of Babylon the prostitute (vv. ) with the future of the new Jerusalem, the bride (vv. ; cf. ). Both events invite the praises of heaven, reflecting the fulfillment of God’s perfect purposes (vv. , ). The prostitute’s alienated lovers would kill and burn her (); by contrast, the Lamb welcomes his bride (vv. ).
Hallelujah! Most early Jewish readers, even those who used only Greek, would know that “Hallelujah!” (vv. , , , ) meant “Praise Yahweh!” in a particularly emphatic form. The expression appears untranslated 23 times in the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT), always in Psalms, except for two references in the Apocrypha.
smoke from her goes up for ever and ever. See note on . Rome’s claims to be eternal (see note on ) were as fictitious as those of all other kingdoms.
The praise here may echo especially ; .
roar of rushing waters. See note on .
rejoice . . . For the wedding of the Lamb has come. Weddings epitomized joy and celebration; guests were obligated to promote the newlyweds’ joy. The promise of this banquet appears also as a beatitude, a common literary form (“Blessed are those who . . .”; cf. v. ; ; ; ; ; , ). The wedding banquet was a frequent Jewish figure for the coming Messianic era, based on a promised future banquet () when God would destroy death and remove the tears and shame of his people (). (Some later teachers even decided that Leviathan, the many-headed serpent [], would be served as the food at the Messianic banquet!) Ancient writers often taught through contrasts; Revelation here contrasts the marriage supper of the Lamb with the great supper of God, in which birds feast on the carcasses of the wicked (vv. , ). his bride has made herself ready. The bride would bathe herself and adorn herself in special array (see v. ).
Fine linen. High-class prostitutes were known for their elaborate garb (, ), but special wedding apparel is beautiful to the groom. the righteous acts of God’s holy people. May recall the bridal array of righteousness in .
I fell at his feet to worship him. John may have mistaken the angel for a theophany, since in the OT “the angel of the LORD” sometimes spoke God’s message directly or even turned out to be the Lord (, , , , , ; ). The angel’s explicit prohibition of worshiping him might guard against some syncretistic practices among Jews of Asia Minor, in which some worshiped angels in addition to God. the Spirit of prophecy who bears testimony to Jesus. Jewish sources frequently associated the Spirit with prophecy; here all believers are thus potential prophets, inspired to speak the Spirit’s central message about Jesus.
God often sent his people to holy war in the OT, and some Jewish sources expected an end-time battle to throw off the yoke of Rome and other pagan oppressors. But here the armies of heaven (v. ) do not execute any violence themselves; Jesus is the mighty warrior who strikes the wicked (vv. , , ). Biblical prophets predicted God himself as the ultimate holy warrior (; ; ), cloaked for war (), including the blood of the winepress as here (, ; cf. ). Jesus here assumes this divine role.
white horse. White horses were often considered the best. Such horses were appropriate mounts for rulers, important officials and conquerors entering Rome in triumph, but the idea of a “King of Kings” (cf. v. ) mounted on a white horse may draw on the image of the Parthian king. If Rome fears a Parthian invasion, how much more should they fear the true Lord from heaven!
eyes are like blazing fire, and on his head are many crowns. In the context of most ancient sources, Jesus’ fiery eyes probably connote divinity and fury; his many crowns (here diadems, not garlands) indicate that he is ruler over all the kings of the world (vv. , ). name . . . that no one knows but he himself. Jesus has a hidden name, just like his followers (). Perhaps this name remains a secret, but perhaps it is a secret only to the world, because his “name” is the “Word of God” (v. ) and “KING OF KINGS AND LORD OF LORDS” (v. ).
robe dipped in blood. Would represent a terrifying image to the average ancient reader; Gentiles sometimes so portrayed a horrible Fury (an avenging monster). But this verse draws the language specifically from : God would go out and trample the blood of the wicked like wine in a winepress, till his garments were stained with their blood (; cf. ; ; ). The blood is from those slain in his wine press, the whole world (v. ; cf. ), as in . his name is the Word of God. At his coming, the world will finally realize that Jesus himself is divine.
The armies of heaven were following him. This army may include angels (), but must include believers (; cf. the fine linen in v. ). The army that had overcome the beast by martyrdom () now would share Christ’s final triumph (cf. the “scepter” in v. ; ). white horses. See note on v. ; the mounted Parthians were Rome’s most feared earthly enemies. Whereas chariots were the elite military units in most of the OT period (cf. ; ; ), riders on horses were the elite cavalry of this period.
Coming out of his mouth is a sharp sword . . . “He will rule them with an iron scepter.” As in a widely circulated earlier Jewish work, this verse links (ruling with an iron scepter) with , where the ultimate Davidic ruler strikes the earth with a weapon from his mouth (cf. ; ). sharp sword. For many Jewish hearers, the sword might also recall the popular Apocryphal work the Wisdom of Solomon, in which God’s word leaped from heaven as a mighty warrior (cf. v. ), bringing forth God’s commandment as a sharp, straight sword to kill the disobedient (Wisdom of Solomon 18:15–16). iron scepter. See note on . winepress. See note on v. .
on his thigh. Commentators observe that some wrote names on statues in Rome, and Greeks sometimes branded horses on their thighs. KING OF KINGS. The Parthian ruler was called the “great king” and the “king of kings.” This superlative title had long been a title for eastern monarchs (; ; ). Scripture applied similar titles to the true suzerain ruler, God (; ; ; ; ). Jewish sources subsequent to the OT applied the title almost exclusively to God.
all the birds . . . may eat the flesh. Ancients were familiar with the image of carrion birds feasting on the flesh of corpses killed in battle (e.g., in Homer’s popular Greek epics; also ; ; ). Such scenes were common in ancient literature, but intended to evoke horror. Given common Greek views of one’s image enduring in the realm of departed spirits, the only fate considered worse than death itself was death followed by lack of burial. Lack of burial allowed one’s remains to be devoured by animals, and many Gentiles believed that it precluded a place in the realm of the dead. The immediate background is : God invited beasts and birds to devour the flesh of the end-time army that opposed him.
The two of them were thrown alive into the fiery lake. In , the beast was slain and thrown into the fire. burning sulfur. See note on . Jewish tradition depicted Gehenna, or hell, as burning.
The millennium concerns the 1,000-year period in . The earliest church fathers who addressed the issue (such as Papias and Irenaeus) held premillennial beliefs. They believed that they were either in the final tribulation or about to face it, and that Christ would afterward return and establish a thousand-year kingdom. After Constantine, however, Christians in the Roman Empire felt that tribulation had ended and that Christ was now reigning through his church; by the time of the fourth-century church historian Eusebius, premillennialists were apparently an easily dissuaded minority. This belief that the church was now reigning is usually considered a form of amillennialism, but it also resembles postmillennialism (see below). A thousand years after Constantine, people were expecting the day of judgment that was to follow the millennium.
Biblical amillennialists today hold a more consistent amillennial interpretation. They argue that from heaven’s perspective, Christ and his people reign spiritually in the present age (), even though on earth it is also a period of suffering. Augustine, most medieval interpreters, Luther, Calvin and others held amillennial views.
Various interpreters in history developed a postmillennial view, believing that the church would establish God’s kingdom, preparing the world for Christ’s return. This optimistic approach prevailed especially at the height of the British Empire, when many English-speaking interpreters believed that God was using righteous governments to spread godliness. Many leaders in the Great Awakenings in the United States, such as Jonathan Edwards and Charles Finney, held this view.
Today the majority of interpreters of Revelation are either premillennialists or amillennialists (though some also remain postmillennialists). One of the strongest arguments favoring premillennialism is that it follows the logic of the narrative.
• Satan does not appear bound () during the present age in ; .
• The beast and false prophet are thrown into the lake of fire in and are still there in .
• Those specified as resurrected in are those who have suffered under the beast.
• The devil cannot deceive “anymore” suggests a suspension of his deceptive work that transpired from onward.
• The resurrection of the righteous is parallel to and contrasted with the rest of the dead returning to life after the thousand years (), suggesting a bodily rather than symbolic resurrection.
• Readers today recognize that the period between Jesus’ first and second comings is longer than 1,000 years; in John’s own day, however, such a figure for the intermediate period must have seemed too long ().
Not all premillennialists take the specific figure of 1,000 as literal, but they do insist on an interim period (cf. perhaps ; ).
One of the strongest arguments favoring amillennialism is that such an interim period probably does not appear elsewhere in the NT (despite attempts of some to find it in ). Amillennialists also point to the three cycles that repeat judgments earlier in Revelation, and view the millennium in as another such cycle. Some of the cycles do exhibit signs of following earlier cycles in John’s narrative, but these are because of the sequence of John’s visions, not the events. Moreover, the heavenly perspective in differs from the earthly one; e.g., God’s people are slaughtered in and , but from heaven’s perspective, it is they who are truly victorious (). Premillennialists and amillennialists each offer answers for the others’ arguments, merely sampled here.
In terms of ancient context: many Jewish views of the future, including visions of the future expressed in many apocalypses, included a future interim period between the beginning and the end of the consummation. Estimated durations of the period, however, vary considerably, such as three generations or 400 years. One rabbi might provide four different estimates of the period’s duration based on four different interpretations of Scripture. First Enoch allows so many brief transitional periods that the end appears to come gradually (1 Enoch 91:8–17). One Gentile prophecy predicted Rome’s collapse at the end of 6,000 years, followed by a 1,000-year period of peace; at some point at least some Jews envisioned a final thousand years as a Sabbath period.
Premillennialists would point to such beliefs about an intermediate period to argue that John probably did expect a literal interim period. Amillennialists would point to the same beliefs to argue that John transforms an apocalyptic literary device. Some read the millennium as subsequent to the judgments (i.e., as premillennial in the narrative of Revelation), yet argue that to take the millennium literally misreads the nature of Revelation as an apocalypse. Scholars thus remain divided on these questions. ◆
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seized the dragon . . . bound him . . . threw him into the Abyss. Jewish sources often speak of evil angels being bound, sometimes by good angels, until the day of judgment. In some apocalyptic texts bound angels could also be thrown into the abyss (1 Enoch 88:1).
for a thousand years. See the article “The Millennium.”
sealed it. Like a container’s seal, sealing Satan in the abyss keeps him inside (cf. ).
beheaded. Beheading was the primary method of execution for Roman citizens and was deemed the most merciful (i.e., most swift) means of execution. After being bound to a post, stripped naked and whipped, the victim might be forced to kneel before being decapitated. Earlier Roman executioners often used axes; but by this period, provincial executions employed swords. reigned with Christ. See note on .
Daniel had predicted a resurrection of the damned (), a view followed by some apocalyptic Jewish writers (2 Baruch 51:1–2) and by many early Christian writers (; ; ; ; ).
Gog and Magog. Following Ezekiel, many ancient Jewish comments about the end time mention Gog and Magog. In many Jewish texts Gog serves a mythical function; in some texts, various evil oppressors could fill the role of the final “Gog” if God intended their day as the end time. Jewish writers typically used the invasion of Gog to predict the gathering of all nations against Israel, and Revelation likely employs this image in a similar way. (Many Biblical texts spoke of nations gathering against Israel, cf. ; .)
To some degree Revelation follows the sequence in : resurrection and kingdom (), Gog from Magog (), and the new temple and city (). Nevertheless, the correspondence with Ezekiel is not exact or complete by itself; lacks an explicit millennium, and lack a physical temple. Whereas in Ezekiel Gog is ruler of Magog, here Gog and Magog together merely symbolize all the nations, “the nations in the four corners of the earth” (see note on ). like the sand on the seashore. A common OT hyperbole for an innumerable multitude (e.g., ; ; ).
They . . . surrounded the camp of God’s people . . . But fire came down from heaven and devoured them. The holy city would be unwalled because there would be so many residents (); thus God himself would be a wall of fire around her (; cf. ). But “camp” was normally military language; it probably alludes to Israel’s experience in the exodus or to a unit of war. If evil is so deeply engrained in humanity that enemies remain even after the thousand years, John might reason, how much more vigilant must God’s people remain in the present time.
Fire devouring the enemy host may evoke Sodom (; cf. ). In Ezekiel, God warned that he would cast fire on Magog (), and that he would cast rain, hailstones and burning sulfur on this army (). Some other early Jewish texts reflect a similar fate for Israel’s final enemies. The point in Ezekiel is that God would be glorified through their destruction (, ), and that he would defend his people ().
great white throne. Sometimes following , Jewish traditions often describe this day of judgment before a throne. At this point it was considered too late to seek mercy. The earth . . . fled from his presence. Unrepentant sinners will flee from the one whose face no mortal can see and live ().
books were opened. Apocalypses and other Jewish works depict heavenly books of judgment reporting people’s works, ready to be opened in the day of judgment. The books here, as in some of the other Jewish texts, recall , where books were opened before God’s throne. the book of life. See note on . judged according to what they had done. See note on .
The sea gave up the dead that were in it. That the sea gave up its dead answers the concern of many people in antiquity concerning the fate of the unburied (cf. note on ). Many Gentiles believed that those who died at sea were barred from Hades because they were not buried. Hades. The realm of the dead; those still dead—those not raised at the first resurrection (vv. )—were the damned. Some apocalyptic writings expected Hades to return what was entrusted to it when the dead are raised for judgment.
death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. An apocalypse consigned the fallen angels, Gentiles, and disobedient Israelites to the abyss of fire (1 Enoch 90:24–27). Revelation goes further; a lake normally contained water, so the image of a lake of fire here is striking. A river of fire flows from God’s throne in , an image that is heavily developed in later Jewish tradition; Greeks envisioned a river of fire in the underworld. Most relevant (though not mentioning a body of water) is the Jewish image of fiery Gehenna (Gehinnom), where many Jewish teachers believed that the wicked would be either tortured or consumed. second death. See note on .
a new heaven and a new earth. A new Jerusalem () appears in the context of Isaiah’s promise of the new heavens and earth (; ); apocalyptic literature developed both images. there was no longer any sea. Some sources spoke of the purification of creation; others, of its transformation; still others, of its destruction and rebirth. Because the sea disappears, Revelation at least evokes transformation, though scholars debate how literally Revelation intends its different images.
Some scholars associate the sea with evil (or chaos, as much earlier in ancient Near Eastern thought), with death () or with the beast (), but it appears positively in some other passages in Revelation (; ). Perhaps the sea disappears here because Isaiah’s new heavens and earth do not specifically mention it. More likely it is replaced with the joyful river of life from God’s throne (for the righteous; ) and possibly the lake of fire (for the wicked; ).
the Holy City. Jewish people regularly called Jerusalem by this title, as here (v. ; ; ); God here renews a Holy City once defiled (). Some Jewish thinkers envisioned merely a restored and exalted Jerusalem; others thought of a currently hidden city that will ultimately be revealed. In some traditions, God himself would rebuild Jerusalem, possibly the point of its descent from heaven here (cf. ). Jewish people sometimes envisioned the new Jerusalem as heavenly.
Just as Babylon in Revelation represents the people of Rome and not simply its location, and just as “Jerusalem” in the OT usually includes the people and not simply the site, the new Jerusalem undoubtedly includes the people of God. This new Jerusalem is the bride, like God’s bride Israel in the OT (e.g., ; ) or Christ’s bride the church (; ). Other texts describe Jerusalem’s beautiful adornment in the time of her restoration (; Psalms of Solomon 11:7), including bridal array (). beautifully dressed. See vv. , especially vv. (see note there).
God’s dwelling place is now among the people. That God will dwell with his people is a promise of God’s covenant with Israel (; ; ; ; ; ), including in the future temple (, ). But whereas the restoration of the temple was a standard hope for restored Jerusalem (; ), in Revelation the entire city is the temple (), shaped like the Most Holy Place (see note on v. ; see also the article “Dimensions of the New Jerusalem”).
wipe every tear from their eyes. In the time of restoration and resurrection God would “wipe away the tears from all faces” (). old order of things has passed away. “Old order” is lit. “former things”; develops the promise of new creation in , in which “past troubles will be forgotten” and “the former things will not be remembered.”
the Alpha and the Omega, the Beginning and the End. See note on . I will give water without cost. Cf. ; probably echoes , an offer of waters “without cost” at the time of Israel’s restoration.
I will be their God and they will be my children. The promise that God would be his people’s God and they would be his people was the most basic component of the ancient covenant formula (; ; ; , ; ), rehearsed also by the prophets (; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; , ; ). But Revelation slightly adapts the formula: the overcomer would be God’s child. Israelites were God’s children corporately (; ; ; ), but the Greek text here calls each individual believer God’s child.
the cowardly . . . and all liars. Vice lists were a common literary form in ancient texts. those who practice magic arts. Many people in antiquity, including in Roman Asia, practiced magic arts (cf. ). consigned to the fiery lake of burning sulfur. Traditional cities kept some groups outside their walls, such as foreigners, traders, and prostitutes, though these groups could work inside the city; outside the new Jerusalem, by contrast, is hell.
Ancient orators often provided stirring descriptions of cities, and valued descriptions so vivid that hearers would virtually “see” the object of their descriptions. Scripture already contained stirring descriptions of present () and future Jerusalem (). Some Jewish writers developed Ezekiel’s design for the new Jerusalem and especially the temple mount (). Some Jewish texts identify the new Jerusalem with paradise. Most such descriptions, however, were meant to praise God for his wonderful plans, rather than to provide a literal blueprint (cf., e.g., streets paved with precious stones in Tobit 13:9–18 in the Apocrypha). Isaiah’s crystal gates and walls of precious stones () also can be depicted as walls of salvation and gates of praise (; ). Elsewhere in Scripture Jerusalem needs no (material) walls because God himself would be a wall of fire around it ().
Ancient writers often developed their argument by contrasting characters or cities. Both with Babylon and with the new Jerusalem, one of the seven angels who had the seven bowls came and said to John, “Come, I will show you” (the bride in v. ; the prostitute in ). In each case an angel carries John away in the Spirit (to a great mountain in v. ; to a wilderness in ). Babylon is decorated with gold and pearls (); the new Jerusalem is built of gold and has gates of pearls (vv. , ). Those with faith to wait for the bride will not spoil themselves with the prostitute.
he carried me away in the Spirit to a mountain. God in a vision also set Ezekiel on a mountain, before showing him measurements of a great temple (). Mount Zion () would be the highest mountain (), thus contrasting with the seven mountains/hills on which Babylon sits (). (1 Enoch envisions paradise on seven mountains.)
shone with the glory of God . . . a very precious jewel. Until it was destroyed in AD 70, the Jerusalem temple had gates adorned with gold and silver. It could not be compared with God’s promised new Jerusalem, however. Some apocalypses expected the end-time Zion to shine with glory (4 Ezra 10:25–27). jewel. Gems reflected light; some Jewish traditions even spoke of especially luminous stones. The precious stones here and in vv. recall God’s promise in , where God would build the walls and gates from precious stones. Many Jewish people felt free to adapt Isaiah’s image while preserving the message of incomparable magnificence (Tobit 13:16–17).
On the gates were written the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. Wealthy supporters who funded city building projects often had their names inscribed on them. Yet the honored names on this city are different. The gates here represent instead the 12 tribes of Israel, as in (and in the Dead Sea Scrolls). The presence of both the 12 tribes (here) and the 12 apostles (v. ) emphasizes the continuity between God’s people through history (vv. ).
Some Roman towns provided entrance mainly through three gates on one side, but the new Jerusalem provides such access on all sides, implying that it welcomes people from all directions.
twelve foundations . . . twelve apostles. Later rabbis typically took literally Isaiah’s promise of precious stones for rebuilding Jerusalem (); by contrast, the Dead Sea Scrolls apply the image figuratively to the remnant of Israel and its leaders (12 laymen and three priests). In Biblical tradition 12 stones pointed to 12 tribes (e.g., ); the stones in the high priest’s breastplate were specifically inscribed with the names of the tribes (). Here, however, they refer to the 12 apostles. Although Jesus is the church’s ultimate foundation (), early Christians emphasized that those who first passed on the message about Jesus were a foundation (; cf. ).
Ezekiel’s new Jerusalem temple was 18,000 cubits all around; John’s is nearly 2,000 times larger. At some 1,400 miles (or 2,250 kilometers) by 1,400 miles (2,250 kilometers), the Holy City is larger than any city has ever been. That contrast would have been even clearer in antiquity, where massive cities were smaller than those today. The walls of great cities such as Babylon and Alexandria had a circumference of only nine miles (14.5 kilometers)—not even 1/10,000th the circumference of the New Jerusalem, and less than 1/10,000,000th of its floor plan.
The square shape of the city () fits Israel’s camp in the wilderness (see “
But while this background plays an important part, the new Jerusalem is not merely square; it is cubic, despite the utter incongruity with all human imagination of a city 1,400 miles (2,250 kilometers) high! (Keep in mind that the height of the world’s highest mountain today, Mount Everest, is only about 5.5 miles [less than 9 kilometers].) What the world could not accomplish in Babel—a city to the heavens ()—God grants his people as a gift. The dimensions also seem incongruous for a wall 144 cubits (about 200 feet or 65 meters) thick, and especially if the 144 cubits is intended instead as its height or length (the Greek text does not specify “thick”). The dimensions of the city are supernatural (), contrasting starkly with the pretensions of the doomed “great city” Babylon (, , ).
The astonishing cube shape presumably recalls the Most Holy Place (), which only the high priest could enter, and only once each year (). Not only will God dwell with his people in the new Jerusalem (), not only will the city need no temple other than God himself (), but the entire city will be like the Most Holy Place. God’s people will experience his presence more fully than ever before.
The use of a square number like 144 may offer a vivid contrast with the triangular number 666 (), like the foundation of a foursquare city versus that of a pyramid. Most important, the numbers in portray this city as the dwelling of God’s people: 12,000 (stadia [see on ]) and 144 (cubits [see on ]) both recall the number of God’s servants (). The new Jerusalem is the city of God for God’s people, the new Jerusalemites standing with the Lamb on Mount Zion (). ◆
Dimensions of New Jerusalem.
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measuring rod of gold to measure the city. The measuring rod reveals the supernatural enormity of the city (v. ). It recalls the angelic measuring of Jerusalem () and the temple (, especially ), and reminds John’s oppressed audience that the persecuted remnant whose measuring began in is the prototype for the glorious future city.
The size of the city is incomparable; its cubic shape recalls the Most Holy Place, fitting the role of the new Jerusalem as the place of God’s dwelling (v. ). See the article “Dimensions of the New Jerusalem.”
human measurement. Recalls . Some suggest also a contrast: the number of a human who is a beast () versus the measurements of a human that are also angelic. On this view, the beast’s kingdom debases humanity to a beastly level, whereas the new Jerusalem raises it to an angel-like level. 144 cubits thick. Just as the number 12,000 in v. recalls the uses of the number 12,000 in , the number 144 recalls the use of the number 144,000 in , who are the people of Zion in —God’s city for God’s people (see the article “Dimensions of the New Jerusalem”). Why would a city need walls when no enemies remained? One Biblical prophet predicted that Jerusalem would lack walls (). But others had elaborated on the Holy City’s promised magnificence by depicting walls of precious stones () or even salvation (). Ancient cities normally had walls, so lack of walls would require explanation (cf. the lack of a temple in v. ). When imagery is figurative, it does not need to be harmonized on a literal level.
pure as glass. See note on v. ; contrast Babylon’s impurity in and (in Greek) in .
John lists stones from the priest’s breastplate () and perhaps Tyre’s wealthy decorations (), omitting some of each to arrive at 12 but including 9 stones found in both of those lists. The new Jerusalem is thus a priestly city (cf. ), its gates reflecting the 12 tribes (relevant to the high priest’s breastplate stones; see note on v. ), and a city of plenty that may contrast with exploitive Tyre (see ).
with every kind of precious stone. Isaiah had promised walls of precious stones for the restored Jerusalem ().
The twelve gates were twelve pearls. Isaiah had promised gates of crystal (); gates of pearls contrast with the mere pearl decorations of Babylon (; , ). Later rabbis imagined that angels in the sea bottom were currently fashioning such pearls. great street . . . was of gold, as pure as transparent glass. The capabilities of ancient refining were limited; indeed, in antiquity even glass was rarely fully “clear,” much less fully pure. Some of the major north-south and east-west streets of first-century Jerusalem (destroyed probably over two decades earlier) were 30–40 feet (10–13 meters) wide. Even before the city’s destruction, however, Jewish people envisioned a greater Jerusalem to come (e.g., streets paved with beryl and streets offering praise in Tobit 13:16–17). The city’s 12 gates here imply numerous streets; the “great street” here probably is the primary thoroughfare (cf. ; ; the Greek version of ; ; ). Roman cities generally organized other streets around a major north-south street and another major east-west street.
I did not see a temple. Following Scripture (), Jewish people expected a splendid end-time temple. A regularly recited prayer, e.g., looked for a renewal of the temple. Indeed, all normal Greek and Roman cities included temples. Revelation does not repudiate Ezekiel’s vision, but offers an even greater image: the new city itself is a temple, the dwelling place of God (vv. , ). (Cf. perhaps ; .) Because most prophetic visions of the future were mere images meant to communicate deeper points (cf. ), depicting glory greater than what Ezekiel presented does not contradict Ezekiel.
The city does not need the sun or the moon . . . the glory of God gives it light. Although one might see a torch-lit city at night against a darkened horizon, most ancient cities were poorly lit at night. The new Jerusalem, by contrast, is full of continual light (cf. v. ; ). God had promised his people that in the time of their restoration, he himself would be their glory and, better than the sun and moon, would never set or wane (; cf. ; ). Other apocalyptic sources recognized that God would shine on his people. See note on .
nations will walk by its light. Cf. ; . Whereas some texts warned that God would destroy the nations or at least their armies (; ; ), others depicted the nations serving Israel (; ; ). In contrast to traditions where Gentiles would have no place in Jerusalem (; ; cf. ), others allowed that some would come to worship God (; ; ), as here. Indeed, the nations (or their remnant) are finally converted (; ; ; ; ). See note on v. .
On no day will its gates ever be shut. Isaiah promised that Jerusalem’s gates would always stand open so that people could bring in the wealth of the nations (). To control access and maintain security, Roman cities usually provided entrance on only one side of the city, and city gates were usually shut at night. But the new Jerusalem welcomes all () and has no enemies to fear.
In Isaiah, the nations would bring their wealth into Jerusalem (; ; ). But here they bring not simply wealth but also “glory” (cf. , where the NIV translates the same Greek term as “splendor”).
nor will anyone who does what is shameful or deceitful. Ancient sanctuaries often provided refuge for fugitives, but the Bible permitted this only for those whose crimes were unintentional (; ). The new Jerusalem would not harbor any who practice evil; the wicked would be banished (cf. v. ; ).
water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne. All strong cities must have their own water supply (a deficiency Laodiceans would have keenly felt, see note on ). Present Jerusalem had a water supply that some poetically described as a river (), and the prophets spoke of water flowing from the future Zion (; ; ). This crystal river flowing directly from God’s throne replaces the earlier crystal sea (; ; ). Although evoking especially Ezekiel, the river of life may also evoke the rivers of the first paradise (), in view of “the tree of life” in v. .
On each side of the river stood the tree of life . . . the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations. Whereas shops often lined the main streets of ancient cities, Revelation presents a different kind of provision. envisioned fruit trees for healing on either side of the temple river; unlike trees whose fruits were seasonal, these trees would bear fruit every month. Some Jewish traditions inferred twelve trees from , one for each month; Revelation, however, envisions the single tree of life, since there is one source of eternal life, namely, Jesus. To the “healing” of Revelation adds “of the nations” (see notes on ; ).
Clarifying Ezekiel’s trees as the tree of life is significant. Jewish apocalypses often portray the end time in terms of the primeval Eden. Some writers associated Eden with the new Jerusalem or viewed it as equivalent to the Most Holy Place. Paradise images regularly included rivers and fruitful trees, sometimes including the tree of life mentioned in the original paradise.
No longer will there be any curse. Evokes the Greek translation of , referring to the restored Jerusalem (cf. ). But in this context about paradise, the abolishing of the curse also evokes a reversal of the fall (, ).
They will see his face. Traditional Jewish expectation included seeing God’s face in the end time or in heaven after death. Whereas seeing God’s face banished the old earth and heavens (), requiring a new creation (), God’s children would now see his face.
the Lord God will give them light. A wide range of Jewish traditions (some of them following ) portrayed the righteous as shining with glory in the future era.
Because ancient writers often bracketed their writings or portions of their writings, the echos of in , of in , and of (“I, John”) in inform the hearers that the book is nearly at an end.
Do not seal up the words of the prophecy. God instructed Daniel to seal up his prophecy (, ), because the time of the end was a long time away (; ; ). By contrast, Revelation must remain unsealed; indeed, some events had already begun (see notes on ; see also the article “
Let the one who does wrong continue to do wrong. In the end time, the wicked would continue in their wickedness (). In practice, however, God is not inviting anyone to continue in rebellion; rather the language is ironic, serving the rhetorical function of challenging their unrepentance, as sometimes in the Prophets (; ; ; cf. ).
I am coming soon! My reward is with me. In ; , God comes and his reward is with him; Revelation applies this divine description to the Lord Jesus (cf. v. ; ). give to each person according to what they have done. Fits the expectation of the OT (; ; ) and Jewish teaching; this divine role is here applied to Jesus.
Jesus is still speaking here, as in v. (and v. ); the divine titles here (cf. ; ; ) belong to him (see note on ).
Writers sometimes summarized sections at the end; these verses seems to summarize what precedes.
those who wash their robes . . . may go through the gates into the city. Only the pure () could enter the city’s gates ().
See note on . dogs. Calling someone a “dog” was a common insult in Greek, sometimes with sexual connotations; because of the context in , the NIV translates “dog” in the Hebrew (and Greek) text of as “male prostitute” (see on ). magic arts. May refer to a poisoner, but usually relates to occult practices used by people seeking to harm others by sorcery (see the article “
I am the Root and the Offspring of David, and the bright Morning Star. Jesus is from the root of David (hence of his father Jesse; ). Gentiles viewed the morning star as a deity, but Jesus probably evokes a Messianic title here (). Jewish interpreters often connected texts based on shared key words or concepts. Here the mention of a star links , a verse that mentions a scepter, with , the context of which uses the same Greek term translated “scepter” in . See notes on , .
The Spirit and the bride say. Jewish sources often associated the Spirit with prophetic inspiration (as at times in the OT).
Works that claimed to be inspired sometimes included warnings such as these. Moses warned hearers of the law not to add to or subtract from it (; ); later Jewish writers claimed that the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, was perfect and not to be revised; 1 Enoch threatens with damnation those who alter any prophetic words (1 Enoch 108:6).
God will add to that person the plagues described in this scroll. Fits Biblical and ancient Jewish expectations (, ).
Come, Lord Jesus. Probably a familiar prayer; in Aramaic it is Marana tha ().