Chapter 144 of 379

Kim Walton

Pool of Siloam at southern end of the City of David.

Kim Walton

Return to

Naturally, the defenses of Jerusalem had to be repaired and strengthened in anticipation of Assyrian efforts to take the city. There was also a need to balance the demands for more housing by the people of Judah who had fled to Jerusalem for protection and the all-important defense of the city. As a result, the area between the city’s dual wall system was cleared of all temporary shelters to provide a “killing ground” should the Assyrians penetrate the outer defenses. This area was also partially flooded to make it more difficult to transverse and to add to the city’s water supply.

Lower Pool. Jerusalem’s water supply was vulnerable to enemy attack, since it lay outside the city wall and was limited in scope for an area of its size (see note on ). Hezekiah sought to secure it from attack and siege. The intermittently running Gihon spring lay in the valley just east of David’s city. It was joined by aqueducts and a tunnel of some 1,300 feet (400 meters) in length to other locations, including the Pool of Shiloh, the “Lower Pool” of this verse. The tunnel has an inscription above one end that details the arduous digging task. It describes two digging teams working toward each other following a circuitous route. See the article “

”

sackcloth. A coarse, black goat’s hair fabric () worn against the skin as a sign of mourning. See the article “

”

palace administrator. This position may have evolved from a relatively insignificant post into that of a chamberlain, in charge of all of the affairs of the palace in Uzziah’s time. There is precedent for this title in Ugaritic and Phoenician texts and it would be comparable to the position of vizier in the Egyptian court. Shebna, called “palace administrator” here, is called “secretary” in . The possibility exists that Shebna was addressed by various titles during his career, depending on his current assignment. One would expect, however, that as palace administrator he would have been the preeminent adviser and facilitator for the king. If he is referred to by a lesser title in Hezekiah’s reign, then it may be surmised that he had been demoted.

hewing . . . and chiseling your resting place in the rock. The valleys and slopes around Jerusalem contain a large number of tombs hewn from the native limestone cliffs. Among them, on the slope of Silwan, is a tomb containing a partial inscription and the title asher al habbayit, the same phrase used in v. to describe the position once held by Shebna. The lack of a name in this inscription makes it impossible to tie it conclusively to Shebna. Isaiah’s rebuke of this official is based on the extravagance of constructing an individual tomb rather than utilizing a communal cave or hewn mortuary chamber within the confines of his family holdings. These more traditional tombs included shelves for internment of the bodies, lamp niches, as well as a recessed pit for disposal of bones when the shelves were needed for fresh burials. Only the very wealthy could afford to carve an individual chamber, perhaps incorporating Phoenician or Egyptian design.

roll . . . up tightly like a ball. An exact translation of this comparison is tentative at best, since the Hebrew term translated “roll . . . up tightly” occurs only here in the Bible. The only other known case of this word is in the Canaanite Baal Cycle, where the goddess Anath is slaughtering people and their heads are piled under her like balls.

Eliakim. The name of this official, which means “May El establish,” has been found on seal impressions from Tell Beit Mirsim, Beth Shemesh, and Ramat Rahel. He served as one who is over the house, the palace administrator, under king Hezekiah (see ; ; ) and therefore would be expected to affix his official seal to many documents. The seal impression containing the name Eliakim appears on a large collection of jar handles that date to the period of Hezekiah’s reign. The Iron Age Lachish Stratum III, dated to 701 BC, is the most important of the sites where these handles have been found. It is likely that Eliakim’s seal appears on these jars as a part of his regular duties, managing palace stores and distributing oil and wine to royal fortress sites like Lachish.

robe. This long tunic was worn by both genders and was also part of the priestly regalia. In the latter case, such tunics were items of value, important gifts. Correspondence regarding trade and transport of such garments is well documented in fifth-century BC Aramaic texts from the Jewish colony at Elephantine in Egypt. father. A leader is not regularly designated as “father” in the OT, but is so in texts of Israel’s neighbors. The Phoenician king Kilamuwa in the late ninth century BC identifies himself as father to some and as mother or brother to others.

key. The relatively tiny locks used to secure our doors today require a very small key. However, in the Biblical period, locks were quite large and required a correspondingly large and heavy bronze or iron key (see the article “

”). When Eliakim is given this key, its size and probably its elaborate decoration would serve as a visible symbol of his authority to lock and unlock the rooms and gates of the palace in Jerusalem. This is also known as one of the functions of the Egyptian vizier.

, peg. Eliakim’s installation into office is metaphorically compared to a peg, either in the ground as a tent peg (e.g., ) or on a wall, to which things may be safely attached (; ). The metaphor highlights fixity and security, which will prove illusory.

The eighth century BC is a time of commercial and political expansion for the Phoenicians. A colonial empire is established, with Carthage as the principal city in the western Mediterranean (founded by Dido about 814 BC). The degree to which the Phoenicians of the island city of Tyre and of Sidon operated freely depends in this period on the extent of Assyrian influence over them. Adadnirari III (810–783 BC) received tribute from them, but no significant Assyrian pressure is applied until the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III (744–727 BC). The Assyrian king skillfully played on the fear of Tyre’s expanding commercial empire to gain alliances with the city-states on Cyprus. He also forced Tyre to pay a huge amount annually (evidence of which is found in Assyrian tribute lists) to save themselves from military invasion. The wealth of Tyre was legendary (; ); in order to defend it, Tyre’s king Lulli forced the Cypriot states to submit to him. This brought on a five-year siege of Tyre by Shalmaneser V (726–722 BC) and his successor Sargon II (721–705 BC). Some attempts were made by Lulli to negotiate an end of the hostilities since the Assyrians occupied all of the Tyrian mainland. However, when Lulli again revolted at the time of Sennacherib’s accession, the Assyrians forced Lulli to flee to Cyprus and installed Ittobaal over the Sidonian kingdom.

Tyre and Sidon continued to vacillate in their allegiance to Assyria after the time of Isaiah throughout the seventh century BC. In response to the Phoenician alliance with the Ethiopian Tirhakah of the Egyptian Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, Assyrian armies repeatedly invaded the coastal region around Tyre and Sidon, devastating towns and villages and placing increasing pressure on the port cities to submit to Assyrian rule. Finally, in 677 BC, Esarhaddon utterly destroyed Sidon, parading the head of its ruler, Abdimilkutte, in Nineveh. Severe diplomatic restrictions were placed on Baal I of Tyre in an effort to prevent him from aiding the Egyptians. Ashurbanipal (667–627 BC) also records dealing with anti-Assyrian rulers in Syro-Palestine. After crushing the Egyptians and destroying their capital at Thebes in 663 BC, Ashurbanipal installed a native Egyptian, Psammetichus I, as ruler of Lower Egypt. He then brought his army back up the coast to punish Baal I and the Phoenicians. He completely stripped Tyre of its autonomy, transforming all of Phoenicia into an Assyrian province and taking full control of the shipping trade that had been the basis of Phoenician wealth and independence. However, after Ashurbanipal’s death, Tyre regained its supremacy in Mediterranean trade.

ships of Tarshish. The tonnage required for a merchant ship to make a profit and be seaworthy enough to ply the waters of either the Mediterranean or the Red Sea required skillful building practices. Since the “ships of Tarshish” are often mentioned in relation to trade mission (e.g., ; ), there must have been a particular type of ship involved. It is possible that they were constructed in Tarshish, but it may be that they were named for their ability to sail as far as Tarshish in the western Mediterranean. Assyrian reliefs and the bronze gate covers of Shalmaneser III from Balawat depict these ships being used for military transport as well as carrying cargoes of tribute taken from their many vassals. A relief found in the palace at Nineveh depicts the flight of Lulli, ruler of Sidon, to Cyprus. Among the ships in his fleet are tubby-looking merchantmen with a row of shields along the hull, and two levels of oarsmen (a bireme) on either side to aid the ship’s movement when the sails were becalmed.

fortress of the sea. Tyre was originally founded around 2750 BC on a sandstone reef about 600 yards (550 meters) off the coast of southern Lebanon. Its occupied area was enlarged in the tenth century BC when Hiram I used fill to connect the older city with a nearby reef. It must have looked like a city floating on the sea to ship masters as they approached. No army was successful in capturing the city until Alexander the Great, who built a causeway from the mainland and destroyed it in 332 BC. However, Tyre was not totally self-sufficient. Its vulnerability was shown when its sister city of Ushu was captured by the Assyrians. As a result, a vassal treaty was signed in the time of Esarhaddon that reflects Tyre’s capitulation even to having an Assyrian official present whenever the king read diplomatic correspondence.

report from Tyre. The exact time period or event described here is unclear. It could be referring to any number of events that would have dismayed the Egyptians and represented the cessation of trade and the elimination of an important political ally. Possible occasions include the Assyrian incursion into Phoenicia by Sennacherib in 701 BC or the destruction of Sidon in 677 BC by Esarhaddon. Some commentators also suggest a much later period when Sidon was conquered by the Persian king Artaxerxes III (c. 345 BC) or even Alexander the Great’s capture of Tyre in 332 BC. Such a late date, however, requires either a prophetic vision of an event long after Isaiah’s time or the removal of this passage completely from its Isaianic context, making it a later editor’s addition.

Tarshish. The ambiguity in Biblical and extra-Biblical sources only indicates that Tarshish is to be found to the west of Israel. This would allow for identification with Carthage in North Africa and sites on the southeastern coast of Spain, including Tartessus. There is even some support for identifying it with Ezion Geber in the Gulf of Aqaba. After his defeat of the Egyptians in 677 BC, Esarhaddon claims in his annals to have sovereignty over Cyprus, Greece and Tarshish, i.e., the entire Phoenician commercial empire.

Cyprus. Lies just 76 miles (122 kilometers) off the Syrian coast. It served as a place of refuge for Phoenician kings (Lulli of Tyre escapes to Cyprus under pressure from Sargon II’s Assyrian armies). This prophecy discounts it as a safe haven. If the Phoenicians lose control of Tyre and Sidon, their merchant fleet will become orphans. Their cargoes may either rot or be turned over to the Assyrians.

Assyrian siege tactics are known from inscriptions and reliefs. Supplies were first cut off from an enemy stronghold so that it would capitulate when facing starvation or death from thirst. Fortified cities were also attacked directly. For this, the attackers at times used scaling ladders. As the Lachish reliefs show, soldiers on the walls repelled such attackers by raining down on them arrows, stones or boiling liquids. An offensive priority was thus to drive the defenders off the walls. For this the Assyrians employed siege towers with battering rams in order to break through the wall. A frontal assault on thick walls took a long time, so the tower was run up with a siege ramp in order to knock off the top of the wall, which was more vulnerable.

Siege ramps were made of stone covered with tamped earth angling up the city wall. Since the towers were heavy, they would have sunk into the soft earth and become immobilized, so the ramps were topped by wooded planks to support the weight. The defenders, in the meantime, had countermeasures. Since the towers were made of wood and covered with leather for protection from archers, they were flammable. Defenders threw burning torches down on them, but the attackers doused the resultant fires with large water ladles.

When the defenders had been driven from their positions, the attackers could concentrate on the walls themselves. Rather than using a direct assault, they often used an oblique attack. Sappers or miners would tunnel under the walls, shoring up their excavations with wooden timbers. After the hole was considered large enough, it was filled with dry brush, which was then set on fire. This burned through the supporting timbers, which collapsed, bringing down the wall. The attacking forces could then easily enter the city, taking it captive. ◆

Go to

The Assyrians have made [Babylon] a place for desert creatures. For the historical background of Sennacherib’s capture of Babylon in 689 BC and the exile of the Babylonian leader Marduk-Baladan, see the article “

” In this passage, the destruction of southern Mesopotamia’s major city is cited as an example of Tyre’s ultimate fate at the hands of the Assyrians.

seventy years. There are several instances in the Prophets where “seventy years” becomes a term of exile or punishment (e.g., ; ; ). There is also a sense of completion in this number, suggesting that Tyre and the Phoenicians are in God’s hands and will not be allowed to prosper again until divine judgment is fulfilled. In fact, for much of the seventh century BC Tyre will be dormant, as a succession of strong Assyrian rulers control both the city and its commercial activities. There is a brief resurgence after the destruction of Nineveh in 612 BC, but Tyre will be besieged for 13 years by the Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar, severely limiting its contacts with the mainland. The Persians exercised control over the Phoenician ports as well, with Artaxerxes III burning Sidon in 345 BC after they had joined an Egyptian-inspired revolt. Tyre’s destruction by Alexander the Great in 332 BC followed a seven-month siege and effectively ended the independence of the city.

This “song of the prostitute” (v. ) describes the pitiful condition of Tyre after Yahweh’s judgment of the city, which is compared to an aged prostitute who must now walk the streets singing to advertise her profession and attract customers, who no longer are willing to come to her door. The tune and coupleted lyrics were probably part of the raucous culture of Mediterranean seaports that catered to sailors on leave.

The litany of destruction found in this city lament parallels the style contained in the Sumerian Lament Over the Destruction of Ur as well as other ancient Near Eastern expressions of grief over fallen cities (see the article “

”). Among the common comparisons that can be made are the descriptions of utter desolation, the fact that no person of any rank has been spared, and the failure of nature to provide what had previously nurtured the people. The Sumerian lament speaks of devastating winds, drought, famine, and bodies piled in the streets unburied. The twentieth-century BC Egyptian Prophecies of Neferti also depict a land laid bare and cursed by the disappearance of the sun and the drying up of the life-sustaining canals. The prophecies of Balaam (non-Biblical prophecies preserved in an Aramaic text found at Deir ‘Alla and dating to 700 BC) describe angry gods who “lock up the heavens,” turning every creature into a scavenger and forcing even princes to wear rags and priests to “smell of sweat.”

snare. See notes on ; . The floodgates of the heavens are opened. See note on ; see also the article “

”

shut up in prison. The context may refer to imprisoned foreign kings, though they were usually executed or exiled. Thus, this phrase likely refers to “powers in the heavens” opposed to God (v. ). Cyrus speaks of allowing the gods of Sumer and Akkad to return to their homes from their captivity under Nabonidus in Babylon (see note on regarding imprisoned gods).

the LORD Almighty will reign . . . in Jerusalem. People in the ancient Near East understood deities having special interest in different towns and cities. Yahweh rules in Zion just as Marduk does in Babylon. Divine ties to specific locations are physically demonstrated by the dedication of temples to them, which serve the gods in a way similar to the function of a palace for a king.

banquet. Royalty and people of means sponsored banquets to honor victories and special occasions. The gods also did this, especially when one of them was enthroned. Though these banquets are for the gods, the people would join in the feasting when the enthronement was celebrated annually.

destroy the shroud . . . the sheet . . . he will swallow up death. Among some of Israel’s neighbors “Death” (mwt) was a god, and there is evidence of its personification in the OT as well (e.g., ). See the articles “

” “

”

Resurrection is most familiar in the ancient Near East in Egyptian literature, where there is an expectation that the body may be reunited with the person’s ba (includes the mind and public persona) and ka (the self). This is nothing like any concept found in the OT or in Christian theology. Resurrection in the OT may be viewed in three different categories. First, there is resurrection that represents the return to life of an individual. Several OT passages refer to such an occurrence (; ; ). Second, there is the doctrine of individual resurrection of the body in the afterlife; what we might call “eschatological” resurrection. Third, we could speak of a corporate resurrection: a people being brought back into existence from apparent extinction. This last is represented in Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of the dry bones, where Israel is brought back to life as a nation (). The first and third types of resurrection are demonstrably within the beliefs of ancient Israel, but the second is not so clear. Passages such as this one, and especially , offer the statements most easily connected to eschatological resurrection.

One important observation is that must be understood in contrast to , where much of the same terminology is used. There the dead of the lords that used to exercise power over Israel are not expected to rise; rather, they have been punished and brought to ruin. then has a corporate sense to it that concerns restoration of a group to life in this world. In the author begins to contrast the prosperity brought to the nation Israel. This would lead to the conclusion that the passage is concerned with national resurrection (the third type of resurrection mentioned above), as is.

is the only passage to speak forthrightly about differing destinies for the righteous and the wicked. But we must not jump too quickly to standard Christian doctrine of the resurrection. A few observations would be in order. First, says “many” (NIV “multitudes”) will awake, not “all”; so this is not a general resurrection. Second, speaks of those who sleep in “the land of dust” (NIV “the dust of the earth”). This is the only occurrence of this phrase in the OT, but since it refers specifically to a “land” and since Sheol is often connected with dust (e.g., ), one could deduce that it is a reference to Sheol, the netherworld (see the articles “

” “

”). If this is the case, both classes of individuals are to be found in Sheol. Third, the phrase translated “everlasting life” in occurs only here in the OT, but similar phrases occur (in Greek) in pseudepigraphic literature such as 1 Enoch and the Sibylline Oracles. In these contexts it is equated to periods such as 500 years (1 Enoch 10:10). Fourth, we must observe that conveys nothing concerning the place of resurrection; i.e., it does not speak of lasting life in heaven nor of lasting contempt in any particular locale. In fact, it does not clarify whether the resurrection to which it refers is an afterlife condition or a restoration to life on earth. Additionally, it does not indicate what criteria qualify an individual for one category or the other.

The author of Daniel anticipates that numerous individuals will be brought back to life (). He does not indicate whether they will be brought back to life in this world, though OT does not speak clearly of any bodily existence in a world to come in any passage. In this resurrected life they will enjoy an extension to their life (as a reward for their faithfulness?) or will suffer ongoing humiliation (as punishment for their treachery?).

For Daniel, judgment is the prelude to the reconstitution of the nation. mentions the registering of the citizens of new Israel. The resurrected righteous of are not isolated individuals; they are raised to participate in this new nation. The dead apostates are raised so that their bodies can be exposed in the Valley of Ben Hinnom (cf. , ; see also the article “

”).

While , a relatively late passage, exceeds any other statements in the OT, it remains quite basic and does not approach the fully developed doctrine of the NT. While the precise shape of Israel’s doctrine is difficult to define and various interpreters arrive at vastly different conclusions, most would agree that the Israelite doctrine of resurrection should not be equated with the doctrine as eventually formulated in NT theology and in church history. ◆

Go to

dew. The only source of moisture in the drier parts of the year for areas of Israel. The Canaanite inhabitants of Ugarit understood it as coming from Baal. Egyptian texts describe the dew as the “tears of Horus and Thoth,” containing the power of resurrection.

Leviathan. See note on ; see also the articles “

” “

” “

” Ugaritic and Canaanite myth contain detailed descriptions of a chaos beast, representing the seas or watery anarchy, in the form of a many-headed, twisting sea serpent. There is a close affinity between the description of Leviathan in Isaiah as a “coiling serpent” and the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, which speaks of how the storm-god Baal “smote Litan [i.e., Leviathan] the twisting serpent.” In both cases there is a sense of the God of order and fertility vanquishing a chaos monster. Several other passages in the OT mention Leviathan, but most of them (e.g., ; ) speak in terms of God’s creative act that establishes control over watery chaos (personified by the sea serpent). Here, however, that struggle between order and chaos occurs at the end of time. It may be that the fall of Satan, portrayed as a seven-headed dragon in , also echoes the Ugaritic image of Litan as “the tyrant with seven heads.” monster of the sea. See the article “

” The battle between sea and dry land is not only literally visible but also found in mythological texts. Many references place the serpent/dragon in the context of the sea. In the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, Baal confronts the sea itself (Yamm); in the Egyptian “Instruction of Merikare,” a deity subdues the “water monster” as part of the creative activity; and in the Akkadian creation epic Enuma Elish, Tiamat, a sea goddess in dragon form, is defeated by Marduk. Here it is Yahweh who will be triumphant. While he is said to use a ferocious sword, the text highlights God’s triumph over any ferocious enemy.

I guard it. As Yahweh guards the vineyard, so in the Ugaritic tale of Dawn and Dusk one god is called “guard of the sown,” and another is “guard of the vineyard.”

limestone. Limestone is crushed to produce a chalky substance that can be used for mortar as a liming agent in cesspits and to seal stone walls with a type of “white wash.” For altar stones to be crushed in this manner is to completely extinguish their sacred nature. Asherah poles. See notes on ; . incense altars. See note on .

thresh. To separate the grain from its encasing husk (see note on ). from the flowing Euphrates to the Wadi of Egypt. This designates the idealized empire of Israel (; cf. ).

trumpet. Made out of a ram’s horn and used to announce God’s appearance in a theophany, to summon worshipers for holy days and ceremonies, and also to warn of an approaching enemy (see note on ). This particular trumpet summons exiles back to worship God in their native land.

wreath. While this term can refer to a garland or crown of gold or silver, as it does in Akkadian documents, here it refers to one made of a more transitory substance: flowers formed into a garland. It, like the city of Samaria for which it stands at the head of Ephraim (), will soon fade away (). Instead of being a symbol of splendor and blessing (e.g., ), it will vanish before the Assyrian onslaught against Israel/Ephraim in 722 BC.

The appearance of God in self-disclosure, called a theophany, is always an event of great import. Here his power is shown not through the customary noisy thunder and trumpet blast but through the destructive power of a “destructive wind” and “driving rain.” There is ambiguity of these phenomena in a marginal climate where water is desperately needed, but their excess can destroy. The deity, like the king himself, was personally involved in military activity.

battle at the gate. The city gate was usually the most vulnerable area of a city’s defense; therefore, it needed special attention. See notes on ; ; ; .

stagger from wine. See notes on ; . Alcohol use was common in the ancient Near East, so inebriation was sometimes seen positively and other times negatively. The Egyptian Admonitions of Ipuwer state that in times of joy, it is good when people get drunk. The “Instruction of Any” takes the opposite view, one closer to that of Isaiah, as it advises not to get drunk lest what you say gets you into trouble.

cornerstone for a sure foundation. See note on . A building stands or falls based on the solidness of its foundation (see ), and the cornerstone is what aligns and founds it. As the first stone laid, everything else needs to square to it. Laying the foundation also has important symbolism, and kings took part in a special ceremony. In Mesopotamia, foundation inscriptions often were inscribed on either bricks or tablets buried in the foundation, dedicating the building to a deity or lauding the building king. Here it is Zion, residence of God and repository of his expectations for Israel, that is to align its national life to his cornerstone and upon whose solidity the people can depend.

Mount Perazim. Where David defeated the Philistines (). It is near Jerusalem, and its elevation provided a tactical advantage over the enemy moving in the valley below. Valley of Gibeon. Joshua successfully fought the Amorites at Gibeon, which is situated on a small hill above surrounding fields near Jerusalem, a site identified with el-Jib.

plows . . . breaking up and working the soil. Since agriculture was central to the existence of most people in this period, it is well represented in texts and pictures. Plowing late in the year loosened the soil to accept seed. Some crops were seeded by throwing (“broadcasting”; e.g., dill and cumin), while others were planted more carefully by seed drills to keep crop types separated from each other. An Akkadian seal shows a wooden plow being pulled by two oxen.

His God instructs him. Farming is here not something easily come by; rather it needs divine guidance. The Sumerians also had “farmer’s instructions,” which, according to its colophon, was given by Ninurta, the “farmer of Enlil,” to help humans in this endeavor.

, , Ariel. Designating all or part of Jerusalem, Ariel is related to God’s “altar hearth” (v. ), which is the top of the altar on which the fire was laid. The same term appears in the Mesha Inscription, where Mesha claims to have captured and brought it back from Israel to Moab. This could be an example of metonymy, when a part, the altar surface, stands for the whole, the city in which the altar is located. Ironically, the cultic implement that should purify the people so they could worship God will itself be destroyed for its cultic perfidy.

siege works. See the article “Siege Warfare.”

the LORD Almighty will come. See notes on ; .

besiege. See the article “Siege Warfare.”

sealed your eyes . . . covered your heads. Most likely images of death here, as they are parallel to the “deep sleep” of the first line. Both phrases, however, are used only here and are therefore difficult to decipher.

sealed in a scroll. See notes on ; .

Lebanon. Israel’s northern neighbor; it is famed for its mighty cedar forests (; ). These forests are the habitation of the legendary Humbaba in the Gilgamesh Epic and the destination of Wenamun to get timber in a report from late eleventh-century BC Egypt. These national symbols will be felled, leaving only a field, while the fertile fields such as those on Mount Carmel () will become forested.

Chafing from Assyrian domination, Hezekiah would have been tempted to turn to Egypt, the other major player of the period, for aid. When Thebes was threatened by an incursion from the west, the Egyptians accepted aid from the Ethiopian king Piankhy. Piankhy’s brother and successor, Shabako, encountered Assyrian expansion toward the south. Sargon II moved as far as Philistia, where he had previously encountered and defeated the army of Osorkon IV in 720 BC. Subsequently, Egypt under Shabako developed a more conciliatory stance toward Assyria. This temporary amity could be indicated by two seal impressions of Shabako found at the Assyrian capital of Nineveh.

Shabako turned against Assyria at Sargon’s death and the accession of Sargon’s successor, Sennacherib. Shabako’s successor, Shebitku, supported Hezekiah, who faced Assyria at Eltekeh (about 100 miles [160 kilometers] from Egypt’s border), helping to fend off Assyria’s capture of Judah’s capital. Shebitku had brought up from Ethiopia additional troops, including his brother Tirhakah, a future king (). While Judah was ultimately delivered from the immediate Assyrian threat by other means (), Egypt’s power was insufficient to expel Assyria completely, and so Tirhakah and his forces returned home. ◆

Go to

Zoan. See note on . Hanes. Probably Heracleopolis, 60 miles (96 kilometers) south of Cairo and a regional capital during the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. To seek aid, Hezekiah sent envoys to both places, but to no avail.

animals of the Negev. Travel through the Negev and Sinai was by donkey and camel. Dangers from lions and poisonous snakes awaited the unwary. The “adder” is literally a “burning” snake, this one having wings (see note on ; ), perhaps a metaphoric description of its swift, darting attack. This description might also be based on the gecko lizard, some of which can sail along on flaps of skin under their front legs (these are not poisonous, however). Esarhaddon describes a campaign against Egypt during which he encountered serpents and flying creatures.

Rahab. A cosmic sea creature associated with chaos. It seems to have several names or at least is associated with other mythological creatures in the OT; e.g., Leviathan, Yamm (“sea”; cf. ), and “monster” (cf. ). See the article “

”

write it on a tablet . . . inscribe it on a scroll. See the articles “

” “

” “

”

seers . . . prophets. “Seer” is an older term for what became known as a “prophet” (). The term here translated “prophet” is in fact “visionary” (; ). This term is applied to Balaam both in the Bible (, ) as well as outside it. Akkadian also referred to the intermediaries between the divine and humanity by several terms. The ecstatic prophet appeared in Old Babylonian texts from Mari, but the term had decreased in use by the Neo-Assyrian period. Another term used only in Mari texts was the “answerer,” though those with the title are said to come from Babylon and Syria. A later term for “seer” derives from the verb “to shout” and is used by Neo-Assyrian prophets of their divine message. Indirect messages from the gods came by visions and dreams to those designated “visionary” and “questioner.” While prophets who pass messages along directly from the gods also interpret dreams and visions, not all visionaries are considered prophets. During one of Ashurbanipal’s campaigns, e.g., a request is made that the goddess Ishtar would provide his troops with dreams in the night. See the article “

” no more visions. The prophetic message was frequently unwelcome, so prophets were often silenced by force or coercion (cf. Jeremiah). The view that a prophet predicted the future could easily progress to seeing the prophet as speaking the future into being, so silencing them could be seen as averting their dire predictions. This is perhaps why Esarhaddon, a seventh-century BC king of Assyria, made his vassals swear that they would not listen to any negative reports from prophets. In addition to dealing with the prophet, other steps are called for to forestall the prophecy itself through a counterbalancing curse.

a high wall, cracked and bulging . . . will break in pieces like pottery. Given the extensive use of mud brick architecture throughout the ancient Near East, this must have been a common occurrence. Egyptian tomb paintings depict the process from gathering clay, water and straw to shaping the bricks in molds (see note on ). As the bricks weather, they erode and loose stability. If the bricks had only been sun-dried, not fire-hardened in a kiln, then they were subject to crumbling under the weight of a high wall. This would often be manifested first in cracks and bulges and eventually the entire structure would come down in an avalanche of masonry (). To guard against faulty construction and increase the life of the brick walls, Hammurapi’s law code provides strict punishments for careless contractors.

the bread of adversity and the water of affliction. The value of bread and water, the two mainstays of life, are inverted. An incantation from Ugarit against sorcery uses a similar inversion with the curse “You will eat the bread of fasting.”

desecrate your idols . . . and your images . . . throw them away. Destruction or removal of a cultic statue could make the attendant god depart or lose power. Esarhaddon claims in one of his campaigns that “gods and goddesses dwelling within it [the captured town] fled to heaven above like birds,” while Ashurbanipal, destroying temples and statues of Susa, wrote that “their gods, their goddesses I reckoned among the phantoms.” Many inscriptions record destruction or capture of the enemy’s gods. like a menstrual cloth. There could be no more defiling substance than menstrual blood (), and, for the people, no more defiling object than an idol (). Here then, the idols, usually among the most precious objects in the culture, will be treated as the most disgusting piece of trash.

eat fodder and mash, spread out with fork and shovel. Because of the people’s return to covenant obedience, even their draft animals will share in the abundance provided by God. Fodder for animals normally consisted of the remains of the chaff left by the threshing process. A common term for fodder means “small pieces of straw,” which might be mixed with barley. Here, however, the livestock are fed chickpeas that had been specially prepared for them using the wooden shovel and the winnowing fork. Both of these implements helped separate the grain from the chaff and were used to create heaps.

sieve of destruction. The two types of sieves used by Israelite farmers gave them different results. The kebara () had large holes that caught stones and other large objects as the worker shifted it back and forth. The sieve in this passage, the napa, had smaller holes and was used to separate out the smaller items from the grain through a swift up-and-down motion. This makes an excellent metaphor for God’s act of judgment.

music of timbrels and harps. See the article “

” his arm. The arm, especially the right arm, symbolized power and strength. See notes on ; .

Topheth. This was the place in the Hinnom Valley of Jerusalem where the Molek cult was practiced (see note on ). burning sulfur. Finely ground sulfur can increase the intensity and brightness of a fire. It may be this property that has made it a symbol of God’s wrath, as in the case of Sodom (). In this image of Assyria’s funeral pyre, it magnifies the power of God to punish the enemy nation. Mixed with salt, sulfur could also rob the soil of fertility, again a sign of God’s extreme displeasure.

lion. Among the largest carnivores in the ancient Near East, it captured the imagination for its ferocity and voracity and appeared regularly in texts and iconography. An Israelite seal on a jar handle depicts a lion attacking a gazelle, as does a late third-millennium BC Akkadian cylinder seal. Lions battle with bulls in ivories from Megiddo and Lachish and attack humans in Late Bronze and Iron Age seals from Israel. Similar motifs are found in Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Syro-Palestinian art. Pharaoh Amenemhet I claims, “I subdued lions, I captured crocodiles,” while Mesopotamian kings exhibit their fearless prowess by facing them in hunting scenes. While being literal hunts, they also had metaphoric, symbolic value, identifying the king with the hunted creature over which he was master. The lion also embodied the warrior-god Ninurta.

The ultimate fate of Assyria is its annihilation as a nation by a coalition of states headed by the Chaldeans of Babylon and the Medes. The Babylonian Chronicle describes how Nineveh falls to an allied army led by Nabopolassar of Babylon and the Median ruler Cyaxares in 612 BC. The final battle, at Carchemish in 605 BC, demonstrated the ability of the Babylonian leader Nebuchadnezzar to totally demoralize the formerly invincible Assyrian shock troops and their Egyptian allies.

These verses form a reversal of the conditions faced by Isaiah in his call narrative in . What changes Israel’s fortunes is the rise of a righteous king who enforces the law and maintains order. Statements such as these are part of the wisdom tradition of the ancient Near East that includes works from Egypt and Mesopotamia on the “just king.” Among them is the Egyptian tale of the Eloquent Peasant, which describes a righteous king as one who is “father to the orphan” and “mother to the motherless.” Similarly, the eighth-century BC Egyptian sage Ankhsheshonq states that “blessed is a city with a just ruler.”

grape harvest . . . harvest of fruit. These two events could be highlighted in a metonymy, where the part represents the whole, so that the entire agricultural process will be thwarted. The time period, early fall, may indicate a time just prior to the rainy season, when marauding troops found it harder to carry out their campaigns (cf. ).

wrap yourselves in rags . . . Beat your breasts . . . mourn. See the article “

”

abandoned . . . deserted . . . a wasteland. In the Lament Over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur from the late third millennium BC, part of the lamented destruction is shown by the gods abandoning their temples and towns. One of the reasons for building, maintaining and provisioning temples was to maintain the support of the gods who served there (see ). Should such provisioning cease, so would divine sustenance. A lack of divine support would result in the physical destruction of the city and abandonment by their inhabitants. citadel. This citadel refers to a section of the ridge crest southeast of the temple mount, which was part of the royal administrative area. It most likely specifies the acropolis citadel placed on this strategic height overlooking the city. This term is known from other sites, such as Dibon in the Mesha Inscription, where the Moabite king describes his fortification efforts. This area of a city needs special protection, particularly if it holds the king’s residence. This hub of political life will be abandoned. watchtower. This Hebrew term is used only here in the Bible and is etymologically related to the “siege towers” of . Based on those discovered archaeologically, the towers usually had rectangular, heavy stone foundations not only to support their height but also to withstand attack. Towers have been found at Giloh (near Jerusalem), Ashdod, Shechem and Edom. These mighty, protective features will themselves be laid waste.

locusts. See note on .

the fear of the LORD. Fear in this case is not a distressing emotion from facing pain or evil, but rather the reverence and awe before a superior. This is a desired response to one’s ruler, whether divine or human. An Akkadian proverb makes this positive element clear: “Reverence gives birth to goodness.” A lack of awe and reverence is undesirable, leading to destruction. Ashurbanipal executed Ahsheri, whom he describes as “one not fearing my lordship.”

treaty. Treaties are formal agreements between two or more parties with expectations for performance from both sides, each looking after the welfare of the other. Most Biblical mentions of “covenant” or “treaty” refer to the one between Israel and her God. See the articles “

” “

” “

” witnesses. Those deities expected to bring about the punishments called for if the covenant was broken (). In despising such gods, one is denying either their power or their interest in the treaty.

Lebanon . . . Sharon . . . Bashan . . . Carmel. These four geographic areas, moving from north to south, are particularly fertile in an area surrounded by deserts.

chief officer . . . the one who took the revenue . . . the officer in charge of the towers. The first of these is simply a general designation (“officer”), possibly for someone associated with taxation, as is the second, the “weigher”; both of these measured incoming precious metals, coins and commodities. The third appears to be in charge of fortifications; his relationship with the former two is unclear. These are examples of administrative bureaucracy that played an important role in the administration of both court and cult among Israel’s neighbors, especially those who had sizable empires.

obscure . . . strange and incomprehensible. While the Israelites undoubtedly spoke Hebrew as their home language, these foreign officials, if Assyrian, would have spoken Akkadian, or if they were from other parts of the Assyrian Empire, they would have had other home languages. Aramaic was the diplomatic, international language of the empire, with correspondence during the seventh century BC between Babylonia and Assyria taking place at least once in Aramaic. The discernible differences between dialects spoken among the Israelites (e.g., ) would have been noticed by these imported officials and probably derided, if indeed Aramaic is understood here. Though not the Israelites’ native tongue, Aramaic and Hebrew were closely enough allied that the Israelites could have understood either. If Akkadian is meant here, the linguistic distance between that East Semitic language and the West Semitic Hebrew would have made them mutually incomprehensible—actually removed “from hearing,” as the term “obscure” here is literally translated.

stakes. See note on , .

galley with oars . . . ship . . . sail. Though the Israelites were not a seafaring people, they did use the sea to some extent (). Israel’s neighbors, both Egypt and Mesopotamia, relied more on seagoing and river vessels not only for trade but also for military activity. They used oared craft that could also have sails. An eighth-century BC Hebrew seal also shows a sailing ship, most probably on the Mediterranean or the Sea of Galilee, but Zion/Jerusalem, situated on the highlands and far from any water body sufficient to allow such craft, could not depend on them for protection.

judge . . . lawgiver . . . king. Various ancient Near Eastern deities fulfill these functions for different ethnic groups. Canaanite El is king for the Canaanites, and numerous Mesopotamian deities are so identified. Several Mesopotamian gods, including Adad (the storm-god) and Shamash (the sun-god), are judges. They are accredited not with dispensing laws but with acting justly and providing kings the wherewithal to promulgate just laws.

rigging . . . mast . . . sail. A similar boat metaphor is known from an Assyrian elegy about a woman who died in childbirth. She is described as a boat that is adrift with its mooring rope cut and the seat where the oarsman would sit broken. Here Israel is portrayed in a similar state of destitution.

stars . . . will be dissolved . . . starry host will fall. Always in command of all creation, Yahweh shows mastery over the heavens and celestial bodies, causing their brightness to be snuffed out in a reversal of creation. Prominent astral motifs in the Mesopotamian religion included the idea that the gods were given stations within the heavens and their “astral likenesses” marked the zones of the calendrical year (e.g., in the Babylonian Enuma Elish creation epic). In the celestial omens, the disappearing of a star or planet suggested that the related deity had suffered defeat in battle. Astral deities were considered among the most prominent and powerful of the gods. The dissolving of the stars and the fall of the starry host are therefore related. Both the natural manifestation and the deity connected to it are overcome in this act of judgment. Additionally, dream omens in Mesopotamia hold that the observation of stars falling is a bad omen. In the destruction described in the Mesopotamian epic “Erra and Ishum,” Erra says that he will make planets shed their splendor and will wrench stars from the sky. heavens rolled up like a scroll. Most often the heavens are compared to a canopy () or a tent () that is spread over the earth. This image in Isaiah of the whole panorama of the sky being rolled up like a parchment scroll is unique in the Hebrew Bible (see the NT parallel in ). Additionally, the three major Babylonian gods are represented not by stars but by the sky itself. Anu is the sky-god, and the horizon is divided into three paths (connected to Anu, Enlil and Ea). Therefore, rolling up the sky is an act of judgment against the three main deities of the ancient world.

Edom. See notes on (“Dumah”); ; .

Bozrah. The Edomite capital on the site of what is now Buseira on the north-south King’s Highway (see note on ) at its junction with a major east-west route some 20 miles (32 kilometers) south of the Dead Sea. Proximity to copper mines added to its wealth. It is a natural stronghold, surrounded by steep valleys. Excavations have uncovered a building with a courtyard similar to those of the Neo-Assyrian period, indicating that it was occupied during this period of Isaiah. Remains also indicate continued occupation into the Babylonian/Persian periods.

burning sulfur. See note on . pitch. The association of this Hebrew word with other, petroleum-based terms (bitumen, natural asphalt) suggests that “pitch,” a tree resin, is an inappropriate translation. Smearing hot bitumen on the head of one who brought a false legal claim was a punishment in Old Babylonian texts. Here an entire land is to be so punished.

owl . . . jackals . . . Desert creatures . . . wild goats. See note on . The specific identity of each bird is unclear, but such groupings of birds and other desert animals suggest that the inhabited area will become desolate. The Lament Over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur bemoans the ruined city becoming a place not of humans but of foxholes.

night creatures. This is the sole Biblical occurrence of the Hebrew word lilit. It derives from the feminine Akkadian word lilitu, which itself derives from Sumerian líl (“wind”), so in that literature this word likely refers to some wind or storm demon. In scholarly analysis it is interesting that the discussion moves from Akkadian to rabbinic and patristic literatures (where there is clear continuity). It remains possible that Isaiah refers to a spirit; but in the context, lilit is not acting in any of the ways that demons operate in Mesopotamia, but instead is associated with creatures (who are not spirits) in liminal areas. Without more information we must suspend further specific identification.

Carmel. See note on . Sharon. A plain on the Mediterranean coast running about 30 miles (48 kilometers) north from the Yarkon River. It was conquered by Thutmose III and Amenhotep II, and people from there are mentioned by Mesha in the Moabite Stone. Two of its areas, Dor and Joppa, are mentioned on the fifth-century BC sarcophagus of Eshmunazar of Sidon. the glory of the LORD. See the article “

”

lion . . . ravenous beast. See notes on ; ; .

those the LORD has rescued. It is in Yahweh’s hand to free those held in captivity or slavery. An Akkadian text asserts, “To free the captive, Shamash, is in your power”—though more commonly this was done by a wealthy family member or by rulers. By doing this, the redeemer shows not only compassion for those suffering this fate, but also his power to be able to release them from it.

field commander. See note on .

palace administrator. See notes on ; . secretary. See notes on ; . recorder. The Hebrew (mazkir) is lit. “one who reminds,” a secretary, an important role in palace administration. The term is used on a Moabite seal from the mid-first millennium BC. In the Assyrian Eponym List, an identification of successive years by the name and office of important officials, 741 BC is associated with Bel-Harran-Belu-Utsur, “palace herald,” the equivalent of this term. See note on .

the great king. A common title of Assyrian royalty, used even by Sennacherib in his own inscriptions. king of Assyria. The title “king of Assyria and Babylonia” is also well attested. On what are you basing this confidence . . . ? Israel is to put her trust in Yahweh, her God (), but the Assyrians mock them for trusting what they view as a powerless god. Tiglath-Pileser I writes: “At the beginning of my kingship, 20,000 Mushkean men and five of their kings . . . trusted in their own strength . . . With trust in Ashur, my lord, I really inflicted a defeat on them.” The Assyrian view of history was that events on earth reflected those in heaven. The Egyptians’ powerlessness to aid Israel derives from the weakness of their gods, and Yahweh himself has lost power if Judah’s own king can remove his shrines.

you are depending on Egypt, that splintered reed of a staff. A rod or staff needed strength in order to provide weight-bearing support. A reed, which is pliable, cannot supply needed support, and can supply even less support if it is broken (see ). Sargon made this same claim concerning the king of Ashdod who sought to lead the kings of Palestine, Judah, Edom and Moab away from following Assyria: “To Piru, king of Egypt, a ruler unable to save them, they brought their greeting gifts [see ], they repeatedly pestered him (to be their) ally.”

high places and altars Hezekiah removed. Destruction of a temple or deportation of a divine statue removed the deity’s influence over that area. It meant that this god was so ineffective that he could not even look after his own interests. The Assyrian military leader claims that a king who neglects or opposes a god will suffer that god’s displeasure, even as far as losing his position. Cyrus made the same claim, saying that neglecting worship led the gods to turn Babylon over to him.

Please speak . . . in Aramaic. See note on .

drink water from your own cistern. Cisterns, artificial water reservoirs cut into bedrock, were important for a people without a steady and certain water supply. Public cisterns were supplemented by private ones for those of sufficient means to dig one. This propaganda promises this advantage to everyone.

tore his clothes and put on sackcloth. See the article “

”

Tirhakah. Tirhakah (Taharqa) was the third king of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (Ethiopian). A prodigious builder during his initial years of relative peace, he also campaigned to the north, encountering Sennacherib and Esarhaddon and their armies. The latter probably viewed Egypt as the instigator of unrest among their vassals in Syro-Palestine. Tirhakah was forced to flee to Thebes, where he subsequently died.

Rezeph. A city on the Euphrates River north of Palmyra; a governor of Rasappa (Rezeph) is mentioned in the Assyrian Eponym List for 803 BC.

Hezekiah . . . read it. Hezekiah is said to have read, while Sennacherib is said to have heard (v. , NIV “received”). The relative difficulty of the writing systems of the two languages made Hebrew, with 22 letters, more accessible, while Akkadian, with hundreds of different signs, was inaccessible to most officials. Ashurbanipal is among the few rulers who could boast of bilingual literacy, reading texts both in Sumerian and Akkadian. For the most part, messengers carried communications that, while often written, were orally delivered to the recipient. See the article “

”

enthroned between the cherubim. Akkadian kuribu are protective deities represented by figures combining human, animal and bird characteristics. Such figures appear frequently in ancient Near Eastern iconography of Assyria and Syro–Palestine. They and other protective beings flanked doorways and also were carved on each side of thrones, symbolizing their protection of the enthroned ruler. Warad-Sin (1834–1823 BC) wrote of building his throne with a pair of protective guardians set up on either side of it. Yahweh, sitting between them, occupied the true, universal throne, superior to that of any Assyrian opponent. See note on .

open your eyes, LORD. In a call for divine attention, an Aramaic treaty inscription from mid-eighth century BC Sefire, speaking to all the deities, calls: “Open your eyes to gaze upon the treaty.”

I have ascended the heights of the mountains, the utmost heights of Lebanon. I have cut down its tallest cedars, the choicest of its junipers. The power of conquering a distant country with its mighty trees is a motif used by Assyrian kings to glorify themselves. Shalmaneser III wrote that he went up to the Amanus Mountains (in western Syria) and “cut down cedar wood and juniper wood.”

I will put my hook in your nose and my bit in your mouth. God will treat Assyria like recalcitrant animals, turning the tables on those who treated others similarly. Tukulti-Ninurta I stated metaphorically that he controlled a subjugated land with a bridle. This treatment is also depicted on reliefs, showing that it was literally applied to captive people in addition to animals.

take root below and bear fruit above. The agricultural society of Israel was aware of the relationship between good root and good fruit, often associating the two (e.g., ). Curses written on a fifth-century BC Phoenician sarcophagus against any who might desecrate it include this one: “Let him have neither root below nor fruit above nor form among those living under the sun.”

siege ramp. See the article “Siege Warfare.”

Adrammelek . . . killed him [Sennacherib] with the sword . . . And Esarhaddon his son succeeded him as king. Esarhaddon, Sennacherib’s son and heir, writes of violent conniving to wrest away the throne by unnamed “brothers.” A Babylonian chronicle records that in 681 BC on the 20th day of the month of Tebet, Sennacherib was killed by a son leading a rebellion. An Assyrian letter perhaps mentions the murderer: a son named Arad-Mullissu, a possible variation of Adrammelek. He was Sennacherib’s second son, and he, after the capture and deportation of his older brother, the crown prince, would have expected to inherit the throne. Sennacherib’s grooming of Esarhaddon as his successor may have enraged Arad-Mullissu enough to murder his father in hopes of gaining the throne. land of Ararat. Or Urartu, a mountainous region northwest of Assyria lying between Lakes Van and Urmia in what is now Armenia. Its mountains gave it some measure of protection against repeated Assyrian incursion. In the height of its power in the early eighth century BC, the kingdom of Urartu pushed west, but soon was forced back by Assyrian attacks under Tiglath-Pileser III. Urartu’s relative inaccessibility and geographic distance from the centers of Assyrian power made it a suitable place for fugitives, such as Sennacherib’s assassins, to seek refuge. Esarhaddon. Though the youngest of Sennacherib’s sons, he was designated Sennacherib’s heir just prior to his death. Since this was an unpopular move among his brothers, he left the area for Cilicia until after the murder of his father. He then returned and took the throne after a civil war. He led campaigns against Egypt under Tirhakah, which means he traversed Judah, but no Biblical mention is made of him turning against Judah itself. Judah under Manasseh was his vassal and provided him service. He died in 669 BC, but not before securing the position of his heir designate, Ashurbanipal, so Ashurbanipal would not have to contend with pretenders as he had.

you are going to die; you will not recover. A lack of parallel to this kind of statement to a king elsewhere derives from the understanding of a prophet’s role. Professional prophets received a livelihood from the palace and were loath to jeopardize it. Rituals and incantations were also available to subvert the projected calamity.

I will add fifteen years to your life. As patrons of individuals as well as nations, gods were to look after their well-being, as people reminded them in prayers and petitions. Shalmaneser III erected a statue in honor of Adad and prayed that the god might look on the statue favorably and as a result would remove diseases from the king and grant him long life.

This genre of psalm is well known, being a natural response of gratitude for physical help. Sin-Iddinam, a king of Larsa, wrote a similar letter-prayer to his patron goddess. It begins with a salutation, identifying the god being petitioned, an element not found here, since there is only one to whom Hezekiah might pray. Then follows the writer’s complaint (cf. ), remembering illness and danger and protesting his innocence (cf. ). The sufferer then prays for help (cf. ) by the mercy of the god. A final praise for healing in Isaiah () is paralleled by the concluding request by a rival king: “Let him live!”

Individual prayers are rare in both the Bible and its environment, since written documentation mainly concerns those with power, such as the king, as in both of these examples. ◆

A prayer letter from an Assyrian army commander to the god Shamash, asking for an oracle concerning a military campaign. The genre of the “prayer letter” was common in Sumerian and Akkadian literature. is also recorded as a similar “writing” or letter.

Go to

gates of death. See the articles “

” “

”

see the LORD. Hezekiah does not view seeing the Lord as an afterlife experience. Seeing the Lord involved worshiping in the temple and enjoying the Lord’s favor. See the article “The Old Testament Concept of Resurrection.”

shepherd’s tent. The shepherd moved frequently from place to place and therefore could break camp quickly. rolled up . . . cut me off from the loom. The weaver worked on a horizontal loom that had the threads and material stretched on bars between stakes. When it had to be moved, the bars could simply be pulled off the stakes and rolled up. When the weaver was finished with a piece of cloth, the threads that connected the material to the loom had to be cut. The weaving of Hezekiah’s life had been completed, and he was now to be cut loose from the land of the living. Life or history as a fabric being woven is known from Greek mythology but has not been identified in ancient Near Eastern literature.

we will sing with stringed instruments. The king’s involvement in psalm composition is particularly well known in connection with David, but it neither began nor ended with him. As early as the end of the third millennium BC, Shulgi king of Ur was famous for his royal hymns that offered prayers for the health and welfare of the king. As late as the Roman period, Nero was a patron of the arts and considered himself a first-rate composer. The ideal king was a wise king, and music was one of the realms of wisdom.

poultice of figs. Figs were used medicinally in this period. Ugaritic texts describe treatments for horses using figs and malt flour. They were also used to treat human maladies.

Marduk-Baladan. Also known as Marduk-apla-iddina, he was king of Babylon twice: 722–710 and 705–703 BC (in between he lost his throne to Sargon II). Marduk-Baladan is called a king of Chaldea since he came from the group of Chaldean tribes taking power in Babylonia during this period. To thwart Assyrian expansion into his territory, Marduk-Baladan united Babylonian and Aramean tribes, as well as other neighbors such as the Arabs and the Elamites, by taking advantage of Assyrian political instability and maintaining independent rule until 710 BC. The yoke was not thrown off for long, since Sargon and the Assyrians wanted to control their borders. Sargon’s son Sennacherib also had to contend with Marduk-Baladan, who regained his independence immediately after Sargon’s death. Marduk-Baladan’s military and political acumen is shown by these alliances, including the one sought here from Hezekiah. These emissaries were probably from this period and were trying to persuade him to take up the Babylonian cause against Assyria.

received the envoys gladly. Hezekiah would perhaps be flattered by the attention, but also would be eager to have an ally who could undermine Assyria, which currently posed the most significant threat to Judah.

eunuchs. See notes on ; . Some eunuchs occupied important bureaucratic positions in Assyria and Babylonia. They served in military and palace administrative roles, as well as being scribes and musicians. Tiglath-Pileser III appointed one as governor over Babylonia. From the context, this potential future is not desirable for Hezekiah’s sons.

received . . . double for all her sins. Multifold restitution is a strong deterrent from wrongdoing. One of Hammurapi’s laws against theft states: “If a man stole either an ox, sheep, donkey, pig or wooden boat, if it was either divine or royal property, he shall pay thirtyfold. If it belongs to a poor man, he shall replace tenfold.” In the Hittite Plague Prayers of Mursili, the king prays to avert a devastating, long-lasting plague that he suspects was caused by sin. He states that his city has already made twentyfold restitution. Israel is getting off relatively light.

highway. The roads of the ancient Near East were for the most part unpaved (except for a few roads in the Late Assyrian period). Although unpaved, those which were intended for wheeled transport (called “wagon roads” in the Nuzi tablets) had to be staked out, leveled and consistently maintained. However, very few texts describe the construction and maintenance of these roads. Roads for heavy transport were somewhat rare and were primarily along the trade routes. Thus, a vassal king complained to the king of Mari that he had to arrive at the Syrian capital by a roundabout route along a major highway. Assyrian kings rarely boasted of their road constructions, as they appeared to be the duty of the local populations. In a treaty text, Esarhaddon commands that when his son succeeds him the vassal must submit to him and smooth his way in every respect.

every mountain and hill made low. A Hittite ritual prayer uses the same terminology when describing coming deities: “Let the mountains be leveled before you (O gods)!” This refers to smoothing out the rough terrain to expedite travel.

glory of the LORD. See the article “

”

the word of our God endures forever. See note on .

You who bring good news. The good news bearer is feminine in Hebrew, like Anat, who brings good news to Baal in the Ugaritic Baal Cycle. His long-awaited house may be built just as these long-exiled people will be restored. While messengers were generally men, female messengers (“a daughter of the message”) were also used in Mesopotamia.

reward . . . recompense. These Hebrew terms were probably technical words for tribute and plunder brought home by victorious warriors and kings from battle.

shepherd. Both rulers and deities were described as shepherds of their people in a rich and extensively used metaphor. See notes on ; .

measured the waters in the hollow of his hand. In the Akkadian creation epic Enuma Elish, Marduk, after defeating the saltwater-goddess Tiamat, also looks after the freshwater-god Apsu, measuring the dimensions of his waters. Marduk is also praised in the Akkadian New Year’s festival account as the one who measures the waters of the sea. The same is said of the Dog Star, Sirius. weighed the mountains on the scales and the hills in a balance. In the Egyptian tomb of Ay, a hymn speaks of counting of the mountains and weighing them.

The rhetorical questions in these verses are asked in such a way as to indicate that Yahweh acted alone in creation; he had no need for any outside consultants. A Sumerian poem speaks similarly of the god Enlil, who makes his own decisions with no other gods present. Usually, however, divine decisions were made in consultation with others in the divine council. This could be an individual or a group. Sometimes it is gods. See the article “

”

right way. The Hebrew term used here occurs most frequently with either a forensic (“judge/judgment”) or procedural (“prescribed way”) meaning. Here it moves beyond the realm of the court or the tabernacle courtyard to a wider understanding of decision making.

Lebanon. The Israelites considered that the land with the greatest forests and most varied animal life was Lebanon. In addition to supplying lumber for the temple of Solomon, the cedars of Lebanon provided sacred barges for Egypt and ships for Tyre. Moreover, the Assyrians exacted a tribute of timber from Lebanon for temple building. See notes on ; ; .

an idol that will not topple. A fallen representation of a god shows its lack of power and is humiliating both to it and its worshipers. Images of the gods would typically be held in place on a base by a metal peg remaining from the casting process. A third-century BC Aramaic text from Syene speaks of invaders throwing down and trampling various deities.

the circle of the earth. “Circle” here refers to a disc, not a sphere. The common ancient Near Eastern perspective of the heavens was like that of an inverted bowl covering the earth, itself above the primeval waters, which surmounted the underworld. In Babylonian literature, Shamash is praised as the one who suspends from the heavens the circle of the lands BWL 127:22. Likewise, in a prayer to Shamash and Adad, Adad causes it to rain on the circle of the earth Horowitz, 274,. The circle simply reflects the curvature of the horizon and thus is disk-shaped rather than a sphere (for which Hebrew uses another word). In the ancient world, the earth was consistently regarded as being circular Horowitz, 334. See the article “

” He stretches out the heavens. This describes an aspect of creation found also among Israel’s neighbors. An Aramaic text in Demotic script from the third century BC is a ritual of service to numerous gods, the chief of which is called Mar, “Lord.” He is called to return, as “you stretched out the heavens, Mar, you set the stars in place.” This, like the Isaiah passage, celebrates the divine work of creation. Various understandings of the heavens existed in the ancient world, but this one suggests a tent that is raised up more than stretched out.

He . . . brings out the starry host . . . and calls forth each of them by name. In the Enuma Elish, the same sort of claim is made about Marduk when he established constellations (associated with the gods and their related stars) and so set up the indicators for time measurement. Interest here lies in the stars as seasonal markers (see ) rather than as independent objects. In the ancient world they did not know that the heavenly bodies were material objects. Mesopotamians, through their interest in omens, developed a sophisticated understanding of lunar, solar and astral cycles, including such things as eclipses, in lengthy tablet collections. See the notes on ; .

will not grow tired or weary. In the ancient world, the gods were viewed as having human weaknesses and often were inattentive or simply unaware of events that were taking place. One result of this was that the pantheon of gods were constantly outwitting or tricking each other. When Enlil, e.g., brought on the flood to destroy humankind, Enki outwitted him by saving a remnant of humankind. However, Enki may have been tricked when he advised the human Adapa to reject the “bread of death” while in the presence of Anu, the high god. Anu subsequently gave Adapa the “bread of life,” which was apparently unexpected by Enki. The gods were not indefatigable. They were in constant need of food, drink and shelter. In fact, humans were created to do the hard labor the gods preferred not to do.

islands. The islands or coastlands are a reference to the far-off reaches of the Mediterranean. The Hebrew word describes any place that was reached by sea travel.

one from the east. This must refer to Cyrus II, ruler of the Medes and Persians (), the one who, in opposing Babylon, assists Israel. windblown chaff. During the threshing process of grain, the nutritious kernel was separated from the worthless chaff by the wind (see note on ). Since grain was so commonly raised in the region, this metaphor for something transitory came easily to mind. A Mesopotamian incantation against a headache wishes that the headache might be swept away and never return, like chaff swept away by the wind. The insignificance of chaff highlights the note in the Kadesh battle inscription of Rameses II in which he pays no attention to his enemies, regarding them as no more than chaff.

nails down the idol. See note on .

my friend. This phrase (lit. “my beloved”) is used to describe numerous Mesopotamian rulers in relation to a deity. It was the name of several, including a ruler from the dynasty of Akkad, Naram-Sin, “the beloved of the moon god,” and is part of the title and description of many others, including private individuals.

I . . . have not rejected you. Abandonment by one’s god was a fearful prospect, since one depended on his personal god for help, protection and life itself. See notes on ; .

do not fear. A similar word of encouragement is given several times to Esarhaddon from the goddess Ishtar of Arbela, and to Ashurbanipal by Ishtar and Ninurta. Naram-Sin similarly exhorted the readers of his stele not to fear. Such cases, like that of Isaiah, promise divine intervention on behalf of someone in trouble.

Prophetic messages such as these were also received among Israel’s neighbors. They included anticipations of favor and aid, as here, as well as woe. An undated Akkadian text speaking of putatively future kings anticipates both sorts of situations.

I am the LORD. A prophetic letter to Ashurbanipal begins, “I am the lord (Bel).” The deity referred to is Marduk, whom the Assyrians considered as a personification of their chief god, Ashur, who brings peace and a release from fear. A similar call to cease worry was given in letters to Ashurbanipal’s father, Esarhaddon: “I am Ishtar of Arbela.” The depth of care for the king indicated here is shown when Ishtar also says, “I am your father and mother. Between my wings I brought you up.”

threshing sledge. See note on .

winnow. See note on .

The reforestation of depleted areas was done only on a minor scale in the ancient world. The Assyrian kings planted many “gardens” in their chief cities, which included hundreds of trees, but this cannot be considered full-fledged reforestation.

former things . . . final outcome. Mesopotamia used similar terms for the past (“formerly, before”) and future (“that which is behind, comes after”), showing the future in relation to what had already taken place. In a sense, history was cyclical, with what happened reappearing again, as seen by analogy in seasons or successive human generations. A god encouraged Esarhaddon in an oracle by identifying himself as a skilled pilot steering a ship. The result will be that the future will be like the past in the hands of this experienced pilot.

one from the north . . . one from the rising sun. There is no contradiction here, as both statements are concerning Cyrus of Persia, who was from the east but descended upon the “rulers” (Babylon) from the north, conquering Armenia and northern Mesopotamia first. He is also said to have come “from the east” (v. ). mortar . . . clay. This metaphor reflects on the way malleable building materials were worked prior to use. These are worked with the feet for consistency and additives, such as straw, were mixed in. These two terms indicate various types of clay.

messenger of good news. See note on .

my chosen one. Divine selection is significant in the ancient world. Akkadian texts from the first millennium BC also refer to those “chosen/selected by god X.” It has the connotation of election, selecting from among others for a special purpose. The specific purpose of election is not specified, but the context of royal identifications suggests this is a claim to divinely sponsored enthronement.

A bruised reed he will not break. An Akkadian metaphor provides a contrast to that used here. Esarhaddon brags that “with the trustworthy support of Ashur, Shamash, Nabu and Marduk . . . all those not subservient to him, kings not subservient to him, he snapped like a marsh-reed, he subdued them under his feet.” Such harshness of Assyrian practice on frail nations and rulers will not be evident with the servant of Yahweh. smoldering wick. The “wick” is lit. “flax,” from whose broken fibers a wick is made. These fibers were braided together into a string or cord that trailed from the oil to the edge of the lamp, moving the oil to the lit end through capillary action. Since their purpose is to produce light, a wick that is smoldering is ordinarily quickly removed, discarded and replaced—but not under the care of this gentle ruler. In the metaphor, this refers to the way that he will care for the vulnerable.

Creator of the heavens . . . the earth . . . people. The creator gods of the ancient Near East were more limited in their range of creation. Often the cosmic elements are generated by procreation of the gods, though a creator deity may have oversight in some versions. Especially in Mesopotamian traditions, people are created by a separate deity. Egyptian traditions have more of a tendency to consolidate creative activity in one deity.

I will keep you. Wishes for well-being are common blessings, especially at the beginning of letters. Letters from across the ancient world include wishes of good health and that the gods may preserve and protect them.

blind . . . prison . . . dungeon . . . darkness. The chiastic literary structure (a-b / b-a) points to the blinding darkness of imprisonment being eradicated. This sort of program that relieves the distress of those falsely imprisoned was a prominent focus of kings. Sargon wrote of freeing citizens by destroying their prison and leading them out of their captivity. The god Marduk is praised for similar activities. We know little of what prisons were like in the ancient world, but we do know that when prisons were far off or not available, pits were often used in Israel and elsewhere to hold prisoners for a temporary period of time.

While prisoners, especially those captives taken in battle, are commonly mentioned in texts and depicted on reliefs, actual prisons are rarely encountered in Israel itself, though they are known among its neighbors. In Mesopotamia, only political crimes merited imprisonment by the state. Other wrongs were between citizens and thus civil cases, and any penalties were by means of financial payment or physical punishment. Some might also be imprisoned for debt, but these would more likely be enslaved, allowing them to pay off their obligations.

Those being released here are not the violent felons found in contemporary prisons, since they would have been punished in other ways. Since punishment was more closely related to the crimes committed and was meted out quickly, there was less need for places of confinement than there is in the contemporary West. One such place was called the “house of confinement” (cognate with “prison” in ). The Sumerian Hymn to Nungal describes a prison, with a female jailer, for holding women who were awaiting trial.

I am the LORD. See note on .

the former things have taken place, and new things I declare. Among Israel’s neighbors, the past was predictive of the future in the form of omens and divination. Rather than actual predictions of an unknown future, these prognostications were based on an understanding that the past would repeat itself. There is indication that the gods were thought to know the future to some extent. The god Ashur, e.g., is said to know the beginning from the end. The Hymn to Shamash is one of many pieces that also indicates that the future of humanity is established by the gods as they decree destinies. Fate or destiny is in their hands, as in an epithet for Ea, Shamash and Asaluhhi, who, by decreeing destinies, determined order for humanity. These gods, however, do not reveal their plans as Yahweh is doing here. The gods may at times give direction for future action through divination practices that receive pointed oracles, but Yahweh is offering far more.

Israel needed hope following destruction and exile after God abandoned Zion as a result of Israel’s sins (). Likewise, Babylonia needed encouragement after Marduk departed from Esagila, his temple in Babylon, when Assyria captured it under Sennacherib. This loss was possibly due to the previous “sin of Sargon.” It was Sennacherib’s son Esarhaddon whose policy it was to restore the Babylonian capital, including the statues of the gods, under his own Assyrian control, uniting the two nations. This is indicated by the statement that Marduk was at peace with the king, since his status was restored. Because the god’s throne is secure, so is that of the king, and so hope is restored. ◆

Go to

Kedar. See note on . Sela. An Edomite capital, possibly located at the later site of Petra. Kedar and Sela represent remote areas of the desert and mountains whose people are invited to worship Yahweh.

warrior. Divine warriors are ubiquitous in the ancient Near East. The very creation of the world, according to the Mesopotamian Enuma Elish account, is a result of battle between Marduk and Tiamat. The Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar is praised as one who wields weapons and causes battle, and the god Nergal () is the “lord of weapons.” Resheph is depicted holding a club in his upraised hand, as is the Canaanite god Baal. In the Baal Cycle, Baal battles Yamm, the sea, with the use of two maces. In the same Baal account, the goddess Anat, Baal’s lover, is also a bloodthirsty warrior. She is also found among the Egyptian pantheon, especially during the Nineteenth Dynasty, as holding a shield and spear. While battle is not Yahweh’s chief occupation, he does involve himself in it on behalf of his people. In societies such as those of Israel and her neighbors, which were regularly under military threat, having a divine battle champion was psychologically and theologically important.

servant of the LORD. To indicate the proper respect toward a superior, letter senders identified themselves as “your servant” in their relation with the recipient. Other texts use the term in a person’s relation to a superior, such as a king. “Servant of god X” is also common in the ancient Near East. A Northwest Semitic seal reads “Belonging to Mikneiah, servant of Yahweh.” So far this mention of Yahweh in such a context outside the OT is unique.

he who formed you. See note on . The verb connotes working and forming like a potter does the clay (e.g., ). In Egypt the god Khnum is seen in the same role, forming humankind, particularly the king, on a potter’s wheel. He is even called “The Potter” in the “Instruction of Amenemope” because of this role. He is depicted on a relief from Luxor fashioning Amenhotep III on a potter’s wheel. The situation is so bad in the Admonitions of Ipu-Wer that women are barren, expressed in terms of Khnum not fashioning because of the political and social turmoil. In Mesopotamia too, the creation epic Enuma Elish speaks of people created by Marduk’s hands, described using a term employed elsewhere of making figurines from metal or stone. I have summoned you by name. In Mesopotamia, from the early Dynastic period to the Neo-Babylonian period, kings received a divine call, legitimating them in office. An inscription of Esarhaddon, e.g., reads: “Assur, the father of the gods, called my name for the rule of the land of Assur and the governorship of the lands of Sumer and Akkad,” and “Nabu-apla-iddina, king of Babylon, called by Marduk,” the god of Babylon.

pass through the waters. Baal, the Canaanite storm-god, is pictured as walking on flowing water, symbolizing his power over this force of chaos. In the Baal Cycle, he defeats the power of the water in the form of “Sea” and “River.” Israel itself does not have such power and cannot on her own survive an encounter with overwhelming water. Survival can only come through the protection of her God. Water is controlled by him as its creator. This was demonstrated at the time of the exodus (). The parting of the Red Sea is likely alluded to here as offering hope for their present crisis.

I am the LORD. See note on .

I love you. See note on . Mesopotamian texts record several different objects loved by the gods. The most common recipient of such divine favor is the king, with one, Naram-Sin, “beloved of the god Sin,” having this as part of his name. Private individuals also have this as an element of their names. The gods are also said to love places, such as the temple Eanna that Esarhaddon describes as “beloved of my lady Ishtar.” It is more difficult to document a god expressing love for a group of people.

bring in their witnesses. See note on .

Before me no god was formed, nor will there be one after me. Ancient Near Eastern theogonies (accounts of the origins of the gods) are usually structured around generations of gods in family relationships or formed by some other physical means (see note on ). Khnum, the Egyptian creator-god (see note on v. ), is said to have fashioned gods as well as men and animals. Gods come into being not simply on an ontological level (an understanding of whether they exist metaphysically or not) but on a functional one, since they are tied with natural phenomena and thus have tasks in the physical world. Function and form came to be simultaneously. Receiving a function and a name brought a new deity into being. The latter is shown in the Enuma Elish, which speaks of a time when no gods were yet manifest (named) or their destinies (functions) yet decreed. Divine functions also related to spheres of influence, with some deities playing roles in heaven, others on earth, still others in the netherworld. The earthly sphere was also delineated by influence over distinct geographic areas, whether temples, towns or nations.

I . . . am the LORD. See note on .

When I act, who can reverse it? The irreversibility of God’s acts is attributed to Marduk in the Enuma Elish. He wished supreme authority over the gods so that his decrees could not be countermanded or altered. He is then granted such authority by the other gods.

This verse is describing the defeat and capture of the Babylonians (i.e., the Chaldeans) by Cyrus. Though not found in other sources, apparently the Chaldeans unsuccessfully attempted to escape the conquest by sailing their own ships on the Euphrates River to the Persian Gulf.

I am the LORD. See note on .

chariots and horses. See note on .

calamus. This is an aromatic reed or cane () used as an ingredient in recipes and rituals. The same term in Akkadian designates a sweet cane (cf. ).

formed you in the womb. Formation and care in the uterus engender praise in the Hymn to Aten, the sun-god, who supposedly creates people from sperm and makes them grow in the womb as he nourishes and soothes them. He is seen as the one who gives breath. In this way we can see that the same motifs and affirmations familiar in the ancient world were also used in Israel.

write on their hand, ‘The LORD’s.’ According to the Code of Hammurapi, Babylonian slaves had a distinguishing mark of some kind, apparently in their hair. The fifth-century BC Aramaic texts from Elephantine in Egypt mention that a slave is marked with the smallest of Hebrew letters or a brand on his right hand.

For making idols, see note on ; see also the article “

”

tool. Elsewhere, this is a woodworking tool, usually taken as an ax or chisel of some kind (e.g., ). In the Gezer Calendar the term is associated with flax harvest, which fits with the Ugaritic use of the word for “sickle.” In this context, it seems to be something that is forged.

cedars . . . cypress . . . oak . . . pine. The identities of the cedar (see notes on ; ; ) and the oak are certain. The identities of the cypress and pine are more problematic. The word translated “cypress” occurs only here and not in other cognate languages, so its interpretation is at best tentative. The word translated “pine” may be cognate with an Akkadian word for “cedar,” though the exact meaning here is still uncertain.

I am the LORD. See note on . spreads out the earth by myself. Several texts from the monarchy period refer to “Yahweh and his asherah,” indicating that not all Israelites held to orthodoxy. This is one reason why prophets had a message to preach. clarifies that God spreads out the earth “upon the waters.” This was the regular understanding of the world in ancient times. They believed in a flat earth that had a single continent floating on the surface of the cosmic waters. spreads. The Hebrew verb does not refer to spreading something out as, e.g., a tablecloth or a scroll. It is most frequently used for hammering out gold or silver as an overlay. Such a verb suggests God’s role in forming the diverse terrain and topography of the earth.

makes fools of diviners. This verse connects to the previous one in that the omens consulted by the Assyrian and Babylonian diviners were drawn from heaven and earth. In fact, major prognostications had to be confirmed by omens from both realms. Yahweh’s creation of those realms indicates his control of any signs being given. Prophets were supposed to be giving messages from deity, and diviners were presumably using their arts to determine what the gods were up to by reading the omens in heaven and earth. These professionals therefore offered a constant flow of theoretically divine insight concerning the course of political events.

Cyrus. Cyrus II came to the Persian throne in 559 BC. When he overthrew the Median king Astyages in 550 BC, he instituted the Persian (Achaemenid) Empire, which he ruled until his death in 530 BC. He successfully moved against Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, and in 539/538 BC defeated the Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus, placing the whole of the Near East except Egypt under his control. Cyrus wrote on a clay cylinder that the chief Babylonian god, Marduk, was incensed at the lack of proper worship by Nabonidus, so the god invited Cyrus to take the throne and reestablish legitimate worship. The conquered people purportedly welcomed him in peace with greens spread before him. Among the policies Cyrus instituted was one that found a place in heart of the exiled Israelites. Cyrus decreed that exiles could return to their native lands and reestablish their religious practices. This is mentioned in the Bible (; ), and also in Cyrus’s own document, the Cyrus Cylinder, in which he claims that inhabitants of other lands were regathered to their home territories. shepherd. See notes on ; . Let its foundations be laid. See note on .

A priest being anointed by the gods. Khnum temple in Esna, Egypt. See note on .

Olaf Tausch/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0

Return to

his anointed . . . Cyrus. “Anointed” is the Hebrew term “messiah.” The term developed an eschatological significance in Israel of a promised deliverer, but it is also used in its nominal and verbal forms of anointing a leader such as a priest or king (e.g., ; see notes on ; ; ). Cyrus claims to have been placed on the Babylonian throne by the Babylonian god Marduk. Here too the Persians see themselves assuming the role of the monarchs they replace. In the same way, Cyrus could be assuming aspects of the theology and role of the Davidic monarchy, at least to the extent of reestablishing the people in their land; this includes being the anointed messiah. While not the eschatological deliverer, Cyrus is God’s deliverer of the moment from Babylonian exile. whose right hand I take hold of. This is a well-known Akkadian idiom indicating aid and guidance. In the Cyrus Cylinder, Cyrus is said to take Marduk’s hand, restoring him to prominence in the cult.

gates of bronze. The Greek historian Herodotus described Babylon as having “one hundred gates in the circuit of the wall, all of bronze with bronze uprights and lintels.” Large bronze gates have been excavated at the Assyrian period site of Balawat, giving a glimpse of what the Babylonian walls may have been like. bars of iron. Gates were locked by means of a bar slid across the gateway, and iron would obviously be the most difficult to break.

though you do not acknowledge me. Cyrus most certainly was not a worshiper of Yahweh. In his inscriptions, his polytheism is evident. In one case he requests that all the gods pray for him to Nabu and to Marduk his lord, whom he claims to worship. Cyrus acknowledged that various gods were worshiped by different peoples, each god having control over its own people and place. In the Cyrus Cylinder, even though Marduk is the chief Babylonian deity, Cyrus describes his circumstances by acknowledging not only the work of Marduk but also that of Nabu; Cyrus also acknowledges the existence of the “gods of Sumer and Akkad, whose sanctuaries he rebuilt.” Other indications suggest that Cyrus believed in Zoroastrianism—a religion based on the teachings of Zarathustra, an Iranian holy man who lived sometime in the early first millennium BC. Zoroastrianism flourished during the Achaemenid Empire in Iran (see note on ; see also the article “

”). Though there is no concrete evidence for Zoroastrianism until the reigns of Darius I and his successor, Xerxes I, the names of Cyrus’s children show Zoroastrian influence, and he is known to have set up a fire stand (important in Zoroastrian worship) for the king’s daily ritual. In a polytheistic system, adding deities is not a theological problem. In fact, in claiming support from a new god, the theologically neutral becomes an economic and political advantage. Cyrus thus had no problem in recognizing Yahweh, though he would not have personally worshiped him, since such recognition cost nothing but gained the support of Yahweh worshipers through their tribute and allegiance. Polytheistic priests of the newly recognized god would also likely expect royal support for their religious endeavors, so they also benefited.

Egypt . . . Cush . . . Sabeans. Egypt and Cush (see note on ) clearly refer to Lower and Upper Egypt, respectively, while the location of the Sabeans is less clear. Josephus (Antiquities 2.249) looks to the tall Nubians of Ethiopia, geographically close to the others. The designation could also refer to one of two groups in the Arabian peninsula—those from Sheba in the south (Yemen) or the Saba in northwest Arabia. Darius I speaks of completing an east-west canal connecting the Nile and the Red Sea: “I am Persian; from Persia I seized Egypt; I gave the order to dig this canal from a river by name Nile which flows in Egypt to the sea which goes from Persia.” This canal, shown in recent satellite images, made contact between African people and those in Arabia much closer.

By myself I have sworn. Swearing an oath on the name of a god is not rare today, nor was it in the time of Isaiah. Tying an oath to a deity provides gravity to it by calling the god as witness and possible punisher if the oath is broken. Akkadian texts mention invoking a god’s name in an oath, but more regularly designate an oath as “by the life of a god” or that of the king. Several letters from Lachish in Israel use as the oath formula “as Yahweh lives.” But in no case does there seem to be god or king swearing by themselves, as Yahweh does here.

Bel. In the Akkadian language, belu is the equivalent to English “lord, master.” This is thus a title rather than a proper name for a god. The term is used as a substitute for the name of at least two Mesopotamian gods, Shamash and Marduk. The Enuma Elish describes how Marduk attained this position as head of the pantheon. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar had a Marduk temple, named Esagila, near his great palace in Babylon. The esteem in which Marduk/Bel was held is demonstrated by the number of Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian personal names that bore “Bel” as one element, such as the last king of Babylon, Belshazzar (). For a period Marduk/Bel lost his hegemony, since his statue was “kidnapped” by Sennacherib and taken to Assyria in 689 BC (see note on ), where, according to the Esarhaddon Chronicle, “for 8 years of Sennacherib and 12 years of Esarhaddon, a total of 20 years, Bel dwelt in Baltil [Assur].” Marduk is probably the god referred to here (see ; ), since it was the Babylonians whom Cyrus defeated. Nebo. The Hebrew rendition of the Akkadian god Nabu, the son of Marduk. He was the god of writing and wisdom, was involved in determining fate, and was a major figure in the pantheon, as shown by the number of names in which Nebu/Nabo was included (e.g., Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar, and Nabonidus). images that are carried about. Many gods were regularly associated with animals, which at times transported them. In Egypt, the goddess Qadesh is shown being carried while standing on a lion, as are Syrian and Mesopotamian deities, including the goddess Ishtar. Some also stood on a bull, a “beast of burden.” One relief shows numerous gods each being transported on different animals. Such a “divine journey” was a time of lavish celebration. While in the ancient Near East this transport seems at times a matter of honor, it can also be demeaning, as when the divine images are taken captive. Isaiah sees this as demeaning in that a lifeless, powerless idol cannot move on its own.

Even to your old age and gray hairs . . . I will carry you. Mesopotamians referred to humans as “dark haired,” while the Akkadian term for the old is “grey-haired.” Long life was a desired blessing, but its accompanying infirmities were the opposite. In an Aramaic slave manumission document, one of the obligations of the freed slave is to care for his former master as a father until death.

weigh out . . . on the scales. The scales probably refer to a balance, with the Hebrew term indicating the horizontal balance beam. Things were put on one side of the balance and a known weight on the other. An Egyptian wall painting shows a human heart being weighed in this way (see note on ). make it into a god. See note on ; see also the article “

”

They . . . carry it. After an idol is made, it must be carried to its shrine to be worshiped. This sarcasm of Isaiah contrasts with the power of Israel’s God, who supports his worshipers.

I am God, and there is no other. The Assyrians saw their god Ashur as being the god from whom all other gods derive. A proper name from the period of Isaiah is Gabbu-Ilani-Ashur, meaning “Ashur is all the gods.” In the Hymn to Aten from New Kingdom Egypt, Aten is hailed as the “sole God beside whom there is none.” In an environment where numerous other deities claimed power, Israel’s God is not making an absolute statement of uniqueness, though he could, according to Israel’s theology; rather, he is saying that the readers know his uniqueness through past experience, and this will be confirmed through future fulfillment of God’s plans.

sit on the ground without a throne. Royal power was symbolized by a throne (cf. ). Its symbolism was so powerful that Sennacherib took a portable throne along to receive homage from those whom he captured. The loss of the throne thus indicated despair and powerlessness.

grind flour. Grinding grain at the flour mill was one of the most menial of tasks, often done by slave girls in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. veil. This rare term apparently indicates a veil-like covering. In Middle Assyrian and Hittite laws, a married woman was veiled at the wedding, apparently by the husband, and veiling publicly indicates that wedding. In the Gilgamesh Epic, Gilgamesh mourns his dead friend Enkidu by covering Enkidu’s face “like a bride,” suggesting a bride is the paradigmatic veiled person. There is no indication from pictorial representations that veils were regularly worn in Israel or among her neighbors by married women subsequently, suggesting their use only by brides in conjunction with the ceremony itself. It is the veiling that turns the woman into a bride, according to a Middle Assyrian law: “If a man would veil his concubine, 5 (or) 6 of his companions he shall gather and he shall veil her in their presence. He shall say, ‘She is (my) wife.’ ” This covering symbolizes the duty of care and provision. The bride’s unveiling by the groom in private symbolized the new intimate relationship. In contrast, a harlot was not to veil herself; her head had to remain uncovered. Unveiling such as this is the sign of an extramarital relationship, since the veil was neither placed nor removed by a husband but by the woman herself in the context of intimacy with others. Unveiling or uncovering such as this is the sign of a breach of relationship. In Old Babylonian texts from Nuzi and elsewhere, stripping and expulsion signified a divorce, in which she is stripped and driven out naked. bare your legs. Respectable women are generally portrayed with long skirts, so uncovered legs were considered inappropriate.

nakedness. Reserved for people who were poor, prisoners (), dancing girls, or worse.

yoke. See note on .

I am. The use of “I am” would have immediately struck a chord for this Israelite audience (see the article “

”), but there is no claim too arrogant for these kings to make for themselves. An Assyrian king of the ninth century, Ashurnasirpal, had a list of 11 “I am” titles for himself.

spells. Babylonia was famous in the ancient world for its magic and divinatory practices. Literally thousands of texts have been uncovered that deal with a multitude of subjects, including incantations that help alleviate the pain of a toothache, help a baby that is stuck in the womb, and help a mother who is barren. It appears that the common person hired an incantation priest for even the most mundane problem. The priest then came and recited a spell to either exorcise a problematic demon or other divine irritant. Incantations and magical spells were used frequently in Mesopotamia, often in close proximity with medical texts since they both concerned, among other things, the avoidance or amelioration of sickness. Incantations were intended to magically bind the supernatural powers that posed a threat. See the article “

”

astrologers . . . stargazers. See note on .

My images brought them about. Israel’s claim that God acts in history was thought to distinguish it from its neighbors, but textual evidence shows this to be otherwise. Curses of the gods called down on those who break treaties or who deface boundary stones indicate that gods are understood to work through history (see ). Royal inscriptions of the gods bringing military victory through the Mesopotamian king indicate the same understanding. Deities also played a role in the political realm, as when Ashurbanipal credits them with bringing him to the throne. Prayers, both individual and corporate, indicate that both Israel and her neighbors are open to, and even expect, their gods to be responsive in personal and national history.

refined you. See note on . furnace. Smelting furnaces have been found at numerous archaeological sites. Though full metal workshops are less well known, two from the second millennium BC were found at Kanesh (Kültepe in Turkey) and another near Baghdad. Some furnaces, like one from the Late Bronze site of Tel Zeror, have nozzles on them for bellows. These were necessary because the furnaces used for smelting needed to produce higher temperatures than furnaces with solely domestic functions. A Sixth Dynasty Egyptian tomb relief shows six men blowing air into a furnace through long pipes as part of the process of refining gold. See note on .

his arm. Cyrus’s arm. will be against the Babylonians. See note on .

I have not spoken in secret. See .

I am the LORD. See note on .

descendants . . . name . . . blotted out. Losing the next generation and one’s own honor was a serious thing. When deceased, only one’s name or memory remains, and without descendants, one is soon forgotten (), the family line comes to an end, and, especially for those involved in a cult of the dead, there is no one to look after the interests of the departed.

Before I was born the LORD called me. A prenatal call is not only important in the OT, several Mesopotamian kings make mention of it too. Ashurbanipal writes that he was called by the gods for kingship and was formed inside his mother in order to shepherd the land of Assyria. Such kings are stating that they became rulers not just because of the mighty deeds they performed but because the gods recognized their uniqueness even before birth, seeing that they were intrinsically worthy before having proven themselves in any way. he has spoken my name. See note on . This means more than just to recall someone. The same literal expression (“remember/invoke a name”) with a deity as the subject also means “to recognize as king” in the Akkadian of this period. Nebuchadnezzar stated that Marduk named him permanently to kingship, and Cyrus claimed the same treatment (see and note).

mouth like a sharpened sword. This sword imagery is also used for the prophet’s word (see ), and God’s word in the NT (e.g., ). Since the sword was an offensive weapon, the implication is that the word is in some sense aggressive. One of the Hebrew words for mouth also signified the term “edge,” as in “edge of the sword.” Thus, there may be a play on words in this verse.

formed me in the womb. See note on . to bring Jacob back . . . and gather Israel. Mesopotamian kings saw themselves as divinely appointed and so were delegated tasks by their deity. Often they list their achievements in the introductory section of official records. Sennacherib, e.g., starts the record of his first military campaign by identifying himself as shepherd, faithful worshiper of the gods, and one who guards right and justice, which includes coming to the aid of the needy. Restoration from exile was one of the duties of a good king (; ). Hammurapi, in describing his tasks in looking after Sumer and Akkad, states that he not only dug an irrigation canal but also gathered peoples who had been scattered and provided them pastures and watering places. Many Babylonian kings describe themselves as ones who gather the dispersed.

restore the land. Through neglect or war, destruction was common. Rebuilding and restoration efforts were not only necessary for the good of the country but also politically and theologically astute policies for Mesopotamian kings. The people benefited, but so did the gods, when their temples were reestablished. This type of activity provided something of an economic circularity, according to the Mesopotamian view. A god helped the king conquer a city or territory, which filled the royal treasury. Some of this revenue was in turn used to rebuild and replenish the divine sanctuaries, benefiting the gods, who would then in the future be pleased to support further expansion.

highways. See the note on .

Aswan. This militarily and commercially important site (Hebrew sinim [Syene], modern Aswan) is located at the first cataract of the Nile in Egypt. Just opposite on an island in the middle of the Nile was Elephantine, the site where a group of Aramaic papyrus documents from the fifth century BC were found. One of these documents claims to have been written by a scribe in Syene.

mother. See note on .

Architect’s drawing of the ground plan of the palace of Nur Adad in Larsa, Babylonia, 1865 to 1850 BC.

The Schøyen Collection, Oslo and London, MS 3031, www.schoyencollection.com

Return to

The mention of walls suggests that what is signified is not a mark of ownership (see note on ) but rather a town plan or blueprint for the reconstructed city. No precedent is known for such an engraving on the hands, but palace plans are known. One from nineteenth-century BC Larsa shows details of walls, rooms and courtyards, while the Sumerian king Gudea had a similar plan of a temple building inscribed on the lap of one of his statues, showing even the thickness of the walls.

As surely as I live. Solemnity is added to oaths when sworn in the name of a god (see note on ), but here God swears by himself, being unable to call a higher authority as witness. Egyptians used the same oath formula, placing themselves on the line if the oath should be broken. In Rameses II’s Kadesh battle inscription his oath swears both by himself and his gods. ornaments . . . like a bride. The Israelite bride sometimes wore embroidered garments, jewels, a special girdle and a veil. In this passage, the bride wore an ornamental waistband. There are scores of texts from Mesopotamia that describe the exchange of gifts between two families for the purpose of marriage, but little is said of the attire of the bride or of the ceremony itself.

I am the LORD. See note on .

drunk on their own blood. The description is not of a savage conqueror but of one who has been relegated to cannibalism in order to remain alive (see note on ). One of the curses in a treaty between Assyria and Arpad calls down such a desperate plight on one who breaches the covenant. Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions describe the plight of those reduced to such dire action during the time of siege.

to which of my creditors did I sell you? See . There were two main sources of slaves in the ancient Near East: the capture of foreigners through war, and economic or debt slavery with its supportive overtones. In the latter case, when someone became destitute, he could be forced to sell himself or family members into slavery in order to have the resources to survive.

the rock from which you were cut. Stone was a common building material in Israel and was used in both dressed and undressed form. Limestone was common, shaped in the form of ashlar, which is dressed on all six sides after being hewn from a stone quarry (see note on ). Quarried stone is a matter of pride for Mesopotamian kings in their massive building projects, showing their power. Nebuchadnezzar writes of “a great wall from strong stones quarried from the great mountains.” Zion’s pride lies in the mighty foundation stones of their forefather and mother, Abraham and Sarah (v. ).

cut Rahab to pieces. Complete domination is shown by dismemberment. In the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, the goddess Anat acts similarly toward her opponents, and Neo-Assyrian prophecies suggest the same. Dismemberment of victims is shown on the Assyrian Balawat gates. For Rahab, see the article “

”

Those the LORD has rescued will return. The return of those dispersed through war, plague or famine is important to a nation (see ). An undated Akkadian prophecy states that those scattered from a city will be reassembled. Numerous Mesopotamian kings, from Hammurapi through Marduk-Baladan II, claim restoration of the scattered as part of their legacy.

prisoners . . . dungeon. See note on .

I am the LORD. See note on .

children . . . to take her by the hand. In Mesopotamia as well as Israel, the eldest son received a larger inheritance than the rest of the children for the purpose of caring for the parents in their old age. The imagery here shows Jerusalem as a parent without children to take care of her in her old age.

street corner. Some cities in the ancient Near East show evidence of intense city planning. The norm, however, especially in the smaller towns, was a very haphazard approach in which there were few real streets but only passageways or open areas on which no homes were built. Most cities and towns featured blocks of housing tracts filled with random alleyways and dead ends with no intersecting routes. The intersections would occur when one emerged into an open square.

Fall prostrate that we may walk on you. Egyptian kings in the early third millennium BC are depicted as trampling over the corpses of defeated enemies. Narmer, possibly the one who unified Egypt, is seen with a mace smashing enemies and stepping over them. Likewise, the Sumerian kings from Lagash are depicted as marching over the dead bodies of their enemies. The tradition of trampling over one’s enemies continued on into the first millennium BC in Assyria and Babylonia.

The uncircumcised and defiled will not enter you again. The culturally or religiously different are often suspect and shunned. In Egypt at the time of the patriarchs, shepherds or those with facial hair were unacceptable. Esarhaddon, after building and dedicating the temple Esharra, claims to have excluded “foreign seed” from the complex. All of these episodes could reflect xenophobia as regards the core of one’s national identity.

the feet. While messengers often traveled by other means, some went on foot, a speedy means of transport over short distances (cf. ). In Akkadian, couriers could also be called “runners” and were particularly used in military contexts. good news. See note on .

When the LORD returns to Zion. When a god departs or is removed, it is a time of mourning, but entry into a shrine is a time of celebration, since normality and order are restored. For Isaiah’s audience, God is coming back home, his presence being reestablished in sacred space.

the LORD will go before. In the ancient Near East, one did not have to venture out alone but was preceded, guided and aided by one’s god. In royal inscriptions the kings report that the gods went out before them. The great gods, including Ishtar, precede the royal army. An Aramaic Tell Dan inscription describes an unnamed ruler’s confidence that even though Israel was advancing against him, he had been enthroned by his god Hadad, who went before him. rear guard. Isaiah’s context is not military; Israel is returning to her covenant land and Yahweh is protecting from the rear as he did in the exodus ().

Israelites provided substitutionary atonement for wrongs ordinarily through animal sacrifice. Human substitution is much rarer. One example is the substitute king, known from Mesopotamian texts of the early second through late first millennia BC, with most examples from the time of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (early seventh century BC). This was precipitated by an omen (generally an eclipse) that predicted the demise of the king. In order to save himself from this fate, he temporarily removed himself from the throne and enthroned an expendable substitute conscripted for that purpose.

In some cases this substitute was someone considered of no significance, and perhaps even mentally or physically impaired. He was then exalted to high status and office for as long as 100 days, though often for a shorter period. The substitute heard recitation of the evil omens, attracting them to himself. During this time, the real king was kept in relative isolation (a virtual exile) and participated in numerous purification rituals. Meanwhile, the substitute was going through the motions of being king and sitting on the throne. He was portrayed as the shepherd (a common title for Mesopotamian kings), but one could understand that he was simply a sheep about to be slaughtered. At the end of the period the substitute was put to death so that the evident design of the gods would be accomplished. The omens had suggested that it was the will of the gods to crush him. As one text puts it, he died to save the king and the crown prince, but his sacrifice is also understood to accomplish redemption for the people. The substitute king and his queen were put to death, carrying the fate of the real king upon himself. He was given a rich state funeral, an offering was made, and exorcism rituals were performed (including washings and sprinklings) so that the omens would be canceled and the days of the king could be prolonged. The substitute king and his queen were laid to rest in a royal tomb with appropriate accompanying ritual. ◆

Hittite substitute king text.

Go to

like a tender shoot, and like a root. Comparing people to plants is known in Egypt, where people are compared to trees who face defoliation and ultimate removal. The Akkadian language compares them to reeds and grass in their frailty and weakness.

Isaiah 53

New Testament

, ;

;

; , ; ; ; ; ; , ;

LXX

; ; ;

; ; ; ;

Go to

punished by God, stricken by him. A blow by one’s god is a serious matter. Such an expression was used in the ancient texts for illness or accident. Gods or demons were considered the ones who brought disease or injury, especially ones that came suddenly.

by his wounds we are healed. Ample evidence from the ancient Near East attests to the gods as the ones bringing healing, though it is associated with some gods more than others (e.g., Gula in Mesopotamian traditions). Here the substitutionary equation carries an echo of sympathetic magic whereby wounds to one brings healing to another. Sympathetic magic by wounding, however, is not typical of ancient magic/medicine.

like a lamb to the slaughter. Among common folks, meat was usually eaten only in ritual contexts. Consequently, this metaphor brings to mind a sacrificial scenario. The animals were too valuable alive for them to become a regular part of the diet. In an Aramaic text a metaphor occurs of a man whose enemies seek his life; the man is compared to a lamb fattened for slaughter. as a sheep before its shearers is silent. Ancient Near Eastern texts often describe the shearing of sheep, who characteristically underwent their lot in silence. Shearing was done annually in the spring using shears that were invented about 1000 BC. An individual could shear 20–30 head of sheep in a day.

he will see his offspring and prolong his days. With the average life expectancy of the common people probably less than 40 years, a blessing would be to have a longer life () and offspring to provide support in one’s infirmity. Esarhaddon wishes a similar blessing on any who might in the future repair the temple he rebuilt. The seventh-century BC Aramaic tomb inscription of the priest Si’gabbar indicates that this blessing can be deserved by righteous behavior.

barren woman. Children ensured the continuity of the clan and family and provided support for aging parents. Fertility was a matter of pride, while a barren woman was of lower socioeconomic status and thus felt shame, since it was believed that God/the gods opened or closed the womb as a response of favor or disfavor. See notes on ; .

tent. As portable accommodation, they were often used by nomads or people on the move, while settled folk dwelt in more permanent houses. The earliest listed kings in the Assyrian King List are designated as “those who live in tents.” Here the tent does not symbolize transience and hardship but rather that which is easily expandable, allowing gathered abundance.

reproach of your widowhood. Widows were marginalized in ancient Near Eastern society, having no one to provide for and protect them and placing them low in the socioeconomic hierarchy. See note on .

turquoise. An alternate translation is “antimony,” which was used for a mortar, especially for mosaics. lapis lazuli. A beautiful blue stone that was highly valued in the ancient world. In a work referred to as the Uruk Prophecy, it is said that a future king will build the gates of Uruk of lapis lazuli.

battlements. Lit. “suns”; it most likely refers to the round, burnished shields used as crenellations along the top of the towers that flanked the gate. These are visible along the entire wall in Sennacherib’s portrayal of the fortifications at Lachish (see note on ). rubies. This translation is a guess; others support “jasper.” The Hebrew word is used only here and in , where it is listed among exports from Aram. gates. Red burnished copper was popular for gates and would be plausible for these sun-like shields. The stonework of the gate area features some sort of sparkling stone. walls. The Hebrew is a technical term for low walls that lined the inside passage of the gateway (). They are described here as being made of “precious stones,” i.e., high quality stonework, perhaps with mosaics.

servants of the LORD. See note on .

In the ancient Near East the gods are often conceived of as much like people—having the same desires and whims. This is more than anthropomorphism in which the gods are thought of as having hands, eyes and feet. In Israel, Yahweh is portrayed anthropomorphically but does not have the same desires or whims as humans. Those issues aside, however, these verses talk about the way that Yahweh has plans and intentions far beyond human imagination. This is also expressed in limited ways in ancient Near Eastern texts that talk about the mind of the god as remote and impenetrable.

my word . . . will not return to me empty. See note on .

Sabbath. See note on .

eunuchs. This Hebrew term can at times refer simply to a court official, but it later came to refer specifically to eunuchs. Eunuchs were highly valued in government service in many varied roles during the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods. The great demand for eunuchs led to young boys being included in the tribute paid to Persia so that they could be castrated and trained for government service. They had no families to distract them from their service. They were often entrusted with the care and supervision of the royal harem. Having been castrated, they posed no threat to the women of the harem and could not engender children by the harem women, children who might be mistaken for royal heirs. Eunuchs would be less likely to become involved in conspiracies because they would have no heirs to put on the throne. Assyria, Urartu and Media all made use of eunuchs in government offices.

come and devour, all you beasts. Wild beasts were a constant source of fear for city dwellers throughout the ancient Near East. Of course, in this passage wild beasts are a metaphor for human “beasts” who plunder and pillage city dwellers. In Assyrian texts and reliefs of this period the kings are seen hunting lions to symbolically rid the city of the scourge of wild beasts. In one case it has been suggested that the killing of 18 lions represents the 18 gates of Nineveh and the roads leading out of them. When kings killed lions in their staged lion hunts, it also symbolized their triumph over their human enemies.

mute dogs. In Israel dogs were held in contempt. Here they are even more useless, being unable even to warn by barking. See notes on ; .

heart. Cognition and emotions are metaphorically associated with different body parts in various cultures. In Israel, strong affections are often associated with the kidneys and fear with the bowels, while particularly serious reflection and rumination take place in the heart. Such reflection and meditation are associated with the heart in Mesopotamia as well. See note on . the righteous are taken away to be spared from evil. This verse implies that there has been a complete overturning in society, since the righteous perish as a result of disorder and unrest. A number of Babylonian wisdom texts discuss this theme. “The Babylonian Theodicy” (a text similar to the Biblical book of Job) complains that the just man suffers from all kinds of injustice, while the evil man is free to do his evil activities. The writer also complains that his personal god has done nothing to alleviate the problem. This verse offers the explanation that the righteous are not being punished with death but are being spared from evil times.

Those who walk uprightly . . . lie in death. This offers not a hope of heaven but an escape from turmoil. Even Sheol is to be preferred over the wicked state of affairs on earth. See the articles “

” “

”

sorceress. See note on . adulterers. See notes on ; . prostitutes. See notes on ; .

oaks . . . spreading tree. See notes on ; . you sacrifice your children. See notes on ; ; ; ; .

Egyptian stele with offerings and libation presented before the god. See note on .

Kim Walton. The Oriental Institute Museum, the University of Chicago.

Return to

drink offerings . . . grain offerings. Because of a well-developed ancestor cult that pervaded much of the ancient Near East (evident, e.g., in the emphasis on the role of the male heir to care for the father’s shrine in Ugaritic documents), the dead were considered to have some power to affect the living. It was believed that if libations were poured out on behalf of the dead ancestors, their spirits would then offer protection and help to those still living. In Babylon the disembodied spirit (utukki) or the ghost (etemmu) could become very dangerous if not cared for and were often the objects of incantations. Proper care for the dead would begin with proper burial and would continue with ongoing gifts and honor of the memory and name of the deceased. The firstborn was responsible for maintaining this ancestor worship and therefore inherited the family gods (often images of deceased ancestors). Such care would have been based on a belief that the spirits of the dead could communicate and had information on the future that could be of use to the living (e.g., Saul’s consultation of the witch of Endor in [see notes on , , ; see also the article “

”]). These spirits were consulted through the efforts of priests, mediums and necromancers. This could be a dangerous practice since some spirits were considered demons and could cause great harm. While it is difficult to totally reconstruct Israelite beliefs about deceased ancestors and the afterlife, it seems clear that prior to the exile there existed a cult of the dead or ancestral worship. This is evidenced by archaeological remains: (1) standing stones (matstsebah), (2) channels cut into tombs for the deposit of food and drink offerings for the dead (see ; and notes), and (3) the importance placed on family tombs (e.g., the ancestral tomb for Abraham and his descendants at Hebron) and mourning rituals performed at these tombs (see ). The local and family ancestral cults were condemned by the prophets and the law.

You have made your bed on a high and lofty hill. High hills were where shrines were established for other deities. The reference to beds could refer to the idea that Israel’s worship of these gods would be metaphorically an act of adultery against Yahweh. It is also possible that the beds refer to sexual acts performed ritually at these shrines. The sexual imagery in the following verse could support either of those possibilities.

pagan symbols. What these were is uncertain. They may have been symbols of the household gods (fertility figurines?) or phallic symbols of fertility. This is likely because the last line of this verse also refers to male genitalia (“naked bodies”). The Israelites also had a memorial behind their door consisting of a metal container with a portion of Scripture inside (see and note; ).

Molek. See notes on ; . olive oil and . . . perfumes. Their use is uncertain. The olive oil may have been offerings, while the perfumes were to kindle incense offering. Another suggestion is that they were used to anoint the children that were being offered to Molek. ambassadors . . . to the very realm of the dead. These ambassadors are those who practice necromancy, the consultation of the dead on behalf of the living. The ambassadors probably went to the shrines where the powers of the netherworld (Sheol) were venerated to seek their will by oracular means. Molek was the god of the netherworld. See the articles “

” “

”

collection of idols. In Ugaritic literature the term that occurs here is used to make reference to deceased spirits.

prepare the road. See note on .

mire. The Hebrew term is used only here in the OT. In Akkadian the related term designates “excrement, spittle, vomit,” making the results of the work of the wicked even more abhorrent.

seek me out. Messages from the gods were sought through oracles (see and note), which could come about through dreams or divination (see note on ). The Israelites are seeking decisions from Yahweh that would result in their receiving justice at the hands of their oppressors. These will come for Israel when they live justly so that Yahweh would be favorably disposed toward them. In the ancient Near East it was considered an expression of disfavor when the gods did not answer requests for oracles (see also ).

fasting. Abstention from food; it is a much rarer practice as religious ritual in ancient Near Eastern texts than in the OT. The Old Kingdom Prophecies of Neferti associate it with grief. Zoroastrianism goes as far as to condemn fasting as sinful since it weakens the body. Isaiah here condemns its misuse, not the practice per se.

the pointing finger. In the ancient world, pointing the finger was involved in a formal accusation (as in the Code of Hammurapi). The omen literature attaches to the gesture the power of a curse. Here it is indicative of malevolent slander.

rebuild the ancient ruins. See notes on ; .

Sabbath. According to later rabbinic writings, the Sabbath in the postexilic period took on the idea of laying aside the day to worship God. The Sabbath became one of the primary means of showing loyalty to God and his statutes. In a Babylonian wisdom hymn the worshiper claims that the day of worshiping the god was a pleasure to him, a delight and joy to make music to honor the deity. The Sabbath observation has no known parallel in any of the cultures of the ancient Near East and is distinctive in that it is independent of any of the patterns or rhythms of nature; i.e., it was not celebrated on certain days of the month and was not linked to the cycles of the moon or to any other cycle of nature; it was simply observed every seventh day. Though Mesopotamians did not divide time into seven-day periods, there were particular days of the month that in their estimation were considered unlucky; these unlucky days were often seven days apart (i.e., the 7th day of the month, the 14th day of the month, etc.). In addition, a similar term was used in Babylonian texts as a full-moon day, when the king officiated at rites of reconciliation with deity, but it was not a work-free day and has little in common with the Israelite Sabbath. The legislation does not require rest as much as it stipulates cessation, interrupting the normal activities of one’s occupation.

ride . . . on the heights of the land. Cities were typically built on hills because of their natural defensibility, and armies chose hills as strategic points of control. The metaphor of riding on the heights is therefore one that speaks of victory and security.

breastplate . . . helmet. Yahweh the warrior takes a stand against his people’s enemies. This metaphor plays on his clothing, which was also worn by a warrior for both battle and covering. Such items are richly portrayed in reliefs and other iconography from the ancient Near East. When Marduk prepares for battle with Tiamat in the Enuma Elish, he is equipped mostly with weapons for attack rather than with the defensive gear referred to here. But he is said to be clothed with a cloak of awesome armor and crowned with a terrible radiance. Stone sculptures of the gods doing battle sometimes portray them with breastplate and helmet, but often have only weapons with no defensive armor.

to you the riches of the nations will come. When the Assyrians and Babylonians conquered nations, they exacted tribute that was brought to them (see notes on ; ; ; ). This is known in texts and pictured by laden people shown on palace reliefs. Now the tables are turned, with the erstwhile captives receiving tribute gifts.

Herds of camels. Camels were sometimes part of tribute that was brought, but they were also freight carriers for merchants; thus, those who had many camels were considered wealthy. Midian. A nomadic Arabian tribe that had dealings with Israel from Mosaic times (see note on ). Ephah. Mentioned only two other times in Scripture (, ); associated with Midian, possibly a clan of that tribe. It is also mentioned in the Assyrian annals of Tiglath-Pileser III. Sheba. A southwestern Arabian kingdom that was a great trading center known to export precious stones, gold and incense (see ; see also notes on ; ). This kingdom is known as Saba in native sources and in the Assyrian annals. It had a very advanced urban civilization in the first millennium BC.

Kedar (see notes on ; ) and Nebaioth were inhabited by descendants of Ishmael (; ). The area probably lies in the northwestern Arabian peninsula. Kedar (Qedar) and Nebaioth (Nabayatu) are mentioned in Akkadian texts from the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods. Ashurbanipal mentions both towns in descriptions of his campaigns, and Kedar’s king joined the Persians to attack Egypt during the Persian period.

ships of Tarshish. See note on . Tarshish. Its exact location is uncertain (see note on ). It is also associated with silver in the seventh-century BC Hebrew Temple of the Lord ostracon.

juniper. A fragrant wood used in Mesopotamian building. Sargon roofed his royal palace with juniper beams to make it smell sweet. An Egyptian text directed to King Merikare includes juniper in the tribute of various woods from a military campaign. This reflects the same Isaianic context of tribute.

you have been forsaken. Divine abandonment explained the fall of cities or nations. When the deity is with the people, they flourish, but when the god leaves, they fall. Mesopotamian examples begin with third-millennium BC Sumerian texts and continue with second-millennium BC Akkadian ones. Esarhaddon, in a building description, recounts his rebuilding of Babylon, which had been destroyed because of evil within. It was precipitated because the gods and goddesses of the city went up to heaven, leaving the city to fend for itself. Abandonment by the Moabite god Chemosh is implied in the Mesha Inscription when it reports Israel’s earlier victories over Moab. But abandonment is not permanent, since Chemosh and Esarhaddon’s gods return, as does the God of Israel, as the end of this verse indicates.

I am the LORD. See note on .

freedom for the captives and release . . . for the prisoners. In the ancient Near East the freeing of prisoners (from debtors’ prison) as an act of justice often occurred in the first or second year of a new king’s reign (and then periodically after that). The Old Babylonian period king Ammisaduqa (seventeenth century BC) canceled economic debts on behalf of the god Shamash. Thus, the “jubilee” (“year of the LORD’s favor,” v. ) in this case was primarily for those in debt (for either financial or legal reasons) and for the freeing of debt-slaves. Unlike Israel, this Babylonian edict was entirely at the whim of the monarch, and there is no evidence that it was divinely sanctioned. For an example of this as being accomplished by an ideal king, see note on . Historically, a proclamation of freedom is recorded by Zedekiah, the last king of Judah ().

oil of joy. Anointing with oil was not only a sign of consecration for a task (v. ) but also part of joyful feasting that took place when messengers brought good news.

as a bride adorns herself. See note on .

a crown of splendor in the LORD’s hand. Deities are regularly depicted wearing crowns. Marduk’s crown is described as featuring horns, using gold and lapis lazuli, and being studded with gems. An Akkadian text addressed to Bel (Marduk) identifies the city of Borsippa as the god’s crown. Israel’s capital city is here equated to a divine crown with its beautiful fittings.

your land will be married. A deity marrying a land will protect and provide for it. Akkadian deities can “marry” a king, as when an Old Akkadian king is called “husband of Ishtar” or when the same goddess offers to take Gilgamesh as her husband. But nowhere else besides Isaiah is the country itself being married to a god because in the OT this is the metaphoric language of the covenant relationship between Yahweh and Israel. Such a covenant between a god and nation has not been attested elsewhere in the ancient Near East.

Raise a banner. A banner or ensign was a visible symbol that could be elevated to identify a person or group. While “banner” connotes some sort of flag, this more likely indicates a staff topped by an identifying emblem. Banners in ancient Israel were used for marking tribes. They appear to have been used most often in military contexts, either to rally troops together or to identify regiments of troops. In this, Israel was most certainly imitating its Near Eastern neighbors. The Assyrians used standards to identify particular regiments of troops.

Edom. See notes on (“Dumah”); ; . Bozrah. See note on .

you, LORD, are our Father. See notes on , .

no eye has seen any God besides you. See note on .

you, LORD, are our Father. See notes on ; .

offering sacrifices in gardens. See note on . altars of brick. Most incense altars were made of limestone. This has led to the very plausible suggestion that the Hebrew word (NIV “altars of brick”) can also mean “incense altars” (as it does in the inscription on a fifth-century BC limestone altar from Lachish). These were common features on the high places, where illegitimate worship took place. Alternatively, there are Babylonian rituals directed toward celestial deities that include sacrifices made on bricks.

who sit among the graves and spend their nights keeping secret vigil. An Aramaic text in Demotic script also associates a grave with a vigil. Night vigils were accompanied by music. The vigil mentioned here appears to hold some sacred function beyond simply mourning by a grave. The Hebrew shows it is being done inside the grave. Secrecy indicates that it is not a generally acceptable practice, probably part of a funerary cult. eat the flesh of pigs. A distinctive element of orthodox Israelite religious practice was avoiding pork; thus, eating pork shows the people’s religious deterioration. Even though banned, archaeological evidence indicates numerous Israelite sites with a small amount of pig remains. Pigs are rarely depicted in the ancient Near East, though there is a fourth-millennium BC seal from Luristan showing a wild pig. There is textual evidence for Egyptian abomination of pork, even for the gods, but it was by no means universally followed. Even in Egypt and Mesopotamia, where pigs were raised and eaten, they were not part of the regular offerings. An eighth-century BC Assyrian wisdom saying collection indicates that the pig is not fit for a temple since it is an abomination to the gods and considered accursed.

it stands written before me . . . I will pay it back. Economic texts are frequent in the ancient Near East, among them numerous loan documents. Akkadian loan documents may contain any of several elements: repayment date, repayment medium, interest rate. Usually such records are written in the third person, but some are in the first person. Hebrew ostraca from Arad concerning supply allocations order that the transaction be written down.

Fortune . . . Destiny. The proper (divine?) names used here—Gad (NIV “Fortune”) and Meni (NIV “Destiny”)—are obscure. Gad is attested in Canaanite and Phoenician texts, and is considered a good luck deity. Meni may have something to do with portion, and therefore some have thought that these gods may have had something to do with fate or fortune. Meni may have been the same as the Arabian goddess Manat, mentioned in the Qur’an. In the Babylonian pantheon, the god Namtar (“Destiny”) was the vizier of the netherworld. Additionally Fate was at times personified and deified.

Votive plaque picturing the god Shamash seated on his heavenly throne. See note on .

Kim Walton

Return to

Heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool. Where is the house you will build for me? In the ancient world the temple was considered the link between heaven and earth. Gods were considered to be gigantic (cf. ch. ) and the throne room in the central sanctum in the temple was often deemed to be located in heaven as much as on earth. In this way, sacred space was perceived to exist on the cosmic level, not just the terrestrial level. The cosmic dimensions of sacred space, as expressed here, diminished any architectural splendor of the earthbound temple in comparison.

bull . . . lamb . . . grain. These three acceptable ritual offerings are compared to unacceptable pagan practices: killing a person, breaking a dog’s neck, and presenting pig’s blood. kills a person. At the least refers to manslaughter, but apparently here refers to human sacrifice, not of a child, but of an adult. Such sacrifices are rare in Mesopotamia, only found when the consort and retainers were buried as part of the ritual of the substitute king (see the article “Substitutionary Rites”). During the First Dynasty in Egypt, a king was joined in his death by a retinue to serve him, though the practice was soon replaced by providing model figures and even representations of them painted on the tomb wall. breaks a dog’s neck. Animals, including young dogs (see ), were at times killed to seal a covenant. A letter from Mari concerns making such a covenant that involved killing a donkey, puppy and goat. Excavations at Tel Haror, just south of Ashkelon, have found puppy burials with the skeletons having broken necks; their significance, while suggestive, is unclear. Puppies also played a role in Hittite ritual from an earlier period. One refers to a sacrifice that is to follow defeat by an enemy that would include a man, a kid goat, a puppy and a suckling pig. pig’s blood. Pigs, as unclean animals, were unacceptable for sacrifice in orthodox Israelite worship (see note on ). A Middle Kingdom coffin text explains how, through a declaration of Ra, pork is unclean in Egypt, an abomination to the gods.

you will nurse and be satisfied. A blessing for those returning to Mother Jerusalem will be sufficiency of nourishment. The intimacy of a suckling child makes the imagery even more evocative. An Aramaic curse from the ninth century BC refers to the idea that many mothers will not be able to satisfy even one infant.

As a mother. Unlike the gods of Israel’s neighbors, Yahweh is not understood as a sexual being and does not, in orthodox Israelite religious belief, have a consort (see notes on ; ). He is described metaphorically, however, using both male and female terms. God is called Father (see ; see also notes on ; ). More rarely Yahweh is described using feminine metaphors (see ; ; ; ; ).

his chariots. See note on . Marduk rides a chariot in his violent conflict with Tiamat in the Enuma Elish. Sennacherib speaks of himself going into battle in Ashur’s chariot. Baal used clouds as his chariot, being called “charioteer of the clouds” in battle contexts. In a cultic context, Mesopotamian idols were carried in chariots or carts in some festival processions.

From one New Moon to another and from one Sabbath to another. See note on .

↑ Back to top