Chapter 240 of 379

Annotations for Luke

draw up an account. In the Mediterranean world, disciples of teachers often committed the teacher’s lectures to writing; otherwise, others often did so (especially if the disciples were not very literate). Most scholars agree that at least one of the written works by Luke’s day was Mark; one of the many other sources might be a collection of material shared by Matthew and Luke (perhaps a collection of mostly sayings reported by Matthew). Sometimes students published their teacher’s sayings in ways that even reflected the teacher’s distinctive style. things that have been fulfilled among us. Reflects the kind of subject noted by ancient historians (rather than by other kinds of writers) in their prefaces.

eyewitnesses. Historians in the eastern Mediterranean world normally consulted eyewitnesses whenever possible. Oral transmission could be very accurate, especially among disciples of teachers in the east. Ancient memories were carefully trained, both among the educated and among uneducated reciters, and disciples of teachers ordinarily saw one of their chief roles as accurately communicating their teachers’ message. See .

carefully investigated everything. Historians in the eastern Mediterranean valued careful investigation, including travel to sites where events occurred and interviewing witnesses there. Luke could have done this during his extended time in Judea (see ; ; ). Thus Luke could have “thorough knowledge” (as the term could also be translated), confirming the traditions widely circulated in the church (). most excellent Theophilus. The title “most excellent” suggests that Theophilus was a person of status (cf. ; ; ). Writers often dedicated works, as here, to a person of prominence, which helped promote the book and might secure the dedicatee’s help in promoting it. (Sometimes, though not always, the dedicatee was the book’s sponsor. The dedicatee was rarely the book’s sole intended audience.) Although some have suggested that “Theophilus” is used as a symbolic name, it was a common name, including among Jews in the Diaspora. There is no record of symbolically named dedicatees in ancient sources.

Herod king of Judea. See the article “

” division of Abijah. There were 24 divisions of priests; the division of Abijah appears in . Priests could marry any fellow Israelite, but they often preferred to marry daughters from priestly families, as here.

blamelessly. Scripture sometimes spoke of people as blameless (; ; ); this did not necessarily mean absolute perfection (cf. ) but meant that they did not break explicit Biblical commandments. Because some people supposed that those unable to bear children (v. ) were cursed, it is important for Luke to counter that this family was blameless.

childless . . . not able to conceive . . . very old. Jewish people often contemplated God’s covenant with Abraham (v. , ). Luke here evokes the story of Abraham and Sarah; in Sarah was also “not able to conceive” (the same Greek term in the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) and the couple was “very old” (). Childless parents lacked support in their old age, and many people assumed that such a condition reflected divine punishment for sin. Likewise, custom in many Judean circles demanded that if for many years a wife of childbearing age did not bear children, the husband should divorce her so he could father children with a different wife. Zechariah and Elizabeth did not do so.

Some estimate that there were some 18,000 priests and Levites. Each of the divisions of priests (v. ) would serve in the temple during major festivals and also one week every half year.

chosen by lot. Because there were so many priests (see note on v. ), special duties had to be assigned by lot (see note on ). Jewish people believed that God supervised the result of the lot (cf. ; ; ). This occasion was likely Zechariah’s only opportunity to perform this service during his lifetime.

time for the burning of incense. Priests offered incense in connection with the morning and evening sacrifices; cf. the “time of prayer” in .

God often sent the angel of the Lord in the OT to announce tidings, sometimes including about special births (; ). Satan had once appeared at the high priest’s right side, but the angel of the Lord defended and delivered God’s message to the high priest ().

gripped with fear. Fear was a common response to an angelic revelation (). Ancient narrators liked to parallel various characters (see the article “

”). Luke here compares the respected priest Zechariah in Jerusalem’s temple (vv. ) and the lowly girl Mary in a Galilean village (vv. ), with a comparison similar to that between the high priest Eli and the lowly Hannah in . Rhetorical handbooks show that ancient writers not only contrasted good and bad role models but also good (Zechariah) and better (Mary).

Zechariah (Lk 1:12–22)

Mary (Lk 1:26–38)

Zechariah is “startled” (v. )

Mary is “troubled” (v. )

“Do not be afraid” (v. )

“You are to call him John” (v. )

“You are to call him Jesus” (v. )

“He will be great in the sight of the Lord” (v. )

“He will be great” (v. )

“He will be filled with the Holy Spirit even before he is born” (v. )

“The Holy Spirit will come on you” (v. )

He will turn people back to God (vv. )

“He will reign” (vv. )

“How can I be sure . . . ?” (v. )

“How will this be . . . ?” (v. )

Proof or explanation (vv. )

“You did not believe my words” (v. )

“Blessed is she who has believed” (v. )

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Do not be afraid. In Scripture God repeatedly commands his people, “Do not be afraid,” including during revelations (; ; ; ); the angel of the Lord sometimes offers this command (; ), including when people are afraid because of the revelation (; , ). For announcements of births in the OT, see, e.g., ; . Your wife . . . will bear you a son, and you are to call him. Closely echoes ; commands to name a child appear also in ; ; .

wine or other fermented drink. The prohibition of strong drink fits consecrated Nazirites (), and the language echoes the angel of the Lord’s birth announcement to Samson’s mother: while pregnant she, and presumably later the Nazirite Samson, must not drink “wine or other fermented drink” (, , ). filled with the Holy Spirit. The Spirit of the Lord also came on Samson, but for a different mission (; , ; ).

bring back. The prophets called Israel to return to the Lord.

turn the hearts. Scripture promised that Elijah would “turn the hearts of the parents to their children” () before the coming of the day of the Lord (). John’s mission was to prepare the way for God himself, thus for Jesus (see , ). Preparing people for the Lord was also the mission of the forerunner in (quoted in ).

How can I be sure of this? Confronted with astonishing revelations, many earlier hearers requested explanations or signs (; , ; ) or even openly doubted (; ). The standards here are higher.

Gabriel. Although Jewish tradition had elaborated the names of many angels, the only two named in Scripture are Gabriel (; ) and Michael (, ; ). Jewish tradition included Gabriel among archangels who stood before God’s throne.

It did not take long to cast incense on the altar. Failure to emerge quickly might suggest that God had punished him or the people for irreverence.

could not speak. Sometimes God blinded the wicked () or a revelation could leave one momentarily speechless (); more important, as a sign God had once required a prophet to be silent for a period of time (; ; ).

returned home. Priests were not supposed to own their own lands, but because of economic necessity (including exploitation by the wealthier priests) some even farmed plots of land.

disgrace. Shame was attached to the inability to have children in Elizabeth’s culture (see note on v. ). Scripture often records the celebration of women who became able to bear children (; ), including the removal of shame ().

Gabriel. See note on v. . Nazareth. In contrast to Jerusalem, with its massive building projects, Nazareth was a lowly village (cf. ).

pledged to be married. The betrothal period was often a year, and Jewish tradition suggests that couples in Galilee were not left unchaperoned during that time. Betrothal involved a financial agreement between families, and it could be ended only by divorce or death. It concluded with the wedding night, at which point the marriage could finally be consummated sexually. descendant of David. Because the royal line was through the father, any legal son of Joseph would belong to David’s line. Legal lines mattered more for this purpose than did genetic ones; thus, e.g., the Roman emperors during this period were adopted rather than biological sons of their predecessors.

highly favored. The greeting is unusual, especially to a person of low status. Given the usual age of marriage for Galilean virgins, Mary may have been in her midteens; her age, her gender and her being a Galilean villager together would have given her little social standing. The Lord is with you. Divine announcements often included the assurance that God was “with” the hearer, including when God was calling someone to a difficult task (e.g., ; ; ; ; , ; , ).

Do not be afraid. See note on v. . favor with God. Others called by God found favor with him (; ).

will conceive and give birth to a son, and . . . call him. The announcement echoes ; this passage appears particularly pertinent for a virgin (v. ), especially in the Greek translation of Isaiah. For further detail on how early Christians read , see note on .

throne of his father David. In , God promised David an eternal lineage and being adopted as God’s children, but David’s royal line no longer ruled. From the stump of this line, however, would come an eternal ruler (), the one who would reign on David’s throne eternally (). This would also be the Mighty God (; a divine title in ).

kingdom will never end. The eternal kingdom also belonged to the son of man in ; Jewish people expected this kingdom to come in the time of the fourth empire (), which Jewish people in Jesus’ day believed was the Roman Empire.

virgin. Given the usual age of marriage in Judea and Galilee, Mary was probably in her teens. Girls could marry as young as 12, but 13 to 16 was more common, and some were even past 20; apparently most Jewish men married around the ages of 18 to 20, perhaps a decade younger than most Greek men.

overshadow. The language here evokes the image of God’s glory (as in ), as when God’s glory filled the tabernacle (; cf. also the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, in ).

Although Sarah doubted that she could have a child in her old age, God reminded her that nothing was impossible with him ().

servant. Calling oneself the other’s servant expressed compliance or gratitude (; ; ; ; , ; ), including in addressing God or angels (; ).

Presumably Mary’s family arranged for her to travel with others journeying in that direction, since it would not have been safe for a young woman to travel several days alone.

greeted Elizabeth. Greetings were important and the most basic Jewish greeting was shalom, “Peace” (meaning “May God cause all to be well with you”).

leaped in her womb. Many people in antiquity recognized that children could be active even in the womb. The common Greek version of the OT uses the same Greek verb here translated “leaped” for the babies jostling inside Rebekah in , after God ended her childlessness. Nevertheless, as often in antiquity more widely used as here, leaping is an expression of joy (see v. ; cf. ).

Blessed. Sometimes one could implicitly bless one person by explicitly blessing another (e.g., ). the child you will bear. Lit. “the fruit of your womb,” a common Hebrew figure of speech (e.g., [NIV “having children”]; ).

If Elizabeth’s pregnancy evokes that of aged Sarah in Genesis (see notes on , ), Mary’s evokes a wider range of miraculous births in the OT, though of course her virgin birth is unique. Mary’s song has special resonances with Hannah’s song in , when Hannah celebrates the birth of her son Samuel. Just as Hannah’s humility and faith bring her greater blessing than the aged priest Eli in , Mary’s humility and faith bring greater blessing than Zechariah’s in (though Zechariah is a less disobedient character than Eli).

Following are some possible connections between the song of Mary and that of Hannah, though Mary’s song also draws on a much wider range of Biblical language:

1Sa 2:1–10

Lk 1:46–55

God exalts the lowly (, , )

God exalts the lowly (vv. , )

“My heart rejoices . . . in your deliverance” (v. )

“My spirit rejoices in God my Savior” (v. )

“No one holy like the LORD” (v. )

“Holy is his name” (v. )

Celebrating the exaltation of the humble exalted and bringing down of the proud (vv. )

Celebrating the exaltation of the humble and bringing down of the proud (vv. )

The poor versus the rich (vv. )

The rich leave emptyhanded (v. )

The hungry versus the full (v. )

God has filled the hungry (v. )

The poor displacing nobles (v. )

Rulers brought down (v. ) (using the same term as the Septuagint of )

The shift from personal deliverance to God’s anointed king (v. )

The shift from personal deliverance to Israel’s deliverance (v. )

This chart is adapted from Craig S. Keener, Acts: An Exegetical Commentary (4 vols.; Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012–2014), 1:557.

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My soul. A poetic way to speak of oneself during worship (; ; , ). glorifies the Lord. Another way of saying “praises him” ().

rejoices. The Psalms speak of joy or rejoicing, usually in the context of worship, close to 100 times. As in the Psalms, a second line of praise (here) repeats or develops the thought of the previous line (v. ). God my Savior. A common expression (e.g., ; ; cf. for being “joyful in God my Savior”).

he has been mindful. Reflects common language in the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) of the Psalms (e.g., ; ). all generations . . . blessed. For perpetual honor, see note on .

the Mighty One. A common Biblical title for God (e.g., ; ; ). holy. That God’s name is holy is even more pervasive in Scripture (e.g., ; , ; , ). Cf. “holy . . . is his name” ().

from generation to generation. A common Biblical expression (e.g., ; ; ). Mary knew that God’s love was forever with those who loved him ().

mighty deeds with his arm. Evokes frequent Biblical language; God scattered his enemies with his mighty arm in .

God exalts the lowly and casts down the proud (; , ).

He has filled the hungry with good things. The general language about God’s generosity in is here applied to Mary’s experience.

his servant Israel. For God’s blessing to Israel, see, e.g., . remembering. For prayers that God will remember mercy, see ; .

Some ancient sources speak of ten-month pregnancies, but many recognized that nine was normal. This suggests that Mary remained until John was born (see v. ).

shared her joy. Neighbors normally shared in celebrating special events such as the births of children.

circumcise. Jewish people circumcised on the eighth day (; ); in this period the father often performed the ritual.

In this period, the father had more say than the mother in a child’s naming; a child was often named for grandfathers and sometimes for fathers.

writing tablet. A wooden board with a wax surface. he wrote . . . John. Priests were often educated; writing the name would probably be basic for them.

For restoration of speech as a prophetic sign, see note on v. .

the Lord’s hand was with him. Reflects a Biblical idiom regarding God’s hand (; ; , ; ; ).

filled with the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit was often associated with prophecy in the OT (; , ; , ; ); early Jewish circles emphasized this prophetic role of the Spirit even more consistently, although often with regard to the prophets of the past era. (The primary exception is in works from specifically Essene circles, which included but did not focus as narrowly on the Spirit’s role in inspiration or prophetic empowerment.)

Praise be to the Lord. Pervasive in the OT (e.g., ; ), often more fully, “Praise be to the LORD, the God of Israel” (e.g., ; ; ), e.g., in praise for fulfilling his promise to David (). redeemed them. The emphasis on God redeeming his people (including liberating them from slavery) is also pervasive (e.g., ); some texts also speak of God “visiting” his people (here, “has come to his people”) when he would help them (the same Greek term in ; ; ).

horn of salvation. Cf. ; . For the connection between “horn” and “deliverance” (or “salvation”) in Hannah’s song, see . Because animals could use horns in battle, the horn was a natural figure for strength. his servant David. Scripture often speaks of his servant David (; ; ; ; ; ). The OT speaks roughly 24 times of the “house of David.”

The prophets promised Israel future deliverance from their enemies, sometimes connected with the coming of the ultimate Davidic king (e.g., ; ). Cf. .

to our ancestors . . . to our father Abraham. When God acted to redeem his people in the past, he did so in remembrance of his covenant with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (). He had also promised to do so whenever Israel turned to him (). This showed his grace (; ; ). Scripture often speaks of God’s oath to the patriarchs (see especially ).

serve him without fear. This phrase does not mean “without fear of (reverence for) the Lord” (cf. , ; ; , ), but without reason to fear their enemies ().

prepare the way for him. Recalls ; (as in ; ), perhaps especially the former (in view of salvation in v. ; ).

forgiveness of their sins. God had promised to forgive his people (; ; ).

sun will come. Might evoke (in the context of Elijah being the preparer for the Lord, ). Some also suggest a connection with “the Branch” of and , which the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, translates with the same expression translated rising sun here.

to shine on those living in darkness. Evokes . shadow of death. Also evokes ; appears in the Greek version of Isaiah’s passage (though the phrase also appears in three psalms), a Messianic passage (). path of peace. Also Biblical language (e.g., ).

In view of , this verse continues the comparison between John and the greater Jesus. Ancient comparison not only contrasted bad and good, but also great and greater, as here (see also ). Comparing good and better honored the better all the more. lived in the wilderness. Normally only the most radical people (such as one later radical teacher named Bannus, or many Essenes) lived in the wilderness.

Caesar appears the dominant cause of movement in this narrative, but ultimately God plans his purposes for Christ, whose coming and kingdom differ starkly from that of Caesar. As Scripture says elsewhere, God is near the broken but far from the proud.

Contrasts between Caesar and Christ implied in :

Augustus

Jesus

Augustus (v. ) ruled from a palace

Jesus was placed in an animal feeding trough shortly after birth (v. )

Earthly choirs in imperial temples praised Augustus, celebrating his birthday

Heavenly choirs praised Jesus at his birth (v. )

Augustus was hailed as bringer of the Pax Romana, the Roman peace

Heaven’s choirs praised Jesus as bringer of true peace (v. )

Augustus was hailed as savior and lord

The angel of the Lord announces Jesus as Savior and Lord (v. )

Augustus enjoyed the praise of the powerful

Angels announced Jesus’ birth to shepherds, who were considered lowly and often despised (vv. )

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Caesar Augustus. Augustus was the most powerful ruler ever known in the Mediterranean world. the entire Roman world. This summation need not mean that the census was carried out in every place at the same time. The census was to assess taxes; Romans practiced this irregularly until Augustus. The intervals were originally shorter, but starting at some point, in some locations large censuses probably took place about every 14 years.

Quirinius. Syria’s governor during the famous, contentious census of AD 6, but our incomplete historical records do not name Syria’s governor during the time of Jesus’ birth. Some suggest that Luke confused the two censuses or periods; others, that he deliberately conflated the census here with the later, better-known one. Others suggest that Quirinius was already an official at this time (we lack evidence at this point to say that he was not), in which case Luke may mean, “the first census under Quirinius” (see ). Still others prefer the translation, “before Quirinius was governor.” In any case, the region that Romans came to call Palestine belonged to the Roman province of Syria and historians dated events in connection with officials, so it was appropriate to name Syria’s governor whether or not he administered the census directly.

own town. The limited surviving evidence suggests that people had to return not to where they were born but to where they owned property; evidence also suggests that such a census may not have affected property in Galilee. Some thus suggest that Joseph still held property in Bethlehem for which he had to register regardless of property in Nazareth. (If so, v. suggests that the property was either in use or had no house.)

Bethlehem. About six miles (nine and a half kilometers) beyond Jerusalem, to its south. The promised ruler would be from David’s line (e.g., ).

with Mary. For a woman who was betrothed but not yet married to be pregnant violated social standards.

cloths. Parents and midwives wrapped an infant’s limbs in long strips of cloth to help them to grow straight. They could be used until the infant’s limbs became firm or for as long as two months. manger. A feeding trough for domestic animals; people sometimes kept animals in caves by the house. Gentiles had a few stories of deities born in caves (though also stories of deities born elsewhere). Luke does not specify a cave as the place of the manger, but the tradition that Jesus was born in a cave is early, information apparently already circulating in Bethlehem by the early second century.

shepherds. Despite Biblical traditions about Moses and David, most people of status throughout the empire viewed shepherds as lowly and sometimes as rough, unclean or even dangerous. That shepherds were watching their flocks outside at night, rather than having them in pens, suggests that the season was warm. (The date of Dec. 25 was selected later, probably to fit a Roman festival.)

terrified. See note on .

Do not be afraid. See note on .

Savior . . . Lord. Inscriptions hailed Caesar as the empire’s savior and lord; Scripture, of course, recognized God as the true savior (; ). born to you. Probably echoes .

sign to you. Prophets sometimes offered signs from God to confirm their message (see, e.g., ; perhaps especially relevant in this context is ).

peace. Augustus (v. ) boasted that he had established peace by conquering Rome’s neighbors; in fact, Parthia remained Rome’s feared enemy and Augustus’s boast was largely propaganda. Jesus, however, was God’s agent of a different kind of peace (cf. also ).

Bethlehem was a small enough town that searching animal mangers for the one with the baby may not have taken long.

pondered . . . in her heart. Cf. .

present him . . . consecrated to the Lord. See , .

pair of doves or two young pigeons. allowed poor couples to sacrifice pigeons, which were inexpensive. Possible evidence of a structure for raising pigeons has been found in Jerusalem. Jerusalem was only six miles (nine and a half kilometers) from Bethlehem.

consolation of Israel. God had promised to bring consolation or “comfort” to Israel in the time of the end (; ; ; ).

revealed . . . by the Holy Spirit. Scripture spoke of God’s Spirit in various ways, but prophetic revelation would be a particularly obvious way, especially to first-century hearers, since early Judaism associated the Spirit especially with prophets and their activities.

dismiss your servant. One might express willingness to die after experiencing a climactic blessing (; Tobit 11:9).

light . . . to the Gentiles. See Israel’s mission in ; ; recognizing that Israel does not fulfill the task sufficiently (), Isaiah suggests that one within Israel ultimately fulfills Israel’s mission (see ). glory of . . . Israel. In the time of their restoration, see .

falling. May allude to .

eighty-four. Many people in antiquity respected a widow who remained faithful to the memory of her husband by not remarrying. Cf. the Jewish story about the widow Judith, who remained unmarried after widowhood until age 105 (Judith 16:22–23). In this period, even 84 was exceptionally old.

redemption of Jerusalem. God had promised to bring redemption for his people (; ; ; ; ).

The language reflects ; (there are also two comments about Jesus growing as there were about Samuel; see v. ). See note on .

went to Jerusalem. Scripture commanded three major festivals () that required pilgrimage to Jerusalem every year (); one of these was Passover (). Although Jerusalem was too far for most Jews in the Diaspora to travel annually, Galilee was closer. The journey might take three days, but Josephus testifies that entire villages journeyed to Jerusalem.

twelve years old. Jewish boys came of age and became men once they achieved puberty, typically around age 13 (later the age for bar mitzvah).

unaware. In a large nuclear family, some children (especially older ones) might be with extended family; often entire villages traveled together from Galilee for pilgrimage festivals.

After three days. Older estimates of Jerusalem’s population (25,000–30,000) are too low; it may have been closer to 70,000 or 80,000. The population swelled to as high as 500,000 during festivals; although the festival was over, some pilgrims in the Diaspora may have stayed for Pentecost or to visit relatives there, so the city might have remained slightly more crowded than usual. Nazareth was at least three days’ journey from Jerusalem, so the rest of the relatives would likely be home by the time Mary and Joseph located Jesus. sitting . . . asking them questions. Disciples would sit at the feet of teachers, both listening and asking questions. Young men could enter this phase even in their early teens; nevertheless, Jesus’ preoccupation with Scripture at age 12 marks him as a prodigy. Ancient biographers liked to report any incidents that marked their subjects as prodigies.

obedient to them. Antiquity heavily emphasized children’s obedience (especially when they were minors) as an expression of honoring parents, which Scripture commanded (; ; ).

Even more clearly than in v. , this verse echoes the growth of Samuel “in stature and in favor with the LORD and with people” ().

fifteenth year. When Greek historians knew what year events happened, they often dated the events according to a ruler’s years in office (cf. also OT historians’ practice, e.g., ; ). Tiberius reigned from AD 14 until 37, but achieved some equality with his predecessor Augustus already in AD 13; scholars often date the time specified in this verse to between Sept. of AD 27 and Oct. of AD 28. Pontius Pilate. Judea’s prefect from AD 26 to 36; although well attested in Jewish sources and an inscription, Pilate’s only notoriety in the works of any extant Roman historians was a single mention in connection with his execution of Jesus. Herod. Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great and a Samaritan wife (see note on ), remained tetrarch (governor of a territory) of Galilee from 4 BC—after his father’s death—until AD 39, when he unwisely petitioned for greater authority. Philip. Tetrarch of Traconitis; he was a son of Herod the Great. Josephus attests all of these figures.

Annas and Caiaphas. Annas was the high priest from AD 6 to 15, when the Roman governor Gratus deposed him. Nevertheless, Annas retained thereafter both title and influence, and five of the succeeding high priests were his sons. Gratus soon elevated Joseph Caiaphas, probably also his son-in-law, to this role (AD 18–36). Jewish writers such as Josephus in this period used the title “high priest” not only for the highest priestly officer (as in the OT) but for leading members of the aristocratic priestly families in general. wilderness. See note on .

the Jordan. See note on . baptism. See the article “

” repentance. See note on ; see also .

On the use of , see note on ; Luke, however, extends the quotation to , so he may speak of salvation extending to “all people” (); as in , Luke undoubtedly sees here a foretaste of Gentiles’ conversion.

straight paths. Roads would be improved before a great king traveled; Isaiah prophesied a new exodus (e.g., , ; , ; see previous note).

see God’s salvation. Cf. .

See note on .

For the question—exploring what repentance (v. ) involves—see note on ; cf. note on .

two shirts. Some peasants in impoverished Egypt had only one cloak. Most people in Galilee probably had more, but still not many.

tax collectors. The tax collectors in the Gospels are probably subordinates who worked for the officials responsible for collection. Most people in the Roman Empire did not like tax collectors; Jewish people viewed them as traitors. For assessment purposes, tax collectors were allowed to search anything except the person of a Roman lady; any property not properly declared was subject to seizure. In Egypt, tax collectors were sometimes so brutal that they were known to beat up an aged woman to try to learn where her tax-owing relatives were hiding. When harvests were bad, on occasion an entire village, hearing that a tax collector was coming, would leave town and start a village somewhere else. People sometimes paid tax collectors bribes to reduce higher fees being extorted.

be content with your pay. Soldiers had sometimes demanded higher wages (or even mutinied); sometimes they also used violence or threats to extort things from local people, or legally requisitioned items for personal use. Most soldiers in Judea were Syrian auxiliary troops working for Rome.

sandals . . . untie. Carrying or tying another’s sandals was the sort of menial work a slave would do; although the prophets were servants of the Lord (e.g., ; ; ), John counts himself unworthy to be the coming one’s servant. baptize you with the Holy Spirit. Most Jewish baptisms were immersions in water, but Jewish people also expected a future pouring out of the Spirit (; ; ; ). Since in Scripture only God could pour out God’s Spirit, John regards the coming one as divine. fire. In contrast to the promised Spirit, the “fire” here presumably signals end-time judgment (see notes on , ). (Some people in antiquity thought of the cosmos as consisting of four elements: earth, water, wind and fire.)

See note on .

Summary statements were common in ancient historiography (see, e.g., ).

marriage to Herodias. Taking a brother’s wife violated God’s law (; ), but for Herod Antipas the issue was also politically sensitive. For political reasons, Antipas had married the daughter of the powerful Nabatean king Aretas IV (mentioned in ). When Antipas wanted to take Herodias, his brother’s wife, however, Herodias insisted that she would not marry a polygamist, so Antipas determined to divorce the Nabatean princess. She fled to her father, and the resulting feud stirred political trouble for Antipas; many of his Perean subjects were ethnically Nabatean, with loyalties to their people. Eventually, after the events narrated here, Aretas IV vanquished Herod Antipas in battle, and Antipas’s own people attributed his loss to divine judgment for Herod’s wicked execution of John the Baptist. See note on .

prison. Josephus (Antiquities 18.119) says that Antipas imprisoned John in his Perean fortress Machaerus, which included a dungeon. (Perea was on the east side of the Jordan.) As messengers of God, prophets were supposed to have immunity to speak freely; the entire Mediterranean world regarded the abuse of messengers or heralds as a terrible offense.

heaven was opened. The heavens could be opened for revelations (); see notes on ; .

like a dove . . . a voice. See notes on , ; , .

When information was available, ancient biographies often listed ancestors, especially well-known ones. Jewish genealogies started with earlier ancestors and culminated with the descendant in question (as in ); Greek genealogies were much likelier, as here, to start with the descendant and trace back to earlier ancestors. Scholars explain the differences between the genealogies in Matthew and Luke (or their sources) in various ways, such as levirate-related adoptions () or Matthew midrashically introducing elements to make spiritual points.

thirty. Generally considered a minimum age for entering public service.

Ancient medical tradition included a mixture of genuinely observed cures and superstitious folk medicine. Various schools of medicine existed, and because there was no standard for certification, not all doctors were competent even by ancient standards. In the first century, Greeks comprised a disproportionate share of doctors in the Roman Empire; many were also well-educated slaves in the service of wealthy estates. Many physicians were women, although the majority of these worked as midwives.

Temples to Asclepius, the Greco-Roman god of healing, were found all over the Mediterranean world. These temples were somewhat like the spas of today; therapy consisted more of rest, massage and a modified diet than of what we would call medicine. Religion also played a major role. A common healing method was “incubation,” whereby the sick person would sleep in the confines of the temple of Asclepius in the hope of receiving a dream-revelation from the god. Those who had been healed made special contributions to the temples, which often included plaster reproductions of whatever parts of their bodies had been healed. These were set on display as testimonies to the healing power of the god.

The second-century orator and chronic invalid Aelius Aristides, in his Sacred Tales, gives us an insight into the need people had for healing and the methods employed to that end. After falling ill on a journey to Rome and enduring brutal surgery at the hands of Roman doctors, Aristides became a devotee of Asclepius. The cures prescribed for him in the dreams included bathing in a churning river during winter, pouring mud on himself before sitting in the courtyard of the temple, walking about without shoes all winter and blood-letting from various parts of his body.

It was in such a world that Jesus performed his ministry of healing. Unlike many doctors connected to temples, Jesus healed without charge or fanfare. Also, he did not follow any specific ritual that might have been regarded as the key to tapping into magical, healing power. Sometimes he would touch a person; other times he might place a daub of mud on a blind man’s eyes () or simply speak a word (). In short, Jesus’ healings pointed to the power of God that dwelled within him; they did not encourage people to seek out rituals for magical healing but were part of his proclamation of the kingdom. Physical healing pointed always to the restoration of creation. ◆

Ancient surgical instruments, Roman, first century AD, Italy.

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led . . . into the wilderness . . . for forty days he was tempted. Forty periods of time probably evokes Israel’s experience, summarized in ; Jesus quotes from the next verse () in v. . See notes on , .

stone to become bread. Magicians sometimes claimed the power to change one substance into another (see note on ).

The context of addressed Israel as God’s “son” (); see notes on vv. ; . All of Jesus’ quotations in this narrative come from this section of Deuteronomy.

authority . . . given to me. The devil’s claim to possess delegated authority over the world fits Jewish ideas prevalent in Jesus’ day about the devil’s rule over the wicked nations (cf. also ; ; ; cf. the spirit of falsehood noted in the Dead Sea Scrolls). Nevertheless, the devil’s authority was limited; authority to delegate ultimately belongs to God ().

The context of prohibits idolatry (), recognizing the one true God (, ).

See note on .

synagogue. Many scholars believe that Nazareth proper had only a few hundred residents. Its synagogue thus may have been small, though probably nearly all residents attended, including those from the surrounding countryside. stood up to read. It was customary to stand to read the Scriptures.

Isaiah was handed to him. In this period, there were probably no assigned readings in the Prophets; readers or local leaders would choose their own. The community leader who handed Jesus the scroll (cf. also v. ) filled the role of what probably came to be known as the chazan. Unrolling it. One would unroll (and read) a Hebrew scroll from right to left.

Jesus reads , with an added line from (tradition suggests that synagogue readers were allowed to “skip” material when reading the Prophets). probably evokes the Year of Jubilee (), in which all slaves were to be released. Although Jesus’ reading ends with salvation, his audience would know that the passage goes on to announce also judgment.

sat down. After standing to read Scripture, the most advanced teachers would sit to explain it.

fulfilled in your hearing. People rightly expected this text to be fulfilled only in the Messianic era, the time of God’s coming kingdom. This geographic area may have been sensitive about premature kingdom claims; Nazareth was just four miles (six kilometers) from the major Galilean city of Sepphoris, which had been destroyed after a revolt against Rome about two decades earlier (AD 6). Sepphoris later refused to participate in the revolt of AD 66–73, but it maintained some Jewish traditions. Excavations show that the first-century city maintained Jewish law: they did not eat pork, they used ritual pools for purification, and they used stone pottery that did not contract impurity.

Physician, heal yourself! This proverb is attested both in Greek and Jewish circles.

no prophet . . . hometown. Scripture noted prophets being rejected, even in their hometowns (; ); Jewish traditions about the prophets amplified this pattern even further.

Elijah . . . Elisha. Jesus’ ministry, like that of Elijah and Elisha, will include raising the dead and curing leprosy. Jesus here highlights their ministry to foreigners (and by implication the resistance of their own people as in v. ).

throw him off the cliff. Nazareth is on a hill. Jewish custom suggested hurling a person from a cliff before stoning him, but it forbade execution without trial and would also forbid it on the Sabbath. Roman law forbade executions without the governor’s permission; this group functions like a lynch mob.

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Capernaum was more than a seaside fishing village in the days of Jesus. It was the place that Jesus chose to be the center of his ministry to the entire region of Galilee, and it possessed ideal characteristics as a point of dissemination for the gospel.

There were good reasons for this. The town itself was named Kephar Nahum, “village of [perhaps the prophet] Nahum,” and was the centerpiece of a densely populated region having a bicultural flavor. On the one hand, there were numerous synagogues in Galilee (in addition to the one in Capernaum), where the ferment of Jewish religious life was profound. On the other hand, there was Hellenism, a pervasive culture already centuries old and potent in its paganism—a lifestyle that influenced manners, dress, architecture and political institutions as well.

Archaeological work at Capernaum has revealed a section of the pavement of a first-century synagogue below the still-existing ruins of the fourth-century one on the site. A private house later made into a church and a place of pilgrimage has yielded some evidence that may link it to the site of Simon Peter’s house ().

Capernaum. Situated on the Sea of Galilee, Capernaum was larger than Nazareth; some estimate 1000–2000 residents in the city proper. By Greco-Roman standards it was a small and obscure town and, like Nazareth, not a location for Jesus that anyone would conceivably have fabricated. Archaeologists have found the site of Capernaum’s synagogue, and later rabbis attest that by the second century, Capernaum was a known center for Jewish Christianity.

words had authority. Most teachers did not want to speak on their own authority; when possible, they cited earlier authorities that supported their teaching.

possessed by a demon. See note on .

Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are. See note on .

Come out of him! See note on .

news . . . spread. Villages were often close together and rumors spread rapidly.

home of Simon. See note on . fever. See note on .

At sunset. Assuming that Jesus’ synagogue visit (v. ) was on the Sabbath, when people most often gathered there (cf. ), people waiting to bring others to Jesus fits Jewish practice (see note on ).

solitary place. See note on .

Lake of Gennesaret. The name used for the Sea of Galilee especially in this region.

washing their nets. This task would include removing things gathered in the nets other than edible fish.

put out a little from shore. Pushing out from shore provided sufficient distance for Jesus’ voice to carry. Galilee had many helpful acoustic settings, including a cove near Capernaum that could allow one’s voice to carry to vast numbers of hearers.

all night. Although fishermen also worked during the day and were believed able to endure the hot sun, many felt it was easier to catch fish before sunrise. (During the day many fish stayed in the depths to avoid the hot sun.) nets. Fishermen often cast a circular net of mesh, about 15 feet (4.5 meters) wide, into the water to catch fish; lead sinkers pulled most of the net down so it did not all float, and once it had trapped fish it could be hauled in. This method worked in shallow water, but for deeper water fishermen used a dragnet (see note on ).

large number of fish. The lake had several kinds of fish; today these include carp. The OT provided precedent for multiplying food (, ) and animals (, , ; ), including to eat (). nets began to break. Fishermen would have to repair ruptured nets before they could fish again; for those with less means, sometimes this even required a loan.

partners. Sometimes commercial fishermen partnered together in profitable fishing cooperatives (see also v. ).

I am a sinful man! In a similar way, God’s holiness also made Isaiah aware of his own sinfulness at his calling (; cf. ; cf. also ; ; ).

left everything. Many believe that commercial fishermen, although not elite, were usually better off economically than the peasants who comprised the majority of Galileans. Peasants’ work was also more seasonal than that of fishermen. Leaving behind the fishing business was an economic sacrifice.

leprosy. See note on .

touched the man. Because lepers were unclean (), anyone who touched them contracted temporary ritual impurity. For one Biblical precedent for healing a leper, see ; Jesus himself had recently highlighted this precedent during his Nazareth speech ().

Don’t tell anyone. Ancients respected people who did not seek their own honor. show . . . the priest. A priest was required to inspect a leper who believed that he or she was cleansed, and an offering in the temple should follow ().

Pharisees and teachers of the law. In Galilee, teachers of the law may have been more common than Pharisees; cf. . teachers of the law. Can refer even to executors of legal documents in villages, but in the Gospels usually refers to those who were literate and formally trained in the Law of Moses. (In the villages, some may have done both.)

roof. Logs used as roof beams supported most Galilean roofs; reeds or branches were laid across these logs, then the whole was overlaid with packed mud or clay. Luke, however, depicts instead the sort of tile roof familiar to his northern Mediterranean, probably Aegean, audience.

blasphemy. See note on .

Jesus knew what they were thinking. See note on .

Son of Man has authority. See note on .

tax collector. Most people disliked tax collectors; see note on .

One might throw a banquet in another’s honor; table fellowship established a covenant relationship, hence it could be perceived as connoting acceptance. See note on .

healthy . . . sick. Ancient speakers and writers often used sickness and physicians in moral or intellectual analogies.

but yours go on eating and drinking. See note on .

, fast. Fasting was often linked with mourning, whereas weddings were the supreme time for rejoicing. In fact, rabbis taught that weddings even took priority over many religious obligations. To fast during a wedding would reject hospitality, fail to participate in festivities, and so prove offensive to the host.

new wine into old wineskins. People employed animal skins, most often goatskins, as containers for fluids. Wine expands as it ferments; fermenting wine had already expanded old wineskins to their limit, so still-expanding new wine would rupture them. Jesus’ new order demanded a new approach.

The old is better. This saying evokes a similar Jewish proverb (cf. Sirach 9:10).

The Dead Sea Scrolls (found at Qumran) are the texts of a Jewish religious community now called the Qumran community. Numerous scholars have pointed out that there are similarities between the beliefs and practices of the Qumran community and those of New Testament Christians. Some have gone so far as to view Christianity as an offshoot of the Qumran community. There is no doubt that the Dead Sea Scrolls provide a unique window into the world of early Judaism and that their value for understanding the New Testament is great, but it is possible to exaggerate the similarities and overlook the differences between the Qumran community and the early Christians.

To be sure, we can find significant examples of how the Qumran community parallels the New Testament church:

• The Qumran community saw itself as the remnant of Israel that had entered into a new covenant with God in the end times.

• The community relied on revelations given to the “Teacher of Righteousness,” who had been persecuted by the Jerusalem authorities for his unorthodox beliefs.

• Community members made a sustained effort to read the Old Testament Scriptures in light of the realities of the “last days” that had now come upon Israel.

The Great Isaiah Scroll.

Wikimedia Commons

But these similarities should not be allowed to mask some crucial differences:

• Unlike the Qumran community, the early Christians did not withdraw into the desert. Instead, they remained within the Jewish communities in the Holy Land and in the Diaspora.

• Even more radical was the willingness of the early Christians to bring the Good News to the Gentiles, an idea completely absent from Qumran.

• The Qumran community abandoned the Jewish mainstream largely because of perceived defects in their calendar and in their interpretation of purity laws. The early Christians, meanwhile, made it clear that such matters should not be allowed to become sources of division (cf. ; ).

• Finally, while the instruction of the Teacher of Righteousness remained foundational for the Qumran community, this concept pales beside the Christian belief that Jesus has risen from the dead and sits exalted to reign at the right hand of God.

View of some of the caves at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found.

In sum, the Dead Sea Scrolls give us information on the kinds of issues of concern to Jews during the New Testament era: the identity of God’s true people, questions of ritual and purity, and the search for a fresh word of revelation in troubled times. But the community that emerged from Jesus’ teaching was radically different from that of Qumran. In many ways Qumran depicts for us “the road not taken” by the early Christians. ◆

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pick some heads of grain. Israelite law permitted those who were hungry to pick heads of grain when passing through a field (; ). The complication here, in the eyes of their detractors, is doing so on the Sabbath (; cf. reaping in the Mishnah, in Shabbat 7:2).

Pharisees. See note on .

Have you never read . . . ? See note on .

for priests. Like Matthew (), Luke omits Mark’s more confusing reference to Abiathar ().

Son of Man. See note on .

heal on the Sabbath. In general, Jewish teachers felt that whatever one could do before the Sabbath should not be done on the Sabbath. Life-saving procedures were acceptable; other medical treatments on the Sabbath were debated.

For healing a withered hand, cf. . Technically Jesus does not apply medical treatment or even lay hands on the man; no one considered a command to stretch out one’s hand as work!

These Pharisees are inconsistent with usual Pharisaic traditions. The Pharisaic school of Hillel permitted prayer for the sick on the Sabbath; the dominant Pharisaic school, the Shammaites, rejected this without persecuting Hillelites for it. Jesus, however, may have appeared a more direct threat to their beliefs. See note on .

mountainside to pray. Praying on a mountainside may follow some OT examples (e.g., ; , ; ; , ).

twelve. See note on .

Second names were common, thus there are some differences in the apostolic lists. Nicknames and being identified by one’s father or place of origin was also common, so the apostles who bear the same names (such as Simon and Judas) receive a second identifier. The names Simon, Judas, James and John were very common in this period. See notes on .

level place. Can mean either a low area or a flat one; in the hill country (cf. v. ) it could be a plateau. Tyre and Sidon. Phoenician cities to the north, although some Jews lived there.

Blessed. Biblical and ancient Jewish beatitudes, or blessings, declared that it was well with a person who behaved in a particular way (e.g., ; ; ). poor. Many Jewish traditions associated piety with the “poor,” which was also often associated with being poor in spirit (; some scholars suggest that the same Aramaic word stands behind both of these expressions). kingdom of God. See the article “

”

Many Jewish people expected a reversal of current status in the time of the end, when the lowly would be exalted and the exalted brought low (already in the OT, e.g., ).

because of the Son of Man. Jewish people spoke of suffering for God’s name; here it is because of Jesus.

Jewish tradition emphasized the persecution faced by the Biblical prophets (e.g., ).

Some have compared the pairing of blessings (vv. ) and woes (vv. ) with the contrasted pairing of blessings and curses in the OT (e.g., ). “Woes” were laments; prophets often pronounced them as a way of announcing judgments (sometimes sincerely mourning, at other times more mockingly).

comfort. See note on .

false prophets. Those who promised blessing even when a nation merited judgment were often more popular than true prophets (e.g., ).

Love your enemies. Some ancient thinkers advocated nonresistance, often on the grounds that anything that could be taken away did not really matter; some Jewish sages advocated it because of confidence in God’s ultimate vindication. Jesus agrees with God’s ultimate vindication, but his words go even deeper than nonretaliation: to love one’s enemies.

slaps you on one cheek. The backhanded blow on the right cheek was meant primarily as an insult, a challenge to one’s honor. The striker could be taken to court and fined for this offense. coat. The one possession that a creditor could not legally seize from a debtor (; ). The very poor might have only a single coat; in such cases, surrendering both the inner and outer garments might leave one naked. In this case, an element of hyperbole might be involved. Some also suggest that such extensive cooperation might shame one’s aggressor.

Antiquity hosted many beggars and also robbers and exploiters ready to take the possessions of those who would not fight back. Although Jesus may use hyperbole, he emphasizes trust in God’s provision and devalues desire for possessions.

Some earlier Jewish teachers offered this principle of wisdom, recognized in many cultures, though often in the negative form (see note on ).

In contrast to Gentiles, Jewish people were supposed to lend without charging interest (; ); they also had to release debts in the sabbath (seventh) year and the Year of Jubilee. Toward those years, lenders became less ready to lend, fearing that the poor, who might need to borrow money to sow their crops, could not repay (, ; ).

merciful. Some have suggested a particular Aramaic word, which can contain nuances of both “merciful” and “perfect,” that may stand behind the terms in and here in v. .

Do not judge . . . Do not condemn . . . Forgive . . . Give. In principle, many Jewish sages (and even some Greek thinkers) would have agreed with Jesus (see Sirach 28:1–3). Nevertheless, not all people practiced what these sages taught, and even today, following Jesus in practice requires more than agreeing with him in principle.

the measure you use. “Measuring” appropriately was a familiar image from contemporary marketplaces. “It is measured to one according to the measure by which one measures” was also a Jewish maxim.

Can the blind . . . ? Those who were literally blind often had someone sighted who could guide them. pit. For the prevalence of pits, see note on ; for falling into a pit as a metaphor of judgment, see, e.g., ; ; ; ; .

The student is not above the teacher. Ancient protocol mandated that disciples must always respect their teacher; on completing training, however, an advanced disciple could become a teacher.

, speck . . . plank. This graphic, hyperbolic image would likely draw laughter—and provoke thought. If a splinter risked blinding one, how much more a roof beam? Ancient eye surgery, meanwhile, was a delicate art that could result in blindness.

good tree . . . bad fruit . . . bad tree . . . good fruit. This was an agricultural principle understood by everyone.

figs . . . grapes. Like olives, figs and vines were pervasive in the Mediterranean world.

rock. Some other Jewish teachers told a parable similar to vv. , with a major difference: in their story, the foundational rock was the Torah, God’s law. Here Jesus’ teaching holds the same role as God’s message in the traditional parable.

Capernaum. See note on .

centurion’s servant. Centurions commanded roughly 80 troops; often they worked their way up through the ranks to achieve their position. Roman military units were stationed in Caesarea and in Jerusalem; they consisted of auxiliary troops, mostly recruited from Syria. Servants could be viewed as members of households (see note on ).

Jewish people appreciated God-fearing Gentiles. Some Gentiles (such as this centurion) became benefactors of local synagogues, although this was much more common in the Diaspora.

come under my roof. Strict Jews considered Gentile homes unclean and would not enter there. The elders may ask for an exception in the centurion’s case (v. ) if they know there is no idolatry there (the main source of uncleanness).

The centurion understands how authority works: just as soldiers obey the centurion because he is backed by the authority of the empire, every earthly harm, including disease, must submit to Jesus because he is backed by God’s authority (cf. , ; ).

dead person was being carried out. Because bodies had to be buried outside a community, the procession is exiting the town. widow. Because women ordinarily could not earn an adequate income in that society, this widow would depend on her son’s support in her old age.

By custom, the widow or the mother of the deceased would lead the procession. Members of a community who heard a funeral procession normally joined it from behind; because Jesus addresses the widow, however, it is clear that he approaches from the front. He was not planning to simply join in mourning.

bier. More like an open stretcher than a coffin; after a person’s death, the body was quickly washed and anointed and then carried out to the tomb. Contact with a corpse communicated the severest form of impurity (); Jesus’ touching the bier shows that he values mercy over purity (cf. ).

Prophets such as Elijah and Elisha had raised the dead (; ). God has come to help his people. See note on .

two of them. It was common to send messengers in pairs.

Jesus’ reported acts (v. ) were praiseworthy, but differed from the expected baptizing in fire ().

Jesus depicts his current mission of restoring the disabled and preaching to the poor as foretastes of the promised coming era of restoration. He does so by borrowing language from ; (he cites also in ).

Blessed is. On beatitudes, see note on . stumble. Often used as a metaphor for sin or falling away.

reed. The emblem on the coins of Herod Antipas, who imprisoned John, was a reed. John’s hearers would be familiar with reeds, since they grew as tall as 16 feet (5 meters) high around the Jordan, where John had baptized. swayed by the wind. Reeds were used figuratively for what was weak and undependable in time of trouble (; ; 3 Maccabees 2:22).

fine clothes . . . palaces. Antipas was only a tetrarch but was a king’s son and the closest to a king with palaces that Jesus’ Galilean hearers might ordinarily see.

messenger. The promised messenger of may be one like Elijah (see ).

least in the kingdom . . . is greater than he. See note on .

To what . . . can I compare . . . ? Rabbis often began parables with phrases such as this.

children. They sometimes played games of weddings or funerals (e.g., burying a grasshopper). dance . . . cry. Dancing was appropriate for the celebrations of weddings, and mourning for funerals. Both were community events; as funeral processions passed, e.g., bystanders were often expected to join in the procession. Here Jesus envisions spoiled children who argue inconsistently so long as they get their way.

He has a demon. A prophet with a demon would be assumed a false prophet—for which the penalty was death ().

eating and drinking. Like a false prophet, a habitual glutton and a drunkard were deemed worthy of death ().

invited Jesus. Inviting a traveling teacher for dinner would be viewed as virtuous (but cf. vv. ). reclined. Reclining as opposed to merely sitting indicates that it was a banquet, perhaps in Jesus’ honor.

alabaster jar of perfume. See note on .

behind him. Banqueters reclining on couches would face the tables with their feet pointed away from the tables; one approaching Jesus’ feet thus would stand behind him. wiped . . . with her hair. Most adult Jewish women in Judea and Galilee were married, and Jewish custom considered it shameful for a married woman to have her hair uncovered, as it must be here.

I have something to tell you. This was sometimes a way of introducing a stern message.

owed money. Those in debt could lose their property or even be reduced to temporary servitude. five hundred denarii. More than a year’s wages for an average worker.

Only servants or persons of low rank normally washed feet, but all good hosts would supply water for the guest to wash his feet. Setting aside normal protocols, Jesus openly exposes his host’s inhospitality. If intentional, Simon’s actions were conspicuously rude and demeaning toward Jesus.

Greeting a teacher with a kiss and providing a guest oil for him to anoint his head were basic courtesies. Again (see v. ), the host may have conspicuously insulted Jesus, or at least treated him as being of low rank (which most teachers would have viewed as insulting).

Who is this who even forgives sins? Although priests might pronounce God’s forgiveness, only God could forgive sins ().

Although women in general had fewer resources than men, some were wealthy, and some scholars estimate that a tenth of all patrons in antiquity were women. Women benefactors were normally acceptable (cf. ), but enemies sometimes used one’s support by such benefactors as a grounds for criticism. Married women traveling with men other than their husbands, however, as here, could occasion much more criticism (cf. note on ). Although a few philosophic schools had or permitted some women disciples, they are almost unknown among Jewish schools for the study of the Torah. (Persian and other cultures to the east of the Roman Empire had some strict protocols for women, but even Roman philosophic teachers who welcomed women students, such as Musonius Rufus, sometimes felt compelled to explain that intellectual training would aid women in domestic pursuits. Over the centuries, however, a handful of women in the Roman Empire did become famous philosophers in their own right.)

Herod’s household. On Herod Antipas, see notes on , .

parable. Parables were normally sermon illustrations; see the article “

”

Many ancient sources speak of plowing before sowing (which would have prevented the farmer from wasting some seed in this case!), but others clearly speak of sowing before plowing. See note on .

rocky ground. Much of the soil in the Holy Land is rocky.

thorns. A kind of thistle is common around roads and can reach more than three feet (a meter) in April.

a hundred times. The average yield of seed was probably between seven and a half to tenfold. A hundredfold was a remarkably good harvest (). Whoever has ears to hear. A phrase common to the language of a sage’s riddles, Jesus invites the wise to consider the meaning.

secrets of the kingdom. See note on . For the quotation from , see note on .

the meaning. Jewish teachers often gave interpretations with their parables, especially to their disciples.

See notes on , .

lights a lamp. The most common oil lamps of this period were small enough to hold in the hand.

Whoever has . . . taken from them. Jesus illustrates with a fairly common observation characteristic of ancient economics (see note on ).

My mother and brothers. Figurative kinship language was common in antiquity; e.g., one could call a respected older woman “mother” and call comrades or fellow members of one’s ethnic group “brothers.” Nevertheless, refusal to give higher priority to one’s physical family would appear offensive in ancient Mediterranean culture.

boat. Galilean fishing boats were usually fairly small; the surviving example is 27 feet (8.2 meters) long, 7.5 feet (2.3 meters) wide and possibly 4.3 feet (1.3 meters) deep. It was built especially of cedar planks (but supplemented with other wood, even scrap wood) with joints and nails. In addition to a mast, it had four places spread out for rowers.

squall. The shape of the hills surrounding the Sea of Galilee can funnel storms onto the lake; they can be sudden and devastating to small boats out in the midst of the lake. Rental contracts stipulated that boats were to be returned unharmed barring an act of God, such as a storm.

Where is your faith? Jewish people understood that God controls the wind and waves (; ; ).

region of the Gerasenes. See note on .

lived in the tombs. Jewish people regarded tombs and anything associated with the dead as impure; some associated spirits with such sites.

What do you want with me . . . ? Lit. “What (is there between) us and you?” (cf. )—a phrase that emphasizes distance and often hostility between the speaker and the one addressed. Most High God. See note on .

broken his chains. Superhuman strength appears in some reports of spirit possession in various cultures, occasionally even to the point of breaking restraints.

What is your name? See note on .

the Abyss. Various Jewish sources depict spirits being imprisoned, or bound, in various places, including beneath the earth. Although Jewish sources apply “abyss” more widely, the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, apparently applies “abyss” to “the watery depths” (; ), possibly relevant here (v. ).

pigs. Jewish people considered pigs unclean ().

herd . . . was drowned. Pigs can typically swim, but not indefinitely, probably especially after plunging over a steep bank, presumably many on top of each other. In some Jewish traditions demons could be destroyed or could be bound under bodies of water.

those tending the pigs. Pigs require little oversight, but even if the herders were few, they were responsible to the owners for the pigs’ welfare.

asked Jesus to leave . . . they were overcome with fear. Unfamiliar with the Jewish tradition of Biblical prophets, Gentiles may have thought of Jesus as a dangerous magician, whose power destroyed their herds of pigs.

The predominantly Gentile residents of the area (see note on v. ) would not have misunderstood a Messianic claim, but would have viewed him as a magician; thus Jesus urges clarification.

synagogue leader. This was nearly always a person of status and usually wealth; see note on .

bleeding for twelve years. Under Jewish law, vaginal bleeding made a woman impure (, especially vv. ); see note on .

touched the edge of his cloak. Even contact between an unclean person and another’s clothes rendered ritually impure the person whose clothes were thus contaminated (). Here the effect is the opposite: she is cleansed. See note on .

wailing and mourning. As soon as a person’s death was announced, professional mourners would gather to help facilitate the family’s and community’s grief. not dead but asleep. “Sleep” was a frequent metaphor for death. See note on .

took her by the hand. Contact with a bleeding person (see notes on vv. , ) could render a person impure until evening (, ), but touching a corpse rendered one impure for a week (, ).

the Twelve. In antiquity, groups were sometimes named by the number of members originally in the group. This group was called not only the “Eleven” () but also the “Twelve” () even after one of the twelve original members fell away.

Take nothing. In the poorest areas, many peasants had only a single cloak. Biblical prophets also had to live simply in times of widespread apostasy. See notes on , .

Whatever house. Hospitality was one of the chief virtues in Mediterranean antiquity, and Jewish travelers could normally count on Jewish hospitality even in cities in the Diaspora.

shake the dust off your feet. Proper hospitality included offering water for guests to wash their feet; here the travelers’ feet remain conspicuously unwashed. Jewish people sometimes shook profane dust from their feet when entering a more holy place (cf. ); some are said to have done so when leaving pagan territory to enter the Holy Land. Cf. the actions in ; (see notes there).

Herod the tetrarch. Herod Antipas—son of Herod the Great () by a Samaritan wife named Malthace, and full brother of Archelaus (Josephus, Wars 1.562; cf. )—was a tetrarch, i.e., governor of a territory (in his case, Galilee and Perea).

Elijah. People expected Elijah to prepare the way for the end (). Some Jewish people believed that prophets in the ancient sense had ceased, though many other Jews did follow the promises of those who acted like end-time prophets.

beheaded John. Josephus (Antiquities 18.119) says that Antipas imprisoned John the Baptist in his Perean fortress Machaerus, which included a dungeon, and executed him. Aretas IV, king of Nabatea, later vanquished Herod Antipas in battle, and Antipas’s own people attributed Herod’s loss to divine judgment for his wicked execution of John the Baptist. See note on .

Bethsaida. A town in Herod Philip’s territory; it was on the Sea of Galilee’s northeastern shore near the Jordan River.

villages. Few towns had more than 3,000 residents; most villages had only a few hundred. Visitors might normally hope for hospitality, but the region could not support 5,000 visitors (v. ).

looking up to heaven, he gave thanks. The Jewish custom was to thank God before one’s meal. See note on .

twelve basketfuls. See note on .

others say Elijah. Many Jewish people expected Elijah’s return ().

Messiah. See note on .

not to tell this to anyone. See note on .

must suffer. See note on . the elders, the chief priests and the teachers of the law. See note on .

take up their cross. Disciples were to honor their teachers but were not expected to die for following them. Those condemned to execution would often carry the horizontal beam of their cross (the patibulum) out to the site of their execution, through an often hostile and mocking mob.

to save their life will lose it. See note on .

the Son of Man . . . comes in his glory . . . holy angels. Scripture had promised that God would come with his holy ones (); here Jesus fills this divine role. He alludes also to the coming son of man in , at the time that he would receive the kingdom.

See note on .

face changed . . . flash of lightning. Moses talked with God on a mountain and Moses’ face reflected God’s glory. See note on .

Moses and Elijah. Elijah was taken to heaven alive (); God buried Moses (), although some Jewish traditions said that he was also preserved alive. Jewish people expected the return of Elijah () and the coming of a prophet like Moses ().

Let us put up three shelters. Peter knew how to construct such shelters; Jewish men built them annually for the Festival of Tabernacles.

cloud . . . covered them. The cloud of God’s glory overshadowed Mount Sinai (), from which also God spoke from heaven ().

A voice came from the cloud. See note on . Jesus is exalted above Elijah and Moses here. listen to him. Some scholars think this evokes the command regarding the prophet like Moses in .

See note on .

An argument . . . as to which . . . would be the greatest. Rivalry for greater honor was common among ancient Mediterranean men. This practice ranged from playful competition among friends to deadly competition among enemies; Jesus’ disciples here were not enemies, but it is possible that they went beyond playful banter.

little child. Children in Jesus’ culture were normally powerless, expected to be obedient, and dependent. They were, however, usually objects of their parents’ love.

in your name. That the man would cast demons out in the name of Jesus rather than invoking a spirit or using strong-smelling substances reveals his faith in Jesus. On ancient practices of casting out demons, see note on .

See note on .

resolutely set out. Sometimes this phrase (lit. “set [one’s] face”) involved prophetic determination (e.g., ; ). set out. Ancient works sometimes signaled a shift in the action of a narrative’s plot, as here (cf. ; ).

Samaritan village . . . did not welcome him. Rome ruled both Jews and Samaritans, but the groups mostly hated each other, each circulating stories of the other’s atrocities. Samaritans believed in the one God of Israel and claimed to be true heirs of his promises. Samaritans rejected the history of Israel after Joshua, and changed the Ten Commandments to include the requirement to worship on Mount Gerizim. Judeans had destroyed the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim; Samaritans likewise hated Jerusalem’s temple and often heckled Galilean pilgrims who passed through Samaria on their way to the festival, sometimes even causing bloodshed. See the article “

”

call fire down from heaven. They want to emulate Elijah (, ; cf. Elisha in ), whom three of them had seen in . Jesus followed the pattern of Elijah in some respects (cf. vv. , , ), but not in this one.

I will follow you. Disciples normally chose their own teachers, volunteering to follow them. Although some radical Greek teachers called some disciples (as Jesus did with some of his disciples, and as Elijah did with Elisha, ), most teachers depended on pupils who came to them. Jewish teachers likewise taught students who enrolled in their schools.

The proper response to a warning about difficulty (e.g., ) was to follow anyway ().

bury my father. Many considered honoring parents a son’s greatest obligation (e.g., Josephus, Against Apion 2.206), and burying them was the greatest expression of that obligation (e.g., Tobit 4:3–4; 6:15; 4 Maccabees 16:11). The obligation fell most heavily on the eldest son. To neglect this duty was unthinkable; it would make one an outcast from the extended family and dishonored in one’s village, normally for the rest of one’s life. But a son whose father had just died would not normally be out talking with a rabbi; on receiving the news, he would immediately see to the father’s burial. Some scholars note that, “I must first bury my father” sometimes functions as a polite request for delay until the father dies—sometimes a delay of years—so the son can continue with filial obligations in the meantime. Others suggest that this son refers to secondary burial—the custom of reburying the father’s bones a year after the initial burial. On either of these views, the son could be requesting a considerable delay.

Let the dead bury their own dead. Even if the son is asking for a considerable delay (see note on v. ), Jesus’ response would be shocking; burying one’s father was one of society’s greatest obligations (see note on v. ). In mainstream Jewish society, only God could claim honor above parents. Ancient sources sometimes refer to the spiritually (or socially) dead; alternatively, Jesus could refer to the literal dead, using shocking, graphic language to make his point, as he often did.

say goodbye to my family . . . hand to the plow. When Elijah called Elisha to follow him, Elisha was plowing. He requested a delay so he could bid farewell to his family; in that case, it included organizing a farewell party. Elijah permitted this (). Given Elisha’s 12 yoke of oxen, he was a wealthy man sacrificing much to adopt the rugged lifestyle of an Israelite prophet. Service in God’s kingdom, however, is even more demanding than being an OT prophet.

seventy-two others. God multiplied the prophetic empowerment on Moses by inspiring 72 of Israel’s elders (70 plus Eldad and Medad; ); Moses wished for this inspiration to extend to all of God’s people (). Jesus chose 12 apostles to lead renewal in Israel (which had 12 tribes; ); Jewish people reckoned that there were 70 (or sometimes 72) nations. two by two. Messengers were often sent in pairs.

send out workers. Once grain was ripe, gathering it in quickly before it could spoil was an urgent task. Landowners would hire extra labor.

lambs among wolves. Ancients viewed sheep as helpless against wolves, and some Jewish teachers viewed Israel as such sheep (though not normally, as here, sent among wolves). lambs. The most helpless of sheep.

bag . . . sandals. See notes on , . greet. Greetings were socially mandatory, except on an urgent prophetic errand or mission as in .

Peace to this house. Greetings were important and the most basic Jewish greeting was shalom, “Peace” (meaning “May God cause all to be well with you”). This was a blessing, i.e., an implicit prayer to God.

return to you. A curse was fulfilled only among those meriting it (); the blessing here works similarly.

Hospitality was one of the chief virtues in Mediterranean antiquity, and Jewish travelers could normally count on Jewish hospitality even in cities in the Diaspora. When Essenes (members of a strict Jewish sect) traveled, they carried little baggage with them, depending on hospitality from other Essenes.

eat what is offered. It was essential etiquette to welcome hospitality (see note on v. ).

dust . . . we wipe from our feet. Jewish people sometimes shook profane dust from their feet when entering a more holy place; some did so when leaving pagan territory to enter the Holy Land (see vv. ).

Sodom. Sodom rejected God’s messengers (). Biblical prophets used Sodom as the epitome of wickedness, and often applied this image to Israel (; ; ; ; ).

Woe to you. See note on .

Tyre and Sidon. See note on .

Capernaum. Jesus applies to Capernaum an image from the prophecy against Babylon in .

However one treated an agent or ambassador reflected one’s feelings toward the sender; one’s treatment of a prophet reflected one’s treatment of God (; ).

seventy-two. In antiquity, groups were sometimes named after their original number. in your name. Ancient exorcists coaxed and threatened spirits, and used incantations or applied odorous roots to expel them; by contrast, Jesus’ name (presumably indicating his authorization of his disciples) was instantly effective.

Satan fall like lightning. Jewish tradition spoke of Satan’s primeval fall in sin (though the Greek verb tense here might mean that Jesus watched Satan fleeing before them). The language of falling from heaven could be used figuratively (see v. ; ).

snakes and scorpions. These were among the creatures from which divine protection was valued (; ).

written in heaven. Jesus here probably appeals to the ancient Jewish image of the book of life (; ; and often in ancient Jewish literature).

Jesus’ prayer here fits earlier Biblical expectations about God discrediting the foolish wisdom of those who thought themselves “wise” (e.g., ; ; ; ).

No one knows. In the Jewish wisdom tradition, God alone knew (Baruch 3:31–32) and could share wisdom with humanity (Wisdom of Solomon 9:16–17).

Blessed . . . see. Jewish people often praised one person by uttering a beatitude over someone who knew them; the disciples are blessed because they receive revelation about Jesus and his kingdom (cf. ).

what must I do to inherit eternal life? If later Jewish sources are representative, questioning Jewish teachers about how to have eternal life was relatively common. Eternal life was the life of the coming age (), thus of the kingdom (cf. ).

Jewish teachers asked their disciples and other teachers, “How do you read it?” (i.e., understand the teaching of Scripture) as a way to gauge their understanding and to foster conversation and deeper study; they also often responded to questions with questions.

It was common to link texts based on a common key word or phrase; (quoted at the end of this verse) begins with the same Hebrew phrase as the verse cited at the beginning of this verse (): weʾahavta, “you shall love.”

Do this and you will live. Echoes the Torah’s promise of life for obeying God’s covenant (e.g., ; ).

neighbor. Although (“Love your neighbor”) applies most directly to loving fellow Israelites (), the context () also addresses loving the “foreigner residing among you.”

going down. Jerusalem’s elevation was higher than Jericho’s. attacked by robbers. Jericho was a wealthy community and robbers in the hills could readily accost solitary travelers. stripped him. Clothing was often a valuable commodity. leaving him half dead. Ancient sources employ “half dead” for one who was, to all appearances, dead.

, passed by on the other side. People would contract ritual impurity by touching a dead body (which the wounded man may appear to be; v. ). According to Jewish tradition, they contracted this if so much as their shadow touched the body—thus they passed by on the other side! Priests and Levites avoided impurity when possible (though the priest, also “going down,” has completed any duties he may have had in Jerusalem). Many wealthy priests lived in Jericho, so this story rang true to Jesus’ listeners.

a Samaritan . . . took pity on him. Jews and Samaritans generally hated each other (see note on ); while one would not expect most Samaritans to accost Jews (especially on a road largely traveled by Jews), neither would one expect him to help, especially with robbers possibly still around. Some scholars suggest that the Samaritan would not know that the beaten man was Jewish, since he had been stripped of his clothing. On this road, however, the vast majority of travelers would be Jewish, so the wounded man’s Jewishness could probably be assumed.

oil and wine. Sometimes used medicinally in wounds; wine might disinfect. on his own donkey. Leading a donkey for someone else adopted what was often a servile position; though cf. .

I will reimburse you for any extra expense. Innkeepers generally had a reputation as being untrustworthy, so the Samaritan provides financial incentive for the innkeeper to care for the man.

opened her home. The opportunity to offer hospitality to a famous teacher was considered an honor.

sat at the Lord’s feet. People with larger homes (as this one must be to host Jesus and his disciples) could sit on chairs or recline. To sit at a teacher’s feet, however, was to take the posture of a disciple (; Mishnah ʿAbot 1:4). Although women could hear Torah taught in the synagogue or occasionally even listen in to a teacher’s lectures, they were not taught by rabbis in their schools. Boys were schooled in reciting Torah; girls were not (despite some rare, exceptional women who learned Torah in a family setting).

distracted by all the preparations. Because women were expected to fulfill domestic responsibilities, Martha’s behavior fits the cultural expectations, while Mary’s violates it.

Mary has chosen what is better. Against cultural expectations (see note on v. ), Jesus affirms Mary’s choice more highly: a believer can have no greater role than being Jesus’ disciple.

When he finished. Jewish custom prohibited interrupting a person during prayer. Various Jewish circles could use their own prayers, though some prayers (see note on v. ) were widely used.

Father. Jewish prayers often began by addressing God as Father (already in ; ; Sirach 23:1, 4; 51:10). hallowed be your name. Jesus here also adapts the opening of the common Jewish prayer called the Kaddish (see note on ; the prayer in turn reflects motifs common to many ancient Jewish prayers). In its early form, the Kaddish began, “Exalted and hallowed be his great name, in the world that he created according to his will; may he cause his kingdom to reign . . .” Jewish people expected the hallowing of God’s name—i.e., showing it to be sacred, divine and unique—at the time of promised restoration (; ; ), the time of the promised kingdom.

daily bread. Prayer for food was one of the most common prayers in antiquity. God, who supplied daily bread to his people for 40 years in the wilderness (), could be trusted for sustenance, and the prompt for daily reliance on him reminds hearers of how God provided for his people after bringing them out of Egypt.

Forgive us our sins. The sixth benediction in a regularly prayed Jewish prayer, the Amidah, included a prayer for forgiveness. Some other Jewish sages also emphasized that one who wants to seek God’s forgiveness must also forgive other mortals (Sirach 28:1–8). lead us not into temptation. A Jewish evening prayer similar to Jesus’ prayer about testing here meant not “Do not let us be tempted” but “Do not let us fail when we are tested” (cf. , ).

Hospitality obligations demanded that one feed a visitor; indeed, the honor of the village would be at stake should hospitality fail to be extended. Since travel after dark was dangerous, a visitor arriving at midnight was an unusual situation.

three loaves of bread. Since local women often baked bread together, they would know which family might still have bread left over.

already locked. The door may be bolted, so one could not open it without potentially waking the children. Homes often had a single room. The poorest might sleep on mats or together on a large mat, and those who had beds did not always have enough for all family members, so some members might share. Ultimately, however, a villager would not be able to refuse bread under these circumstances; friendship obligations were important, but even more than this, the honor of the village was at stake. Cf. the Jewish tradition of holy men, following the model of Elijah, who persisted with certainty that God would answer (cf., e.g., ).

Ask and it will be given. See note on . the door. Fits the preceding parable (vv. ).

you fathers. Even if they were poor, as a majority of Galilee’s agricultural laborers presumably were, most Jewish fathers would above all else work to provide food for their children. fish. Like bread, fish was a basic staple of the Galilean diet.

how much more . . . ! Jewish teachers (and some Gentiles) often used analogy arguments from lesser to greater. give the Holy Spirit to those who ask. Most Jewish people in this period believed that the Spirit, if available, rested on only the holiest people; Jesus promises the Spirit’s availability to all who ask the Father. Cf. ; ; .

In addition to Jesus, other exorcists (; ; ) and occasionally magical miracle-workers () existed. Josephus recounts an exorcist who invoked the name of Solomon to cast out spirits, and Gentiles noted Jewish fortune-tellers and practitioners of magic. Later rabbis also recount two pious Jewish sages, at least one from pre-Christian times, who were known for answered prayer, especially the stopping of rain. (Traditions further embellished the details, but these come from several centuries later.) The closest earlier models for Jesus’ ministry of healing and exorcism, though, are the Biblical miracles reported about Elijah and Elisha and, to some extent, Moses. Some other Jewish prophetic figures after Jesus tried to imitate Moses or Joshua, but failed.

Gentile stories about miracle-working figures are further from the example of Jesus than are Jewish accounts. The closest stories are those about Apollonius of Tyana, a first-century Pythagorean sage. The stories about Apollonius’s purported miracles, however, derive from a much later, third-century writer—from a time when the Gospels were already in wide circulation. Philostratus, the writer, probably took over some stories about Jesus as well as developed his own. In contrast to Philostratus’s stories about Apollonius, the canonical Gospels stem from within living memory of Jesus, while some eyewitnesses remained alive.

No other ancient figure comes close to having the sorts of healings and exorcisms attributed to Jesus, except among his own followers acting in his name. Myths about gods and heroes, such as Asclepius, were written centuries after such figures putatively existed. By contrast, Jesus’ miracles appear widely already in Mark’s Gospel, within a generation of the events and easily within memory of survivors who had experienced them. They also appear in every other layer of Gospel tradition (including material shared by Matthew and Luke in ; ; ; ).

Miracles appear in Acts, and Paul recognizes that recipients of his letters had witnessed miracles through him (). Even critics of Jesus, such as later rabbis and some pagan authors, recognized that Jesus performed dramatic signs, even though they attribute these to sorcery. In the first century, the Jewish historian Josephus describes Jesus as a miracle-working sage in the same language he used for Elisha. ◆

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By . . . the prince of demons, he is driving out demons. Those accused of sorcery could be accused of dependence on spirits. In antiquity, magical formulas often tried to manipulate spirits. Beelzebul. See note on .

sign from heaven. The crowds could simply be asking for a sign from God (Jewish idiom sometimes used “heaven” as a euphemism for God) or for Jesus to predict a heavenly sign such as an eclipse or other phenomenon.

by whom do your followers drive them out? Other Jewish people engaged in exorcism. your followers. Lit. “your sons,” a phrase that could refer to disciples or apprentices.

Jesus’ ministry of deliverance is effective far beyond that of others (v. ). finger of God. This may be an allusion to the admission by Pharaoh’s magicians that the power in Moses’ signs far exceeded their own ().

Magicians sought to “bind” spirits to secure their service, but Jesus is not invoking magic. His parable shows his opposition to Satan. Delivering the strong man’s (the devil’s) possessions from his grasp alludes to God’s promise in : God would defend and deliver his people from the powerful one.

This is an image of conquest and triumph; conquerors ordinarily divided among their followers the possessions they had seized from the enemy. (The point of the parable, however, is triumph, and we should not press the details so as to envision literal followers gaining these possessions.)

See note on .

Blessed is the mother who gave you birth. One could praise a person indirectly by blessing his mother. Jesus uses the praise as an opportunity to teach (v. ).

Ninevites. The people of Nineveh apparently did not witness the sign of Jonah in the fish’s belly; they repented instead through his preaching. One Jewish tradition claims that Jonah tried to avoid preaching to Ninevites lest their repentance shame Israel for failing to do likewise.

Queen of the South. The queen respected Solomon’s wisdom (); some Jewish traditions from this period identify her as the queen of Ethiopia.

In some Jewish traditions, God would render the unrepentant without excuse on the day of judgment; he would do this by having those who repented despite better excuses testify. Although Jewish people expected God to vindicate Israel against the nations in the day of judgment, some later rabbinic traditions claim that repentant Gentiles would testify against unrepentant Israelites at that time.

lights a lamp. See note on .

eyes are healthy . . . unhealthy. Jewish people sometimes spoke of a “good” eye as a generous one, and an “evil” (lit. “unhealthy”) eye as a stingy one.

light . . . not darkness. Because light cannot be darkness, Jesus again uses shocking language to hold his listeners’ attention.

Pharisee invited him to eat. As often urban residents with some education, Pharisees were better off economically than Galilean peasants. It was considered an honor to host a famous teacher for a meal.

wash. Pharisees were scrupulous about their customs, including that of washing hands (see note on ).

clean the outside. First-century Pharisees debated whether to cleanse the inside or outside of a cup first. Shammaites doubted that it mattered either way, but Hillelites required cleaning the inside first. Jesus appears to agree with the Hillelites here (v. ), but unlike the Pharisaic debate he speaks figuratively about the human heart.

be generous to the poor. Here Luke differs from Matthew’s “clean” in the parallel text (), but it is possible that Jesus said something of both in Aramaic and offered a wordplay: Luke’s version reflects the Aramaic zakkau, and Matthew’s the similar-sounding dakkau.

Woe. “Woes” could function as laments or mourning, but prophets often used “woes” as creative ways to pronounce impending judgment (cf. ; ; cf. mocking laments in ; ; ; ). a tenth of your mint. Pharisees were known for their scrupulousness on tithing (see note on ). Because tithes were on food, however, Pharisees in this period debated whether spices such as mint counted (later rabbis decided they did not). Jesus here speaks of a hyperbolic Pharisee, even more scrupulous than normal. Fixated on details, they missed the heart of the law (for earlier summaries, see ; ).

most important seats. Throughout the Mediterranean world, people were usually seated according to their social rank; prominent members of the community thus received honor (see note on ). respectful greetings in the marketplaces. Social convention stipulated that social inferiors should greet superiors first; because in villages and towns people congregated especially in marketplaces, this location would provide opportunity for many greetings.

unmarked graves . . . walk over. According to Jewish tradition, if so much as one’s shadow touched even a tomb, one incurred ritual impurity. Tombs were marked to warn, e.g., Passover pilgrims coming to Jerusalem for the festival, lest the pilgrims incur ritual impurity by touching the tombs.

experts in the law. Not all were Pharisees, though because Pharisees were scrupulous in the law many of them held this role.

not lift one finger. The idea of offering a mere finger to help with a heavy burden is hyperbole.

, ancestors. In this period Jerusalem was building many tombs to honor prophetic figures. People employed the phrase “descendants of” literally, but also figuratively for those who acted like their ancestors; Jesus plays on these two senses here.

blood of all the prophets. Jewish tradition acknowledged and even amplified the OT record of persecuted prophets.

blood of Abel to the blood of Zechariah. According to a common Jewish arrangement of the Scriptures, Abel would have been the first martyr in the OT and Zechariah the last in the OT. Abel’s blood cried out for vengeance against his killer (; contrast ; ). As Zechariah was being murdered, he cried out for vengeance (). In one Jewish tradition, a fountain of blood spurted up from the site of his murder, inviting judgment for generations until the Babylonians conquered Jerusalem. Only then did the people plead with God to forgive them for the blood of Zechariah, and only then did the fountain stop.

waiting to catch him in something he might say. In a culture emphasizing honor, those who were publicly insulted could recoup honor only by humiliating the one who dishonored them.

many thousands. Few towns had more than 3,000 residents; most villages had only a few hundred. yeast. Known for spreading and pervading its sphere of influence.

from the roofs. The roofs of Galilean homes were flat, and people could work or rest there. There one’s voice could carry above the street unobstructed by buildings.

hell. Often envisioned by Jewish people as a place of fiery torment (see note on ; see also Gehinnom).

five sparrows sold for two pennies. The poor could purchase sparrows, probably the cheapest meat in the market. pennies. The penny is an assarion, worth less than an hour’s wage for the average worker; probably one received a slight discount for purchasing a larger quantity (hence the price is very close in ).

hairs of your head. A promise that not a hair would fall meant that one would be completely protected (; ; ); here, God knows and cares about every detail.

before the angels of God. May suggest “on the day of judgment,” or in the heavenly court.

before synagogues. As community centers, synagogues also hosted local legal proceedings and punishments.

Holy Spirit will teach you. Often the OT and even more commonly early Judaism associated the Holy Spirit with prophetic enablement or divine revelation.

Inheritance disputes were common (though far more among Gentiles) and they sometimes divided families. Although in Jewish teaching the eldest son received a double portion (), disputes still arose and rabbis, as experts in the law, were sometimes called to resolve them. For Jesus to treat a normally legitimate legal recourse here as a sign of greed seems to radically value relationships over property (see ).

Wealthy landowners often lived in cities or on estates while impoverished tenant farmers worked their land. Excavations show that the landowners often built large silos to hold excess grain. Scripture warned against merely storing grain when others were hungry ().

eat, drink and be merry. Echoes , where one celebrates today, deliberately neglecting the impending reckoning with death that is coming tomorrow. Epicurean philosophers were criticized as advocating this lifestyle, but it characterized many people who could afford it.

Consider the ravens. Nature had long been an interest of wise teachers (), and both Greek and Jewish sages often illustrated points from nature. Jewish people recognized God’s providential rule over all of nature. Cf. the permanence of God’s Word versus the transitory nature of grass and flowers in .

seek his kingdom. Most people in the ancient world were poor, dependent on harvests for food. Some estimate that roughly half lacked resources beyond the subsistence level and so were at risk of potential starvation in times of famine. Naturally, people sought basic necessities; Jesus invited them to trust their heavenly Father enough to seek instead his kingdom. (Jesus is not against working but in his graphic way underlines the great priority of the kingdom; cf. .) Various opinions circulated regarding how to bring about God’s kingdom; some urged violence, others radical obedience, still others passive waiting for God’s time. Jesus says to seek it but with confidence in God, because God will give it (v. ).

little flock. God’s people were referred to as his flock (; ; ; ).

treasure in heaven. Used by Jewish people to speak of divine rewards, normally in the world to come.

Be dressed ready. Lit. “Let your waist be girded up”; long outer robes would have to be tucked up to allow legs to move quickly. Jesus borrows the language of Israel preparing for deliverance in . lamps. Cf. perhaps (see note on ).

return from a wedding banquet. Wedding celebrations could start after dark and last late into the night. open the door. Homeowners who could afford outer gates often would have servants assigned to guard the gates.

he will dress himself to serve. Jesus’ image here (and in ) is jarring. Apart from one Roman festival that deliberately and temporarily inverted the social order, slaves always served slaveholders, never the reverse.

when you do not expect him. Many believed that God alone knew the time planned for the Messiah’s coming.

faithful and wise manager. Slaves could sometimes be entrusted with great authority; household managers were often high-level slaves.

beat the other servants . . . eat and drink and get drunk. A common story line, appearing also in some Jewish parables, was the temptation posed when a ruler, master or husband went on a long journey. In the stories, the person often returned and caught someone unprepared. Gluttony and drunkenness were often associated with squandering. A slave exploiting fellow slaves and carousing with the master’s resources would be punished harshly.

cut him to pieces. People regarded dismemberment as a terrible punishment, often inflicted just before (for partial dismemberment) or during or after execution.

fire. May connote the promised day of judgment (cf. , ), or Jesus’ experience of this on others’ behalf (cf. v. ).

baptism. If Jesus refers here to the “baptism” with fire (; cf. v. ) he may be suggesting that he will first experience the judgment in others’ place.

division. Many Jewish people expected the Messiah to bring war against the Gentiles, but Jesus here warns instead that his requirements would bring division within households.

Because addresses grievous sins that were characteristic of Israel before he announces Israel’s restoration, Jewish tradition sometimes applied the same image of familial division to the final tribulation.

mother-in-law against daughter-in-law. Because newly married couples sometimes lived with the groom’s family, daughter-in-law and mother-in-law are natural examples of familial strife (more than, e.g., son-in-law). Cf., however, note on .

cloud rising in the west. In Judea, rain came from the Mediterranean Sea in the west.

south wind. Hot air came from the desert regions to the south of Judea (and especially from the southeast). Through much of the Mediterranean world, winds from the south bring heat.

Hypocrites! Some scholars note that “hypocrite” means “play-actor”; by this period, though, it meant anyone acting in pretense, including for insincere religious activity (Sirach 1:29; 32:15; 33:2).

Why don’t you judge . . . ? It was common for a speaker to challenge his audience to decide for themselves, after the speaker made clear what the right decision should be.

Some think this parable uses the image of debt imprisonment, a Gentile custom normally forbidden in Jewish circles in this period. (The term for “officer” here sometimes refers to one who runs a debtor’s prison.)

penny. Here the Greek lepton; it took 128 of these to amount to a denarius, roughly a day’s wage. A lepton was thus only a few minutes’ wage for an average male worker. It was half of a quadrans (see and note), but the thought is the same in both passages: without forgiveness, one will not escape until all is paid.

Galileans whose blood Pilate had mixed with their sacrifices. Pilate was known for his brutality and had massacred people in Jerusalem on other occasions (Josephus, Antiquities 18.60–62). Crowds were heavy and sometimes out of control at festivals and both Pilate and Galileans were present then. sacrifices. People brought lambs for sacrifice at Passover.

worse sinners. People often assumed that, at least in many cases, those who suffered were being punished for sin.

tower in Siloam. Probably on the wall near the Pool of Siloam (; cf. , ).

Fig trees were sometimes planted in Judean and Galilean vineyards.

three years. Fig trees sometimes took four or five years to yield fruit. Cut it down! The cutting probably also implies uprooting, commonly done to allow other plants (here perhaps more vines) to grow.

fertilize it. Manuring was common but not usually needed for fig trees; the worker does everything possible to ensure the tree’s survival.

Local synagogues commonly invited respected teachers to lecture.

healed on the Sabbath. In general, Jewish teachers felt that whatever one could do before the Sabbath should not be done on the Sabbath. Life-saving procedures were acceptable; other medical treatments on the Sabbath were debated. Jesus does not apply medicine, but some objected to laying on of hands (v. ) on the Sabbath. The Pharisaic school of Hillel permitted prayer for the sick on the Sabbath; the dominant Pharisaic school, the Shammaites, rejected this (but did not persecute Hillelites).

untie your ox or donkey. Even strict observers of the Torah, such as the Pharisees, who normally forbade tying or releasing knots on the Sabbath, permitted this for taking animals out to let them drink on the Sabbath.

humiliated. Those who were publicly shamed would normally seek to recoup their honor by, if possible, humiliating the one who embarrassed them.

What shall I compare it to? Rabbis often began parables with such phrases.

mustard seed. Scholars do not all agree about which plant is in view here, but ancient sources agree in describing the mustard seed as proverbially small. Some argue that this shrub often grew eight to ten feet (two and a half to three meters) high around the Sea of Galilee; others argue that the likeliest shrub in view rarely grew to more than five feet (one and a half meters) high. If so, birds could only perch in its branches (not literally “nest,” as the Greek term typically implies); the incongruity of the literal image highlights the background that Jesus evokes here. His language evokes a great kingdom of old that would be supplanted by God’s kingdom (), and thus is appropriate for the greatest kingdom of all, namely God’s. The glorious future kingdom was already active in a hidden way in Jesus’ ministry.

yeast. Some Jewish texts used yeast to symbolize evil, but it did not always mean that (; , ; ) and does not mean that here. Although bakeries might prepare large amounts of bread, Jesus refers to a Galilean housewife. The amount here is thus exorbitant: her labor would produce enough bread to feed more than 100 people.

through the narrow door. Many mainstream Jews felt that most Jews would be saved, but some, like Jesus, warned that most people would be lost (e.g., the later apocalyptic author of 4 Ezra). See note on .

We ate and drank with you. Eating with people produced a covenant relationship of friendship. In this case, however, it is those protesting who betrayed this relationship (see “evildoers” in v. ).

I don’t know you. To deny knowing a person or where they are from was a recognized formula of repudiation and rejection.

weeping. People would weep over their damnation (Judith 16:17). gnashing of teeth. Can depict anger (; ; ; ) but here may reflect anguish. when you see Abraham . . . but you yourselves thrown out. Many believed that descent from Abraham () ensured their admittance to the banquet (v. ); they expected to be with the patriarchs and prophets.

Jewish people expected a banquet for the righteous in God’s end-time kingdom (cf. ). east . . . west . . . north . . . south. Could include Jews in the Diaspora () but presumably includes Gentiles also (; ).

last . . . first. Many Jewish thinkers expected the coming age to reverse current fortunes: the lowly would be exalted and the exalted brought low. Most Jewish people expected that God would exalt Israel and punish their Gentile oppressors.

Herod wants to kill you. The Sanhedrin in Jerusalem could not legally execute anyone without Roman permission; Herod Antipas, however, was a tetrarch and could execute whom he chose (). Pharisees supported justice and leniency and they rejected extrajudicial executions; these Pharisees are trying to help Jesus.

Go tell that fox. Foxes were considered cunning, shrewd, and often treacherous and deceitful; most importantly here, they were destructive and were a threat to small domestic livestock (v. ).

no prophet can die outside Jerusalem. This is hyperbole, but the holy city had a record of killing prophets (e.g., ; ), amplified further in Jewish tradition.

under her wings. In the OT and Jewish tradition, God sheltered his people under his wings (; ; ; ; ; ); some Jewish traditions even spoke of Gentile converts as coming “under the wings of God’s presence.” Jesus here assumes that divine role.

your house is . . . desolate. Jesus refers here to the temple’s desolation (fulfilled roughly 40 years later, in AD 70) brought about by its desecration. Blessed is he. was familiar as one of the psalms () sung during festival season.

house of a prominent Pharisee. It was an honor to host a famous teacher for a meal; Jesus probably lectured in the local synagogue.

in front of him. If the meal has begun, this suggests that he was a guest reclining on a nearby couch (though cf. “sent him on his way” in v. ). abnormal swelling of his body. Ancient physicians knew of this condition, which is called edema.

heal on the Sabbath. See note on .

falls into a well. People often dug pits to secure ground water or to capture predators, but sometimes their own animals fell into them. Unlike Essenes, who were stricter, Pharisees and most other people did try to help their animals out of pits on the Sabbath, sometimes using a rope.

picked the places of honor. Teachers sometimes lectured or dialogued with disciples or others in banquet settings. People were usually seated according to social rank at banquets; their seating affected others’ perceptions of their honor.

Jesus uses the same principle from (especially v. , “Come up here”), already well-known (if not always observed) among his contemporaries.

those who exalt themselves will be humbled. Many Jewish people expected a reversal of current status in the time of the end, when the lowly would be exalted and the exalted brought low (already in the OT, e.g., ).

do not invite your friends. Peers would be offended not to be invited and given the best places to recline. People of status often invited to their banquets people of somewhat lower status (such as clients), but not the destitute and those who made a living by begging (v. ).

resurrection. See the article “

”

the feast in the kingdom. Many Jewish people expected a banquet in the kingdom (cf. already , in the context of swallowing up death in ).

many guests. A person of status could increase his honor by inviting many guests to a banquet—provided they showed up. The more respectable the guests, the greater the host’s honor (though no one of higher rank than his peers would normally come).

everything is now ready. Invitees would have responded to the first invitation already; it was common for such invitations to require a response in advance. The message sent now simply informs the guests that the banquet, which has required much preparation, is now ready for them.

field . . . see it. One normally would inspect a field before buying it.

five yoke of oxen. Only a person of wealth with many fields would buy five yoke of oxen. try them out. One normally tested oxen before buying them.

just got married. Weddings were planned far in advance, so the new husband knew about the conflict before he agreed to come (see note on v. ). Each of the excuses in vv. is so weak that it would insult the host; together, it is clear that the excuses constitute deliberate dishonor.

alleys. Poorer areas of a city usually had very narrow alleys. bring in the poor, the crippled, the blind and the lame. The refusals would publicly embarrass the host and waste the prepared banquet. The attendance of people of significantly lower status might not compensate fully, but he would recoup some of his lost honor, gaining a reputation for generosity in the community. People of status virtually never invited people who were beggars to banquets; people who were disabled often were forced to make their living as beggars.

hate. Given the emphasis on family in the culture, Jesus’ demands would be very offensive, even though hearers would probably understand “hate” as hyperbole (cf. ).

carry their cross. Those condemned to execution would often carry the horizontal beam of their cross (the patibulum) out to the site of their execution, through an often hostile and mocking mob. Ironically, Jesus’ disciples fail even in carrying Jesus’ cross, so that his executioners have to draft a bystander to carry it ().

People gained honor by building, including supporting public works. Unfinished works, however, became embarrassing monuments to the builders’ folly.

Sometimes armies defeated those with superior numbers, but whenever feasible they avoided engaging those who outnumbered them.

give up everything. Only the most radical groups (such as the Essenes) expected the surrender of all resources (though for what Jesus’ instructions mean in practice, cf. ). The analogies for counting the cost (vv. ) apply to being Jesus’ disciple: one must recognize that Jesus is worth everything and unreservedly commit oneself to him (vv. , ).

See note on .

manure pile. Manure was used as fertilizer (); some believe that salt was used to slow its fermentation.

tax collectors. Those employed as tax collectors were despised and often viewed as collaborators with the occupying empire (see note on ).

eats with them. Table fellowship created a covenant relationship of friendship. Scripture warned against intimate fellowship with sinners (; ; ; ), but it should be noted that here the influence is going the other direction. The religious critics’ complaint occasions the three parables of vv. . Nevertheless, their values would not allow them to identify easily with the main characters: a shepherd (vv. ), a woman (vv. ), and an indulgent father (vv. ). Urban people in this period often looked down on shepherds; courts mistrusted the testimony of both shepherds and women. Those who love God celebrate with him when what was lost to him is restored (vv. , ); the critics here, by contrast, reject the celebration.

a hundred sheep. Many flocks were roughly this size. leave the ninety-nine. Shepherds and other herders often watched over their animals together (), so the shepherd here could leave his flock with the other herders while searching for the lost sheep.

Silver Greek drachma, 300–270 BC. The coins in the parable of the lost coin () were drachmas, each worth about a day’s wage.

A.D. Riddle/BiblePlaces.com. Taken at the Ashmolean Museum.

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loses one. As archaeology shows, people often lost coins between loosely fitted stones in the floor. light a lamp, sweep. Oil lamps from this period were small and fit in the palm of the hand, so she supplements the light and sweeps to try to hear the coin.

give me my share. Demanding one’s share of the inheritance before the father died was tantamount to saying, “I wish you were dead”; an ancient audience might have expected the father to discipline the son, perhaps by beating him. Instead, the father here divides the estate; the elder brother would also be told his share (see v. ). The younger of two sons would normally receive one-third of the inheritance, but the sons would inherit only after the father died.

set off . . . squandered. A father could divide his estate before death, announcing which son would inherit which parts of the property (sheep, trees, etc.), but the father was able to live off the fruit of the land until he died. That meant that the son could not legally sell his share while the father lived. This son, however, emigrates to a distant country, as a number of Judeans seeking fortune did. All moralists in antiquity condemned squandering inherited wealth, but that is what this son does (cf. also v. ).

severe famine. Famines were common, but the son had kept nothing in reserve.

hired himself out to . . . feed pigs. For a Jewish hearer, being reduced to the point of feeding pigs, which were considered unclean, would be the ultimate humiliation; in this unclean state, it is likely the young man would not even want to approach a synagogue for help.

pods. Animals ate these carob pods raw; people ate them roasted, but depended on them for sustenance only in times of famine. (Some later rabbis remarked that whenever Israel was reduced to eating carob pods, they repented.) no one gave him anything. Moralists commonly observed that those who were friends only for the sake of pleasure would abandon one when the money ran out. A normal ancient story might have ended here, with an obvious moral for listeners: don’t disrespect and abandon your father, or you might end up like this! Yet Jesus’ story continues.

hired servants. This could refer to rented slaves but likelier to free field hands working for daily wages.

heaven. Sometimes a surrogate name for God ().

he ran to his son. It was considered undignified for an older man to run, but dramatic reunions took precedence over dignity. kissed him. A light kiss on the lips (as opposed to romantic kisses) was a common family greeting.

The father’s actions reject the son’s proposal in v. . best robe . . . ring. This robe would be the father’s; the ring would likely be a family signet ring, showing that the father receives him as his son and restoring the son’s authority within the family. sandals. Poorer people often could not afford sandals, but the father will not receive the son as a servant. Cf. .

fattened calf. Would feed the entire village. Calves would be fattened with a special occasion in mind, such as a wedding, a son’s coming of age, or some other celebration beyond the purview of the parable. A fattened calf offered more meat than a young goat (v. ). have a feast. A person of means invited as many people as possible to a major celebration.

dead . . . alive again . . . lost . . . found. Ancient narratives sometimes bracketed off a special section by framing it with repeated wording. The father’s words of v. repeat the words here, setting off the account of the elder brother, which supplements the conclusion of celebration in the previous parables. dead. Sometimes used figuratively.

older son was in the field. Normally an elder brother would be expected to help reconcile a father and a younger brother. That the entire village would attend the party and the elder brother alone would be unaware of it is unlikely in real life but this incongruity further drives home the point: the self-righteous critic alone fails to join the party (cf. vv. , , ). music and dancing. Characterized most celebrations (e.g., weddings).

refused to go in. Refusing to enter the home during a village-wide celebration made an intrafamily dispute public gossip and shamed the father in the midst of celebration. Ancient hearers might have expected the father to discipline this son (cf. v. ). That the father is reduced to going outside to entreat him reinforces the humiliation.

Look! Failure to greet his father with a title (“Father” or “Sir”) was offensive. slaving. The elder son’s language suggests that he related to his father in a way that the father did not accept (see v. , rejecting the proposal of v. ). young goat. Fed far fewer people than did a fattened calf (v. ).

this son of yours. The elder son denies the fraternal bond; the father replies in v. with “this brother of yours.” (For one somewhat analogous example of shifting attachment, cf. the exchange between Moses and the Lord regarding “your people” in , .)

My son. The father reaffirms his love for the elder brother; the way is open for him—and for Jesus’ religious critics in vv. —if they are willing.

Parable: Lamp under a bowl

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Parable: Wise and foolish builders

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Parable: Weeds

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Parable: Mustard seed

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Parable: Hidden treasure

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Parable: Net

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Parable: Owner of a house

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Parable: Lost sheep

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Parable: Unmerciful servant

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Parable: Workers in the vineyard

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Parable: Two sons

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Parable: Wedding banquet

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Parable: Faithful and wise servant

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Parable: Ten virgins

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Parable: Bags of gold (minas)

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Parable: Sheep and goats

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Parable: Growing seed

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Parable: Watchful servants

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Parable: Moneylender

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Parable: Good Samaritan

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Parable: Friend in need

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Parable: Rich fool

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Parable: Unfruitful fig tree

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Parable: Lowest seat at the feast

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Parable: Great banquet

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Parable: Cost of discipleship

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Parable: Lost coin

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Parable: Lost (prodigal) son

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Parable: Shrewd manager

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Parable: Rich man and Lazarus

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Parable: Master and his servant

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Parable: Persistent widow

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Parable: Pharisee and tax collector

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