Annotations for Ephesians
Annotations for Ephesians
The Roman province of Asia with its many splendid cities was one of the jewels on a belt of Roman lands encircling the Mediterranean.
Located on the most direct sea and land route to the eastern provinces of the empire, Ephesus was an emporium that had few equals anywhere in the world. Certainly no city in Asia was more famous or more populous. It ranked with Rome, Corinth, Antioch and Alexandria among the foremost urban centers of the empire.
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Situated on an inland harbor (now silted up), the city was connected by a narrow channel via the Cayster River with the Aegean Sea some three miles away. Ephesus boasted impressive civic monuments, including, most prominently, the temple of Artemis (Diana), one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Coins of the city proudly displayed the slogan Neokoros, “temple-warden.”
Here in Ephesus Paul preached to large crowds of people. The silversmiths complained that he had influenced large numbers of people here in Ephesus and in practically the whole province of Asia (see ). In one of the most dramatic events recorded in the NT, the apostle escaped a huge mob in the theater. This structure, located on the slope of Mount Pion at the street later called the Arcadian Way, could seat some 20,000 people (later 25,000 people).
Other places doubtless familiar to the apostle were the Commercial Agora, the Magnesian Gate, the Town Hall and Curetes Street.
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holy people. “Holy people” had been applied to God’s people in earlier Scripture (see, e.g., , ). in Ephesus. Some early manuscripts omit this destination, although others include it. Sometimes emperors, governors, high priests or other leading figures issued circular letters; Ephesians was probably circulated not only in Ephesus but also in the surrounding province of Roman Asia. Ideas would spread quickly from this prominent city to the region around it (cf. ).
Grace and peace . . . Lord Jesus Christ. See note on .
Ancient letters frequently included prayers or blessings, and sometimes thanksgivings.
Praise be to the God. Jewish prayers often opened with “Praise be to God.” The Ephesian church included both Jews and Greeks (; Ephesus was founded by Greeks and Greek culture dominated there). heavenly realms. People in the ancient Mediterranean world believed that there were multiple heavens (many envisioned three, others seven, and some many more). They believed that the highest heaven (in view here) was purest; the purest and greatest deity lived there. Nearer the earth, the atmospheric heaven, where birds fly, was also inhabited by many demons or semi-divine spirits (depending on the thinker). Paul thus adapts this language to speak of God’s realm and exaltation over other spirits; cf. vv. ; .
chose . . . predestined . . . sonship . . . redemption . . . inheritance . . . possession. Despite the ethnically mixed character of the church in Ephesus (see note on v. ), Paul applies to the church significant language that the OT applied to Israel: chose/predestined (; ), sonship (), redemption (), inheritance () and possession (; ).
chose . . . adoption to sonship. Already in the OT, because of God’s great love, he chose his people (; ) and made them his children (; ).
glorious. God promised to restore his people at least in part for his glory, or honor (; ; ).
redemption through his blood. God had redeemed Israel (i.e., freed them from slavery; see, e.g., ; ). forgiveness of sins. For sacrifices and God’s forgiveness, see, e.g., , , , .
all wisdom and understanding. Biblical writers sometimes repeated synonyms or related terms such as “wisdom” and “understanding” (e.g., ; ; , ; ); so did some forms of lavish Greek rhetoric (see 
mystery of his will. In Jewish circles, a mystery sometimes referred to secret information now revealed only by God (, ; Dead Sea Scrolls). The mystery that God purposed includes bringing Gentiles into the fold of God’s people (, ).
when the times reach their fulfillment. Jewish people understood that God was sovereignly working to bring history to the promised climax.
chosen . . . predestined. For near synonyms, see note on v. . chosen. See note on vv. . For the alternate “made heirs” in the NIV text note, see note on v. . plan . . . purpose. For repetition of near-synonyms, see note on v. .
his glory. See note on v. .
message of truth. This phrase appears in the Greek translation of , where it refers to God’s word (there the law, but here the gospel). In , the gospel (“good news”) is about salvation (as here), peace (as in ), and God’s reign, i.e., kingdom (). seal. A seal authenticated something (see note on ). promised Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit was promised by the prophets (e.g., ) and by John the Baptist ().
deposit guaranteeing our inheritance. Because prophets had promised the Spirit (see note on v. ) especially for the coming age, at the time of the restoration of God’s people (e.g., ; ), the Spirit is here a deposit. deposit guaranteeing. Business documents used this Greek term to designate a down payment or first installment. Building on OT promises (e.g., ; ; ), Jewish interpreters spoke of God’s people “inheriting” the world to come and they looked for God to redeem them from oppression. his glory. Writers sometimes reinforced a point by repeating it (cf. vv. , ; see note on v. ).
giving thanks for you, remembering you in my prayers. Letter writers sometimes thanked a deity for the welfare of the letter recipients. They often offered a blessing or prayer for the recipients.
Spirit of wisdom. Following the OT (; ; ), Jewish writers sometimes emphasized God’s Spirit as the Spirit of wisdom.
eyes of your heart may be enlightened. Writers often used vision figuratively for insight. Following OT precedent (; ), Jewish people sometimes prayed for God to enlighten their eyes to help them understand God’s word. inheritance. See note on v. . holy people. See note on v. . Just as writers often introduced themes in their introductions, Paul goes on to expound the subjects that, in vv. , he prays for them to understand.
great power . . . mighty strength. The piling up of closely related words (such as “power,” “might” and “strength” as in, e.g., ; ) fits Jewish praise and also the sort of flowery rhetoric valued for praise in Asia Minor.
raised Christ from the dead. Jewish prayers often celebrated God’s power to someday raise the dead. seated him at his right hand. In God enthroned the Lord at his right hand until subjugating his enemies beneath his feet. Just as Jesus’ resurrection was itself the first installment of a promised future event, so also the ultimate subjugation of all things is already evident in Jesus’ present reign (vv. ).
all rule and authority, power and dominion. Jewish people believed that not only human powers but also the angelic ones that worked behind them ruled the nations (see , ); sometimes these guardian angels of the Gentile nations were hostile to God’s people. These spiritual rulers, not earthly ones, are the true enemies (; see notes on ). every name that is invoked. Magicians tried to manipulate powerful spirits by invoking their names, including in Ephesus (see note on ); the supremacy of Jesus’ name above all other names shows that he is higher than all the spirit-powers being invoked and cannot be exploited.
all things under his feet. Echoes ; (see notes on ); Paul, like other Jewish interpreters, often linked passages with similar wording (see note on ).
which is his body. Ancient philosophers sometimes used the body metaphor (see note on ) together with that of the head (as here; v. ) and sometimes without it. Fitting the image of enthronement (v. ), if all things are under Jesus’ feet (cf. v. ), they are also under his body here. fullness . . . fills everything in every way. Flowery rhetoric (see
dead in your . . . sins. Everyone would understand the image (also in ); some other ancient sources speak of figurative or spiritual death, or being under the sentence of death.
ruler of the kingdom of the air. The air was considered the lowest of the heavens, inhabited by spirits (see ). spirit who is now at work in those who are disobedient. Jewish people recognized Satan as the ruler of the evil spirits, and many considered demonic influence pervasive, especially among peoples other than themselves. Some very strict Jewish thinkers (whose views appear in the Dead Sea Scrolls) believed that all actions were controlled either by God’s spirit or the spirit of error. Paul may envision more indirect influence through the values of the world appealing to biochemical desires.
because of his great love for us. Although God revealed his love in a fuller way in Christ, God’s lavish love for his people begins to be evident already in the OT (e.g., ).
seated us with him in the heavenly realms. Many Jewish thinkers recognized that the righteous would reign in the coming world (, ; ; ). Here, however, believers have already begun to experience this victory. Specifically, they are enthroned with Christ above spiritual powers (), hence are no longer bound by evil compelling them to sin (vv. ). Many people feared spirits as well as the power of Fate through the stars; those exalted with Christ need not fear such powers.
by grace you have been saved . . . not by works. Already in the OT, God did not choose his people because they were righteous (). He redeemed them before instructing them how to live (); sincere righteousness flows from a transformed heart (; , ). Although God’s salvation in Christ is greater than this, it clearly reflects the heart of the same God who lavished love on his people from the beginning.
uncircumcised. Though traditionally a negative way to designate many kinds of Gentiles (e.g., ), sometimes Israel was deemed spiritually uncircumcised (; ). Outward circumcision, a sign of the covenant between God and his people, was meant to point to the more important circumcision of the heart (; ; ). by human hands. Paul’s phrase heightens the implicit contrast between physical circumcision and circumcision of the heart; the Greek translation of the OT uses this phrase negatively, especially for idols (e.g., ).
excluded from citizenship in Israel. Although some Gentiles had joined God’s people in the OT (e.g., ; ; ; ; ; ; ; , ), they were exceptions. Many more proselytes (who became Jewish and agreed to keep Israel’s laws) had joined Israel by this period; males were circumcised when they converted. In the first generation, proselytes were often treated as of lower status than born Israelites. Most other Gentiles remained outside God’s covenant, even if they attended synagogue and were considered destined for eternal life; most Jewish people would not consider them as on the same level as full Jews. In Christ, Israel’s ultimate king, however, even Gentile followers became full members of God’s people and covenant (vv. ).
you . . . were far away . . . peace. “Peace” (v. ) to those “far away” (v. ) evokes (see note on ).
peace. Cf. ; see previous note. Peace required more than mild feelings. Paul wrote at a time of tension; perhaps as early as half a decade after this letter, Jews and Syrians began massacring each other in Judea and Syria. dividing wall of hostility. Although the OT welcomed Gentiles into the temple along with Jews (), more recent interpretations of purity laws resulted in Gentiles being excluded from the court of Israel (for Jewish men) and even the less pure court of women (for Jewish women). Christians in and around Ephesus would know that Paul was in Roman custody because he had been accused of bringing an Ephesian Gentile beyond the temple’s outer court (). Before speaking of one new temple that includes both Jews and Gentiles (vv. ), Paul emphasizes the very dividing wall for which he is now a prisoner ().
the law with its commands and regulations. Interpretations of Biblical purity laws had led to Herod’s temple segregating Gentiles from Jews (see note on v. ). Although the law’s principles teach moral truth, its many Israel-specific rules could not be observed by Gentiles. one new humanity. See note on .
one body . . . through the cross. Romans executed people naked, by slow torture, on a cross; it epitomized shameful death. Their old humanity (see note on v. ), with its divisions, died in Jesus’ body on the cross; for Jesus’ restored body and its implications, see note on .
peace to you who were far away and peace to those who were near. Paul alludes to , a promise of restoration for God’s people: “Peace, peace, to those far and near.” In a typical ancient Jewish interpretive manner, Paul applies one “peace” to those who are “far” and the other to those who are “near.” He applies “far” to Gentiles (cf. vv. ). Although one could apply to the Jewish Diaspora, Paul knows that not long in Isaiah before this passage God promised that his house would be for foreigners too (). God had planned to save many Gentiles (see and notes).
access to the Father by one Spirit. God had promised to empower his own people with the Spirit at the time of restoration (; ; ; ; ). For access in the temple, cf. perhaps note on .
fellow citizens with God’s people. In many cities, foreigners who settled could remain “resident aliens” for generations, lacking voting rights and other privileges that belonged to citizens. members of his household. Paul can play on the different senses of “house” in Greek: both “household” (as here) and a building (the temple as God’s house; see vv. ).
chief cornerstone. Paul follows Jesus’ application of to Christ himself as the cornerstone or capstone (see notes on ; ).
you too are being built together to become a dwelling in which God lives. Although the OT temple divided only priests from laity, the designers of Herod’s temple, standing in Paul’s day, had further excluded women and especially Gentiles from the purer court of Jewish men. This new temple would be different. by his Spirit. Since God has marked even Gentile followers of Israel’s Messiah with the Spirit (see v. and note), they were equally part of God’s true, spiritual temple. Some other Jewish writers spoke of God’s people as his sacred temple, but they would find revolting this image including Gentiles.
Paul, the prisoner of Christ Jesus. Communicators sometimes emotionally appealed to audience sympathy. Being a Roman prisoner was normally a mark of shame but, like wounds (see note on ), could arouse sympathy or support among loved ones. for the sake of you Gentiles. Paul’s refusal to compromise the mission to the Gentiles had precipitated his captivity (; cf. ; see note on ).
Ancient writers often digressed, and sometimes marked the digression. Paul digresses in vv. , returning only in v. to the point he started in v. (note “For this reason” in both). administration. The Greek term was used for management, e.g., of a household (cf. ; see note on ).
mystery made known to me by revelation. In Daniel (, , ) and the Dead Sea Scrolls, “mystery” was often used for previously secret information about God’s purposes in history that God now revealed.
now been revealed by the Spirit to God’s holy apostles and prophets. Many Jewish people, especially the Jewish elite, believed that prophets no longer existed in the OT sense; Paul’s claims of current revelation, however, fit the experience of the outpoured Spirit ().
through the gospel the Gentiles are heirs together with Israel . . . sharers together in the promise. Gentiles joining God’s people appears already in the prophets (e.g., ; ; see , and notes), though Jewish interpreters held a range of views about the Gentiles based on various Biblical passages. (For example, the prophets also expected unrighteous Gentiles to be destroyed.) heirs . . . promise. Both the inheritance (see notes on ; , ) and the “promise” (see , and notes) belonged to God’s people. members together of one body. See ; see also note on .
through the working of his power. God had long empowered his servants for various tasks (e.g., ; ; ).
administration. See note on v. . mystery. See note on v. .
wisdom of God . . . made known to the rulers and authorities in the heavenly realms. Some pre-Christian Jewish texts also speak of God showing the angels his power and glory through his people, and thus God receiving the angels’ praise. Insofar as these angelic powers were rulers of the nations (see note on ; see also , ), the church’s ethnic unity (cf. vv. ) reveals God’s wisdom.
freedom. Means “freedom to enter,” presumably because of access into God’s house (cf. , using the same Greek term). confidence. Often means “boldness” (e.g., to speak truth; the Greek term recurs in ).
my sufferings for you. See note on v. . Roman detention was normally a matter of shame; Paul considers it a matter of honor in view of the reason he is detained. for . . . your glory. Athletes, soldiers or warriors acted representatively on behalf of their people.
I kneel before the Father. People more often stood for prayer than knelt, but kneeling or prostration (e.g., , , ) were considered appropriate, especially in extreme circumstances. (Gentiles prostrated themselves before rulers.) Those who knelt in prayer usually stretched out their arms with hands facing the deities being invoked (in heaven, toward statues, etc.).
from whom every family in heaven and on earth. Although Jewish people regularly prayed to God as Father (v. ) of his people, they also sometimes portrayed him, as Gentiles also sometimes did (cf. ), as Father of all creation. family. The Greek term is patria, which is derived from pater, Father, allowing a play on words in vv. . The Greek translation of the OT often uses patria for a family line descended from a common progenitor. God is thus the originator of all, a notion that further challenges ethnic divisions (vv. ). “Every family in heaven” could imply the same if it signifies or includes guardian angels of the nations (see note on ).
in your inner being. Many Greek thinkers (followed by some Greek-speaking Jews) emphasized the inner being; Paul may use it as equivalent to “heart” (a more common Biblical expression).
may have power. Scripture already associated the Spirit with power (; ) and moral transformation (). how wide and long and high and deep is the love of Christ. Paul indicates the immeasurable vastness of something, possibly (with the NIV) Christ’s love (more explicit in the Greek text of v. ; cf. also v. ; ). Whether applied to love or to wisdom, recounting these dimensions could evoke descriptions of God’s immeasurable wisdom (e.g., ), since Paul has just spoken of “manifold wisdom” (v. , possibly meaning “many sided”). Others see a comparison (whether of love or of wisdom) with the expanse of creation (cf. , where God’s love transcends it). Much less likely, some find continuing temple imagery (cf. ; cf. the new Jerusalem in ).
to him be glory . . . for ever and ever! Jewish prayers often concluded with praise, sometimes ending with “for ever and ever” (cf. ; ). Amen. Those who prayed or heard prayers frequently concluded in this way (cf. ).
As a prisoner for the Lord. See note on . I urge you. Much of Paul’s letter so far has focused on praise, but now he begins exhorting, a common subject of ancient speeches and intellectual writing.
unity. Especially in the form of harmony, unity was a common subject of ancient exhortation (also in v. ). the bond of peace. Some Jewish sages highly praised peace.
Speakers used repetition to drive home a point; Paul repeats various forms of the Greek term translated “one” seven times in vv. , and four uses of “all” (three after varied prepositions) in v. .
one body. See note on ; many used this image for a group, but often in a more hierarchical way than does Paul.
it says. Because Scripture is God’s Word, Jewish people often personified it as speaking. Ancient interpreters often paraphrased texts to better suit their point; a later Aramaic paraphrase of even adapts it in a manner very similar to Paul’s adaptation here. he ascended on high. Interpreters applied to God ascending at Mount Sinai; Paul makes an analogy with Jesus’ exaltation (on which see notes on ). Paul’s change of the psalm’s wording nevertheless fits its implications: once a conqueror had received tribute and plunder from the defeated (as in ), he distributed most of these spoils to his soldiers (as here). Now exalted, the triumphant Jesus distributes gifts (listed in v. ) to his people.
“he ascended” . . . he also descended. Jewish interpreters analyzed texts (here ) and raised questions; since Jesus came from God (; ), he could ascend only because he had first descended. lower, earthly regions. Could mean the place of the dead (; ) or refer to Jesus’ incarnation on earth (; ).
ascended higher than all the heavens. God’s own throne was “on high” (; ); in v. Paul applies “on high” in to Christ’s ascent higher than all the heavens (see ).
Ancient lists were sometimes representative rather than comprehensive, and some elements could overlap. (The Greek grammar links “pastors” and “teachers,” probably as dual responsibilities of the same people.) apostles. Commissioned messengers or agents; perhaps the closest OT equivalents were the prophetic judges, such as Moses, Deborah and Samuel, and leaders of prophetic or Biblical awakenings, such as Elijah and Elisha. prophets. Share messages from God through the Spirit, usually not based exclusively on interpreting Biblical texts (cf. e.g., ), in contrast to a primary ministry of teachers. They were apparently quite common in the churches (, , , ), although some may have assumed the role of senior prophets (cf. ; ; ; ). Although their messages were probably often spontaneous (), they could also be received before being delivered (; ; ; ; ). evangelists. Herald the good news of salvation (e.g., ). pastors. Lit. “shepherds,” a familiar ancient image of leadership (e.g., ). teachers. Presumably expound Scripture (at this time, mostly the OT) and accounts of Jesus. Such proclamatory leaders equip all the church for ministry (vv. ).
body. See also v. (see note on ).
infants. Ancient thinkers sometimes contrasted novices (here described as “infants”) with the mature (vv. , ), those who are wise (see note on ). tossed back and forth by the waves. Others also used seafarers in storms as illustrations.
you must no longer live as the Gentiles do. Having established that Gentiles in his audience have been admitted to the people of God (), Paul summons them to abandon the Gentile lifestyle. Most Jews regarded most Gentiles as worshipers of false deities and (in practice most relevant for males) sexually promiscuous. Converts to Judaism adopted a new lifestyle based on the law (here adapted by the gospel; vv. ). For earlier warnings against God’s people acting like Gentiles, see , ; .
put off your old self . . . put on the new self. Jewish writers could speak of being “clothed” with the Spirit (e.g., three times in the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) or virtues (cf. ; , ; vice in ). old self . . . new self. Lit. “old person” and “new person.”
corrupted by its deceitful desires. Possibly evokes the fall of Adam and Eve (cf. ).
made new in . . . your minds. See note on .
created. Probably evokes Adam and Eve’s creation (see notes on ), hence new creation in the new Adam.
In contrast to vv. , which focuses on Gentile vices, Paul in these verses addresses human vices that even Jewish people committed. Both Jewish and Gentile moral teachers warned against these vices.
speak truthfully to your neighbor. Paul quotes fairly closely from the Greek translation of , where God called his people to “speak the truth to each other.”
In your anger do not sin. Paul quotes from the Greek translation of (see there). sun go down. also speaks to those “on your beds.” Some other ancient thinkers also demanded settling conflicts before sleep (cf. also , ).
the devil. Following the OT, Jewish tradition understood the devil (Satan, Belial) as deceiver, tempter and accuser.
work . . . with their own hands. Although Jewish sages and probably artisans themselves respected manual labor, people of status generally despised it.
only what is helpful for building others up. Greek, Jewish, and Middle Eastern sages all emphasized wise, appropriate, truthful, and gracious speech (cf. v. ; ). Cf. also, e.g., ; , , ; .
grieve the Holy Spirit. A serious offense; God judged Israel after “they rebelled and grieved his Holy Spirit” (; Paul’s wording here is closer to the Hebrew text than to the Greek version). sealed for the day of redemption. Implies divine attestation or certification (see note on ), here needed for the day of judgment (cf. ). This connection may add urgency to Paul’s warning not to grieve the Holy Spirit.
Ancient writers often produced lists of vices; sometimes, as here, they could cluster around a particular topic, underlining the basic point by repetition.
as . . . God . . . God’s example . . . as Christ. Both Jewish and Gentile writers urged imitating God (cf. also ; ). as in Christ God forgave you . . . as Christ . . . gave himself up for us as a . . . sacrifice to God. Only Christians proclaimed someone who, though divine, sacrificed himself for humanity.
fragrant offering. Scripture sometimes depicted sacrifices that God welcomed as a “pleasing aroma” to him (; ); God could also describe his acceptance of his people with such language ().
Ancient writers often included lists of vices (as, e.g., in ; ; ; ). sexual immorality. On the prevalence of sexual immorality in male Greek culture, see the article “
obscenity, foolish talk or coarse joking. Pornography covered many Greek vase paintings; outside walls of inns (such as one found in Pompeii) could include pictures of the prostitutes inside and the respective prices for their company. People joked about sexual matters, which were also prominent in general entertainment, particularly mimes and some comic novels.
inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God. Jewish people often spoke of “inheriting,” or having a future share or place in, God’s kingdom (cf., e.g., ).
do not be partners. Some Jews (such as the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls) demanded total separation; food and other customs often separated other Jews from Gentiles in other respects. Paul does not demand such strict separation or purity rituals, but rather demands moral character (v. ); their inability to participate in immoral humor or in their culture’s pervasive civic religion would have raised criticisms against them. Many Gentiles criticized Jews as antisocial and Christians could face similar criticisms.
children of light. Hearers would likely comprehend this Semitic expression for people of the light. The strict Jewish authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls called their group the “children of light,” regarding others as children of darkness (evil).
fruitless deeds of darkness. People who committed acts that they would be ashamed for others to know about often acted secretly, at night. Initiations into Greek mystery cults, some of which had acquired immoral reputations in Rome, were normally at night. Travelers who stayed at inns often had prostitutes available especially at night; so did some nocturnal banquets.
Paul cites lines familiar to his audience but foreign to us today. He may paraphrase Scripture the way Jewish Targums did ( or perhaps ). Others think that Paul cites an early Christian prophecy or song. Perhaps he cites a prophecy or song based on (and summarizing part of the message of) some Biblical texts.
Do not get drunk on wine, which leads to debauchery. Although Jewish wisdom despised drunkenness, it was a common feature of ancient Mediterranean life, especially in Gentile cities. It was common both in the late-night banquets of the rich, often accompanied by sexual immorality, and in the taverns of the poor. (Local taverns provided food and company during the day, but taverns for travelers were part of inns, and those barmaids were typically slaves who functioned as prostitutes at night.) People regularly associated drunkenness with loss of self-control, and occasionally also with a sort of inspiration, madness or possession by Dionysus, god of wine. (These latter cases could also include sexual promiscuity and violence.) be filled with the Spirit. God’s Spirit provides inspiration for a different way of living (vv. ).
In Greek, all Paul’s instructions in vv. (and thus, by implication, the exposition of v. in ) expound the command in v. to “be filled with the Spirit.”
psalms, hymns, and songs from the Spirit. People in antiquity understood that songs could be inspired (cf. v. ), and this was also the case with the prophetically-inspired worship in the OT temple () that generated many of the original psalms (, ). (Cf. the movement between prophecy and praise in, e.g., ; , ; , .) In Paul’s churches this might sometimes include singing in tongues and interpretation (). Other ancient worship often used hymns, but not normally spontaneously composed at the time, as may be the case for some worship here (cf. ).
giving thanks . . . for everything. Some philosophers emphasized being thankful for everything because they submitted to Fate; some Jewish writers emphasized it because they trusted the personal God who guided events for his people’s good.
Nearly every ancient Mediterranean society expected wives to submit to their husbands, although the particulars of what this looked like varied from one society to another. Elite men in ancient Athens considered the ideal wife obedient, meek and quiet, and someone who would stay at home and away from the gaze of other men. Conservative women were not supposed to speak with other women’s husbands. Some Hellenistic marriage contracts stipulated complete obedience for the wife, even to the point of needing the husband’s permission to visit her family. Some thinkers, such as Aristotle, attributed women’s lower status to their natural inferiority of character.
Actual relationships often produce a love that transcends the narrower views that some people articulate. Nevertheless, many cultures today would view ancient Greek standards as problematic. Probably because female babies were abandoned more frequently, Greek men first married at a much later age than women. A 30-year-old man marrying an 18-year-old woman was a common practice; sometimes the woman could be so young as to have just entered puberty. Most Greek men had sexual experience with slaves, prostitutes, or other males by this point; non-Christian Greek marriage was designed not to constitute men’s only acceptable sexual outlet but to bear them legitimate, respectable heirs. Husbands ruled the public sphere; wives normally ran the household.
Many Jewish teachers urged husbands to respect and value their wives; others opined that the only significant purposes of marriage were to protect men from temptation and to provide children. The Jewish sage Joshua ben Sirach suggested that the proper response to a disobedient wife was divorce. Some Jewish authors educated in Greek culture, such as Philo and Josephus, not only expected obedience and service from wives but expressed little respect for women overall. Josephus complains about their character and demeans men who heeded them.
Judean women had some public freedom of movement and respect that Greek women often lacked. Wives cared for household responsibilities such as nursing, making clothes, washing, grinding grain, and preparing meals. Jewish teachers expected husbands to maintain the standard of living with which their wives had grown up. Judean custom, in contrast to Greek and Roman law, permitted a man to have multiple wives, but in this period the practice was very rare.
Wives had more freedom in some places, such as Macedonia and Rome, than in others, such as Ephesus, where Hellenistic culture dominated. Roman women had gained many new freedoms by the time Paul wrote. Freedoms also may have varied at times by social class; e.g., upper-class Roman women normally had to be treated respectfully. Lower-class families shared many deprivations together.
A minority of writers, such as Xenophon and Musonius Rufus, offered more positive, moderate views toward women and marriage. By ancient standards, Paul’s treatment of marriage roles in is clearly among these more moderate approaches (see especially notes on , ). ◆
Second-century relief of a married couple and their children, Bulgaria.
National Archaeological Museum, Sofia, Bulgaria/De Agostini Picture Library/A. Dagli Orti/Bridgeman Images
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Starting at least as early as the fourth-century BC Greek philosopher Aristotle, many thinkers used “household codes” to instruct the male heads of elite homes how to rule their household, specifically their wives, minor children and slaves. (This was the sequence in which Aristotle addressed them.) Male householders ruled these subordinates in different ways; boys, in particular, achieved a different status when they entered manhood.
Because of past incidents, Romans were suspicious that eastern cults (such as the cult of Dionysus, and more recently Judaism and the cult of Isis) undermined Roman family values. Some of these groups therefore emphasized that they did not undermine such values.
Paul, writing from Roman custody, is well aware of Roman suspicions. His instructions offer a lifestyle apologetic, upholding the best in traditional ancient values. At the same time, he adapts these codes. Whereas household codes normally instructed the male householder how to rule, Paul begins and ends with mutual submission (; ), calls for gentleness with children (), and instructs husbands not how to rule their wives but how to love them sacrificially ().
Submit to one another. Household codes instructed male heads of households how to rule wives, children and slaves; while continuing to uphold the call for subordinates to submit, Paul here goes beyond traditional expectations in calling for mutual submission (cf. general Christian servanthood to one another in ; ; ). This places Paul among the small proportion of ancient thinkers who valued mutual concern and sensitivity. Although Paul specifies only the husband’s love (v. ), he also values mutual love (); in the same way, although specifying the wife’s submission in v. , he grounds it grammatically in the mutual submission of v. .
Traditional household codes instructed male heads of households how to rule, but Paul also addresses wives (vv. ), children () and slaves ().
Wives, submit yourselves to your own husbands. Paul maintains the conventional expectation that wives should submit, but grounds it in more specifically Christian submission (in Greek, the verb “submit” is actually borrowed from v. ). It should go without saying that this is a general principle not applicable to situations of abuse or participation in sin (cf. e.g., ; ).
Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ. Traditional household codes instructed male heads of households how to rule; Paul instructs husbands here only how to love self-sacrificially (vv. ). Thus, although Paul upholds some values in his culture (see note on ), he also goes beyond them (here; see note on v. ).
to make her holy . . . washing with water through the word. Paul might cite ancient customs here. Some relate the “washing” to the bride’s normal washing before being perfumed, anointed and arrayed in wedding clothes in preparation for the wedding. Perhaps relevant to “make her holy,” later Jewish teachers spoke of betrothal as “the sanctification of the bride,” meaning setting her apart for her husband.
radiant church. Some suggest that “radiant” might partly recall a similar idea in the description of God’s bride in (though the Greek term is different).
husbands ought to love their wives as their own bodies. Whereas v. invited the wife to view her husband as “head,” perhaps in the sense of authority (v. ; see note on , ), Paul defines headship for the husband in terms of loving and caring for his wife as he would for his own body.
members of his body. On being members of Jesus’ body (also in ), see note on . Here, however, Paul also connects the image to Scripture (v. ; cf. also ).
become one flesh. Paul can speak of the wife in terms of the husband’s body in vv. because of “one flesh” in , where the language entails a new family unit. Paul’s point here is the unity of husband and wife (cf. ).
love . . . respect. Speakers and writers often concluded material with a summary of what they had stated. Here Paul sums up his main point in vv. in terms of husbands loving and wives respecting.
Children, obey your parents. Household codes (see note on ) instructed fathers (see note on v. ) how to govern their minor children, but did not normally address the children themselves. Nevertheless, Jewish and Greco-Roman writers unanimously agreed that children needed to honor their parents, and, at least till they grew up, needed to obey them as well. Many Jewish teachers considered the Biblical injunction to honor parents (; ) the greatest commandment. They also felt this meant not shaming them by one’s behavior (cf. ). It should go without saying that obedience to parents is a general principle not applicable to participation in sin (cf., e.g., ; ; ).
Fathers, do not exasperate your children. Household codes instructed fathers how to govern their minor children. Fathers were responsible for their children’s education, but this could include beatings (both from the father and from teachers). A minority of teachers, however, warned against beatings and excessive discipline, and Paul here would likely agree. exasperate. May suggest deliberate provocation. bring them up in the training and instruction of the Lord. Certainly Paul would also share the unanimous sentiments of ancient Jews, Christians and Egyptians against the widespread Greek practices of abandoning babies, aborting them in the womb, or, sometimes when malformed, killing them. Abandoned babies who were not retrieved by others—usually to be reared as slaves—were often eaten by vultures or dogs.
Household codes (see note on ) instructed elite men how to govern their wives, children and slaves. Of these, slaves more often faced the worst abuses; they could be subject to torture (for purposes of securing judicial information), beatings, sexual abuse and being sold away from family members.
Various moral thinkers did urge fair treatment of slaves (e.g., Stoics; cf. ). Early Stoic philosophers even argued in principle for the equality of all people, although by this period Stoics usually supported the status quo; and even some early Stoics held slaves. The Qumran community rejected slavery but as part of its larger rejection of all private “property.”
During this period, virtually no one was calling for the abolition of slavery. In fact, when slaves became free and acquired means, they often bought other slaves for their own use. Rome had repressed three earlier massive slave revolts, ending in bloodbaths without freedom; the purpose of even these revolts was to provide a critical mass of resistance against the slaves’ oppressors, but not to abolish slavery in principle. Even if someone wanted to abolish slavery in principle, such an issue would be addressed in a philosophic treatise, not in a letter giving advice to slaves. Indeed, relatively few writers cared to even provide advice directly to slaves.
When household codes addressed the treatment of slaves (as in ), their interest was specifically in how householders should treat household slaves. Slavery in the mines or gladiatorial combat was a death sentence; in the fields, it was a lifetime of hard labor; but slaves in households were normally in better socioeconomic situations than free peasants. They could earn money on the side and during their lifetimes a large proportion did obtain freedom. (This observation should be balanced, however, with the observation that slaveholders sometimes freed them in midlife to avoid caring for them in old age.) Freedpersons often advanced beyond other free citizens, sometimes provoking the envy of even aristocrats (see notes on , ). Some slaves of Caesar wielded more power and wealth than some senators.
None of this is to deny that even household slavery was an unjust system. Women and girls in particular, though sometimes also boys, were subject to sexual abuse; although slaves used in this way were sometimes given otherwise favored treatment, the abuse must have been devastating. But the differences do mean that we should not read Paul’s instructions to slaves in light of typical forms of slavery in the Americas or the traditional Arab world, but in light of the specific forms of servitude that members of his audience experienced.
It also reminds us that, whatever Paul’s views about the institution of slavery (see note on ), it would be quite unexpected for them to come up directly in his brief instructions to slaves or slaveholders. Further, while the Christian message might appeal more to slaves, free persons did not easily gain direct access to others’ slaves without going through the slaveholders. In succeeding generations, slaves sometimes rose even to the position of bishop within the church and Christians often bought the freedom of slaves, including their fellow Christians. Changing the predominantly anti-Christian society, however, could not occur as quickly. ◆
Second-century mosaic at Sepphoris of slaves serving at a banquet.
Kim Walton
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Slaves, obey your earthly masters. Given Christians’ tenuous social situation (cf. ; ), Paul urges Christian slaves, like wives (see ), to submit to the head of the household as if to Christ.
Serve wholeheartedly. The slaveholding class had various stereotypes of slaves, e.g., that they were lazy, especially when no one was looking. In Roman custody, Paul was in no position to liberate slaves physically, and he encourages hard work; yet he also gives slaves a new hope and a different motive for their labor.
masters, treat your slaves in the same way. Paul does invite those in subordinate positions in his culture, including wives and slaves, normally to submit to those in higher positions, but he goes beyond the culture by enjoining mutual submission ()—all of Christ’s followers must be servants (). Aristotle complained about a small minority of thinkers, presumably especially early Stoics, who believed that slaves were in theory their masters’ spiritual equals. Yet so far as we know only Paul goes so far as to suggest that in practice masters treat their slaves in the same way—i.e., serve them (see vv. ). No one in Paul’s day was suggesting slavery be abolished (see the article “Slaves and Slaveholders in Ephesians 6”), so there was no reason to address it in a series of practical instructions. If the question had been put to Paul, however, v. clearly points more in the direction of its abolitionist interpreters than those who quoted vv. out of context to support slavery.
Toward the end of a speech or other persuasive work, one sometimes supplied a rousing conclusion, as Paul does here. Some have even compared it with the much longer speeches generals used to prepare troops psychologically before battle. Philosophers and other speakers sometimes described their conflict with wicked ideas as wrestling in an athletic contest or a war; they also used lists of virtues, the general idea of which Paul incorporates here.
Paul’s description of God’s armor (v. ) draws from God’s armor in (developed also by some other Jewish writers, e.g., Wisdom of Solomon 5:17–20). Nevertheless, most of his audience in Asia Minor would first envision a soldier of the Roman Empire ready for battle. Paul’s portrait does not include all the typical elements of Roman armor; e.g., he mentions the sword but omits the lance (the pilum) and dagger. (Often soldiers had two pila; they could imbed the first into an enemy shield, making it unwieldy, and then strike with the second.) Paul’s reason for the omission, however, is clear: Jesus’ followers have just one offensive weapon. Paul is not really correlating our specific equipment advantages with specific parts of our bodies (cf. ); rather, he wants us to know that we need all these advantages to be victorious. All the elements, both defensive and offensive, relate to the truth of the gospel.
mighty power. See note on .
armor of God. See note on vv. ; may evoke . take your stand. Generals exhorted soldiers to take a stand, viewing retreat and wounds in the back as shameful. Armor did not cover the back, and aggressors easily slaughtered those who were retreating because they could not fight back. Yet as long as they stood together on a flat, open field and did not break ranks, Roman legions were considered virtually invincible.
against the rulers . . . the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms. Jewish people believed that not only human powers but also angelic ones behind them ruled the nations (see note on ). The spiritual battle behind the earthly one was always most important; this was fought especially by prayer, worship and earthly activity for God, not by vocally challenging heavenly powers (cf. ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ). Gentiles called some of their deities “rulers of this world”; Jewish people were also increasingly speaking of high ranks of good and evil angels (e.g., “rulers,” “authorities”; cf. already , ); in Greek, “spiritual forces of evil” means the same thing as “evil spirits,” an expression used by Jews and Christians.
when the day of evil comes. Although some scholars also see a hint here of the expected end-time tribulation, “day of evil” could be fairly general; it was a Jewish idiom for a period of trouble or judgment (cf. ).
belt of truth. The “belt” or “girdle” may refer to the leather apron beneath the armor or to the metal belt over the tunic protecting the lower abdomen. breastplate of righteousness. The “breastplate” normally consisted of leather overlaid with metal, and it protected the chest in battle; like the helmet (v. ), it was used only in battle, not for normal wear. Roman soldiers were to face forward in battle, side by side, so the armor needed to protect only their front. In view of , where it refers to justice, this “breastplate of righteousness” is truly “the armor of God” (v. ). The Messiah would also figuratively wear righteousness as a belt and faithfulness, or truth, as a sash ().
feet fitted with . . . readiness. Soldiers needed to wear sandals or boots (technically the Roman caliga, a half boot) so they could advance toward the enemy undistracted about what they might step on. the gospel of peace. Paul’s direct source for his language here is the herald of who brings the good news (i.e., gospel), announcing peace for God’s people. The news in Isaiah declares God’s reign (or kingdom), when God delivers and restores his vanquished people.
shield of faith . . . extinguish all the flaming arrows. The typical Roman soldier carried a large rectangular wooden shield, four feet (about a meter) high. Its front consisted of leather, which would be wetted before any battle in which the enemy might use flaming arrows, in order to extinguish them. After Roman legionaries closed ranks, the front row holding shields forward and those behind them holding shields above them, they were deemed virtually invulnerable to any attack from flaming arrows. flaming arrows. Gentiles applied this image to erotic desire (cf. also note on ), though Paul probably thinks also of slander and other attacks (cf. ; ; ; ).
helmet of salvation. Part of God’s armor (). A Roman soldier normally wore his helmet only for battle; equipped with cheek pieces and consisting of iron or bronze, it protected the head. sword of the Spirit. Soldiers carried several weapons (see note on vv. ), but Paul assigns to believers only one: the sword. After soldiers in the front line had hurled their lances, they needed their double-edged sword (gladius, 20–24 inches [50–60 centimeters] long) for close combat with the enemy. Whereas other elements of armor protect the believer, the word of God (presumably especially the gospel; see , ; ) is here the one offensive weapon, the piece that allows believers to take back territory from the enemy (cf. vv. ).
pray in the Spirit. Because Jewish sources often associated the Spirit with inspiration, Paul may think here of Spirit-led prayer. Paul might finish describing the armor in v. , but it may be relevant that Roman armor was designed to protect an army marching forward together. Coordinated action with shields helped protect the entire infantry unit. be alert. Sentries had to remain alert. Just over a third of the Greek words in v. begin with p-; Greek hearers often appreciated alliteration.
ambassador in chains. Most people regarded chains and association with people in chains as humiliating. Kingdoms were careful to treat an ambassador respectfully; chaining or even insulting another country’s envoy normally invited war. Indeed, even heralds from hostile nations received diplomatic immunity and were sent back in peace. fearlessly. Ancient thinkers respected speaking fearlessly (cf. note on ).
Tychicus . . . will tell you everything. Travelers carried most letters; they also delivered news orally. Some news from a prisoner was best delivered orally, since letters could be intercepted and read.
love with faith from God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. The OT promised God’s covenant love to all who loved God (; ; ; ).