© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin
A modern farmer plows his field. Scripture often speaks in agricultural metaphors ().
© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin
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grass on the roof. Houses in ancient Israel were designed with flat roofs that served as major living and sleeping areas (; ). They were constructed of timber beams spanning the roof, crosshatched with branches, and covered with mud and perhaps a plaster top coat. Seeds would naturally settle and germinate in this material, but the root system would not find an adequate soil base, and new growth would soon whither.
depths. Deep waters, whether they be the ocean or a flood, suggested life-threatening danger to the ancient Israelite. The same Hebrew word is used in , in conjunction with “deep [ocean] waters” (cf. ) and in with the chaos monster Rahab (see the article “
weaned child. Mothers nursed children as long as three years (). After weaning, the child would still be dependent, but in a quieter, less demanding manner than that of the infant who nurses.
self-denial. The opening prayer (vv. ) recalls the commitment of David to establish a permanent place of worship for Yahweh, which is described in (“pains”) using another form of the same Hebrew word for “self-denial” here. The labor of kings to build and restore worship shrines is a common theme in ancient Near East literature, and a favorable response from the deity is often associated with such acts of piety. Here, David’s faithfulness is the basis of prayer for his dynasty.
I will allow no sleep to my eyes. This part of David’s vow is similar to what was spoken concerning the Sumerian king Gudea in his temple project a thousand years before David’s time. Zeal for the building project prevented his sleep. A statue of Gudea was placed in the completed temple with an inscription to remind the god of Gudea’s work.
Ephrathah. David’s homeland around Bethlehem (; ), where he and his troops launched an expedition to locate the ark in the fields of Jaar and bring it to a permanent resting place of worship in Jerusalem (). Jaar. Probably an abbreviated reference to Kiriath Jearim, which was located over 10 miles (16 kilometers) to the northwest of Bethlehem ().
footstool . . . the ark of your might. See note on .
your anointed one. For the king as “anointed,” see notes on ; . David’s anointed predecessor, King Saul, was rejected for unfaithfulness to God (; ). Such warnings came through prophets, both in the OT and elsewhere in the ancient Near East. A letter containing a prophecy to Zimri-Lim, king of Mari, illustrates the threat of losing one’s throne by action of the god. The god indicates that he can take away the throne of the king and he can restore it again—all based on whether the king fulfills the desire of the god. He can give lands as well as take them away. The psalmist prays for Yahweh’s favor upon David’s dynasty, but based on sure promises revealed in the prophetic speech that follows (vv. ).
The LORD swore an oath. In the case of David, Yahweh made a prophetic promise that David’s descendants would always be the rightful heirs to the throne (; ; see notes on , ). Assyrian prophets spoke promises from the goddess Ishtar that she would secure King Esarhaddon on the throne of Assyria, extending this to his son and grandson. The Assyrian prophets also announced a covenant of kingship between the Assyrian gods and Esarhaddon, similar in some ways to the covenant promises announced through the prophet Nathan in . The Assyrian prophecies were part of a covenantal ceremony involving a “tablet of the covenant” (Akkadian tuppi adê), the Assyrian word for “covenant” being related to the Hebrew word translated “statutes” (edut) in (see note on ).
If your sons keep my covenant. While God’s promises to the Davidic dynasty were unconditional, the enjoyment of a secure throne for any individual descendant of David was conditioned upon his keeping the law of God. The balance between unconditional promise and conditions for obedience is illustrated in ancient Near Eastern treaties (see notes on , ).
the LORD has chosen Zion. When the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I sought divine authorization to work on a temple of the god Assur, he asked whether Assur loved his mountain, Ebih. In vv. , the psalmist speaks of Yahweh’s delight in choosing Mount Zion in Jerusalem as his dwelling place. In the ancient world, kingship and temple worship were closely related in the social system. Royal palace and temple complexes were frequently adjacent in city plans, so the welfare of the one was intimately connected with that of the other. The prophetic speech in vv. reflects this close relationship between David’s dynasty and his royal city, Jerusalem, where Yahweh chose to dwell in the temple.
resting place . . . enthroned. In the ancient Near East, temples were viewed as the resting place of deity. When the gods were described as “resting” in their temples, they were seen as being enthroned in the base of operations from which they controlled the cosmos. “
horn. Associated with bulls, so with this image Yahweh promises to strengthen the dynasty of David (see note on ). lamp. The ongoing flame of a lamp points back to the promise that David’s heirs would always have royal status (cf. ; ; ). A proverbial expression in Mesopotamia utilized the metaphor of a fireplace; the presence or absence of fire in the family fireplace symbolized the perpetuity or cessation of offspring to carry on the family line.
oil poured on the head. Anointing with oil was used to symbolize God’s authorization and empowerment of a king (see notes on ; ) or other representative, such as a priest, for divine service. Aaron’s beard . . . collar of his robe. The ritual that set apart Aaron and his sons for priestly service involved pouring oil on their heads and garments (, , , ; , ). This “sacred anointing oil” () consisted of a mixture of oil and four spices (myrrh, cinnamon, calamus and cassia []) uniquely combined by the special skills of a perfumer (, ; ; ). People of the ancient Near East, from all levels of society, used aromatic oils for medical, cosmetic, ritual and magical purposes. In manufacture, perfumers transferred the fragrant properties of flowers and spices to an oil by either pressing the ingredients in linen or by steeping them in cold or hot animal fat. This product would in turn be mixed with some variety of vegetable oil (e.g., olive or sesame seed), then stored in ceramic or stone vessels for application. Sometimes multiple stages of processing brought a variety of ingredients together. For some highly refined perfumes, production could take months. The metaphor in draws upon associations of perfumed oil with joy, refreshment and well-being to describe unity within the covenant community (cf. ; see note on ).
dew. The Hebrew word can refer to condensation (e.g., ) or light rain (e.g., ; ; ). Hermon. One of the highest peaks in Israel’s northern mountain region, it was well watered by rain, snow and dew, making it cool and lush (). Vegetation in the dryer regions of southern Israel, where Jerusalem and Mount Zion were located, depended on dew and what little rain it received. Thus, for the temple mount (Mount Zion) to experience the dew of Mount Hermon pictures conditions of refreshment.
minister by night. Priests and Levites served in the temple at all hours of the day and night. Evening duties included keeping the lampstand lit and the sacrifices burning, as well as guarding the gates (; ; ). minister. More lit. “stand” (ESV; NRSV). This metaphoric use of the word “to stand” is common in the OT for a posture of ready service before a king or God (David was in Saul’s “service” []; angels await orders before Yahweh []). This posture is illustrated by the many statues of standing worshipers that were placed in Mesopotamian temples. These representations typically show hands folded in front, representing a “self-binding” or surrender before the deity. Another gesture—that of the hands lifted up—is emphasized in v. (see note on ).
Lift up your hands. See note on . in the sanctuary. See note on .
clouds . . . lightning . . . wind. Associated with the storm-gods of Canaan and Mesopotamia (see notes on ; , ). The god Baal is beckoned as one armed with clouds, winds, lightning bolts, and rains. This imagery is associated with the divine warrior, common to both Israel and her neighbors, the basis for the victories recalled in vv. . The terminology also conveys something of how the Israelites and their neighbors thought about weather systems. In the Sumerian composition entitled “Enki and the Ordering of the World,” Ishkur, the weather-god, opens the gates of heaven. from the ends of the earth. This was the way Mesopotamians understood the origin of clouds. In Mesopotamian cosmology, the “ends of the earth” refers to the horizon. This is where the gates of heaven are located, because the sun is seen as setting there as it goes through the gates of heaven. wind from his storehouses. See the article “
He struck down the firstborn of Egypt. See .
While objects representing deities were common in the ancient world, only statues created under carefully prescribed conditions and with proper rituals were regarded as real images that the deity inhabited. Some images were made of stone, cast of solid metal or molded from clay; however, the primary statues of deities that dominated the temples were usually carved of wood and covered with a thin layer of gold or silver and adorned with precious stones and elegant clothing. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon commissioned a major restoration of temples and images. For the creation of cult statues, he brought carpenters, goldsmiths, metalworkers and stonecutters—all skilled artisans knowledgeable in the mysteries—into the temple, and he decorated their images with ornaments and jewelry.
The ritual that brought the image to life was referred to as the “mouth washing,” which possibly paralleled the work done by a midwife to clean the breathing passage of a newborn. It required the priest to whisper into the ear of the statue and to open its eyes to see and its mouth to breath. The ritual states, “This statue without its mouth opened cannot smell incense, cannot eat food, nor drink water.” Then the priest swore an oath that he did not make the statue. The Egyptians, likewise, had a ritual called “Opening the Mouth and the Eyes,” which operated with different actions and beliefs, but was performed to quicken the manufactured image into a living representation of the deity. Similar to the Mesopotamian ritual, the priests disavowed any hand in its manufacture. Priests in both Mesopotamia and Egypt daily attended to the statues—washing, clothing and feeding them as though they were living gods. Praise was offered to their hearing, and priests or prophets would convey messages purportedly spoken by these gods. ◆
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idols of the nations. OT law prohibits the manufacture of images of Yahweh, the god of Israel (, ; ; ). This was a unique religious custom, since all other ancient Near Eastern religions used statues and various other symbols to represent their gods in worship. People believed that a statue contained the personality of the god it represented; in effect, the statue was a manifestation of the deity among the people. In a Mesopotamian text, the god Marduk claims that the wood of his cult statue is “the flesh of the gods,” which is adorned with precious metals and gems. But the psalmist declares that these idols are really nothing more than human crafts, a denial of the claims made about idols.
Give thanks. This phrase (a single word in Hebrew) implies acknowledgment to God for specific acts of deliverance, and its utterance accompanied the peace/fellowship offering (see notes on ; ; see also the article “
earth upon the waters. See the article “
rivers of Babylon. The city of Babylon was built on the banks of the Euphrates River; however, the heartland of the Babylonian Empire embraced both the Euphrates and Tigris River systems, as well as countless canals dug for navigation and irrigation. It was in this region that many exiles from the final downfall of Judah were settled (see note on ).
poplars. This tall tree is common along the banks and waterways of the Euphrates River, although the same word might also refer to a type of willow. harps. See the article “
songs of Zion. See the article “
Edomites. Descendants of Jacob’s brother Esau, who settled the region southeast of the Dead Sea (); these tribes eventually became traditional enemies of Israel (; ; ; , ). They were part of the mercenary forces that destroyed Jerusalem at the time of the Babylonian invasion (586 BC; see ). Diplomatic relations during this time of crisis were complicated, with alliances forming and dissolving as each nation sought its own advantage (; ). No extant texts outside the Bible attest to a Babylonian-Edomite alliance, but a military letter possibly dating to this time refers to an order from the king of Judah that troops be moved in the southlands in order to defend against the Edomites.
Daughter Babylon. The term “daughter” can refer to the people who reside in the named location (cf. ; ).
The dark realities of warfare in the ancient Near East often doomed the innocent to destruction. While soldiers and men were often subject to dismemberment and impalement, women and children might also be ravished and slaughtered (; see note on ). Pregnant women might be lacerated in order to extract the fruit of their wombs, and infants were smashed on the ground (; ; ; )—all to eliminate the next generation as well as the present one. The psalmist is borrowing imagery from prophetic descriptions of judgment announced against Babylon for the atrocities it committed against Jerusalem (; ; ). The use of such language is a graphic description of the cruelty of warfare in the ancient Near East (see note on ) The Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BC was a peaceful takeover, but the city was razed by the Persian king Xerxes in response to a revolt in 482 BC. Under subsequent rulers, efforts were put into rebuilding from time to time, but Babylon never fully recovered, fell into decay, and was virtually abandoned by about 100 BC. See the article “
before the “gods.” See the article “
name. Refers to the reputation of God’s character. Some similarity of thought exists between this psalm and the exaltation of Marduk. After Marduk answered the call to deliver his kindred gods from destruction, they declared Marduk’s kingship over all the gods, acclaimed his 50 names and decreed that “his word is truth, what he says is not changed.” By virtue of the fact that Yahweh delivered the psalmist (v. ), he has exalted Yahweh’s name and “decree”; so the psalmist declares God’s right to receive homage from the psalmist and all kings (v. ).
vindicate me. There existed in Mesopotamian religion the belief that the deities decreed the fate of individuals, often decided in the council of gods and goddesses (see ). Ashurbanipal praised Assur as the “determiner of fates” and proclaimed that his own “fate” was to exercise kingship and restore the shrines of the gods. The guidance of the gods was necessary for the success of anyone’s undertaking. The gods could also decree evil intentions for someone.
You know . . . perceive . . . discern . . . know. It is not unusual in the ancient world for it to be implied that gods or kings know everything, or that there are no limits to their knowledge. King Nabonidus claimed to be wise, knowing everything and seeing hidden things (cf. ). In most cases, however, this is little more than patronization. While there is no reason to see this psalm in that light, it should be recognized that the context is judicial rather than theological. Yahweh is being addressed as the judge who is in possession of all the information for judging the psalmist’s case wisely and fairly. In Babylonian literature, Shamash is praised as one who (as the sun-god) sees all the lands, but he is also said to know their intentions and see their footprints. It is more common for the gods to be attributed boundless wisdom.
Where can I go . . . from your presence? you are there . . . you are there . . . even there. It is difficult to distinguish the idea of having access to every place from the idea of being simultaneously in all places. The former is all that is demanded from the words of the psalmist, and is likewise the norm in the ancient Near East. Since the sun-god is usually the god of justice, and there is nowhere his light does not shine, he sees all (cf. vv. ). Even the netherworld was known to him, because the sun was believed to traverse the netherworld during the night as he moved from the western horizon to the east to rise again. As a result, the divine judge would again (see note on vv. ) have all the information needed. Nothing could have been done secretly. There is no concept in the ancient Near East or in the OT of deity being in every place simultaneously in the way that omnipresence is construed in Christian theology, though this does not negate the legitimacy of that theology as it later developed.
depths. This Hebrew word is traditionally translated “Sheol,” the underworld of the dead (see the articles “
This verse may be adopting solar terminology (rising on the dawn = east; setting on the far side of the sea = west). It is not unusual for the heavenly bodies (or the gods that are associated with them) to be portrayed with wings, but the phrase “wings of the dawn” does not occur in Akkadian. In Egyptian hymns, when the sun set, it descended into the underworld of the dead in order to bring light there as well. The directions of rising and setting suggest that the psalmist is identifying himself with the movement of the sun and continues to refer to God’s access to the world of the living as well as the world of the dead.
knit me together. The creation of the individual by a deity was a known concept in Mesopotamia and Egypt, as well as in Israel. In the Egyptian Great Hymn to Aten (see the article “
Mesopotamian myth focuses on the creation of human beings in general (see note on ), but in royal theology one sees an emphasis on personal creation of the individual king. The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (c. 650 BC) states in a hymn that he has been created by the hands of the great gods. In another text, the god Nabu indicates that he was the creator of Ashurbanipal’s body. The significance of these affirmations is to bolster confidence in the protective care of the gods for Ashurbanipal, whom they uniquely created. But this personal touch also extended to more ordinary people, as evidenced in a scribe’s prayer in which he claims to have been “begotten” and “created” by the god. A similar point is being made in this psalm.
depths of the earth. This is poetic language for the unseen realm of the womb, which is like the hidden recesses of the earth (see the articles “
days ordained for me. Along with the concept of the individual person’s creation (see note on v. ), the Mesopotamians affirmed the related idea that the days of life were ordained by the gods (see note on ). In the Gilgamesh Epic, the Mesopotamian flood hero, Utnapishtim, tells Gilgamesh that it is the great gods in assembly who decree the days of life and death, but they do not disclose to any individual when their death will take place. According to Mesopotamian thought, the decisions of the divine assembly were recorded on a “Tablet of Destinies,” which possibly included the course of life for each person. This was not an unalterable “fate” as in Greek myth, but it set forth the will of the gods. When a person died, it was said that he “went to his fate.” On the other hand, one who dies on “a day not his fate” suffered a premature death.
Search me. See note on .
poison of vipers. There are over 20 species of poisonous snakes in the region around Israel. The word “serpent’s” is generic. The exact identification of the word translated “vipers” is unknown, since the word only occurs here; it is probably not a spider, as one tradition has suggested, because of the parallelism with “serpent’s.” The association between a biting snake and the action of its tongue is illustrated in a Mesopotamian snake bite incantation. This association makes the snake a particularly good metaphor for lethally dangerous speech. The Hebrew word for poison also means “heat,” which is a common image for poisonous bites. See note on .
Relief depicting a variety of trapping tools, 645 to 635 BC, Nineveh. See note on .
Kim Walton. The British Museum.
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snare . . . net . . . traps. The ancients used a variety of netting systems. One technique was simply to throw a net over the bird or animal (). Another type involved spreading the net on the ground and using a cord to draw the net around the prey (). Egyptian art depicts such a system, where rectangular-shaped nets are placed on the ground alongside one another and drawn together over the birds. A net might also be erected vertically and the animal driven into it. For a “snare” that employed a trigger mechanism, see note on . Another metaphor that may be present here is found in the ancient Near Eastern expression of magical hexes and incantations as being snares or nets that can bind a person.
burning coals . . . fire. Literal and metaphoric catastrophes that the ancients regarded appropriate for enemies. The curse section of a treaty between the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (c. 680 BC) and his vassals warns that burning coals rather than dew will rain on the disobedient vassal’s land. An Assyrian prophecy during the reign of the same king reports that the god Assur rained upon his enemies “fire of heaven.” Concerning the fate of a rebellious brother, the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (c. 650 BC) reports that the gods threw him into a burning conflagration (he had died when the palace burned). miry pits. This Hebrew word is used only here in the OT. It appears to be related to a Ugaritic word for chasm or abyss (Ugaritic mhmrt = Hebrew mahamor). In the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, the god Baal is swallowed by Mot, the god of death, and Baal’s descent down Mot’s throat is likened to going into the “abyss” (mhmrt). The word is associated with water, hence the NIV’s adjective “miry.”
plows. Just after the first rains of the autumn season, the ground was soft enough for plowing. An iron point (or a set of two points) fixed to a stick for handling was pulled by oxen to break the soil. This loosening caused rocks to surface, which is perhaps the word picture behind the metaphor of this verse. Instead of an undisturbed burial, this verse pictures bones scattered at a grave, like rocks spread across the field. Disturbing the bones of those buried or destroying corpses was a severe infliction of torment upon their disembodied spirits (see the articles “
traps . . . snares . . . nets. See note on .
title in the cave. During the time that David was fleeing from Saul, he spent a lot of time in caves (e.g., ). The Judean wilderness, where David spent his fugitive years, has abundant caves scattered throughout the region.
land of the living. In ancient thought, the earth was divided into the two realms: (1) the surface, where people lived and (2) the underworld, which was the abode of the dead (see the articles “
prison. Cisterns or pits were sometimes used as temporary prisons (; ). As a place in the ground, often shut off from light (), the picture of a cistern was used metaphorically for the underworld of the dead (cf. “pit” in and “dungeon” in ). In view of the contrast with “land of the living” (v. ), the psalmist invites his audience to imagine his potential death as confinement in a dark, subterranean prison ().
spread out my hands. See note on .
pit. See note on ; see also the articles “
lead me on level ground. The roads of the ancient Near East were for the most part unpaved (except for a few roads in the Late Assyrian period). Although unpaved, those that were intended for wheeled transport (called “wagon roads” in the Nuzi tablets) had to be staked out, leveled and consistently maintained. However, very few texts describe the construction and maintenance of these roads. Roads for heavy transport were somewhat rare, and were primarily along the trade routes. Thus, a vassal king complained to the king of Mari that he had to arrive at the Syrian capital by a roundabout route along a major highway. Assyrian kings rarely boasted of their road constructions, as it appeared to be the duty of the local populations. In a treaty text Esarhaddon commands that when his son succeeds him, the vassal must submit to him and “smooth his way in every respect.” In a hymn to the goddess Gula, the deity says that she makes straight the path of one who seeks her ways. Mountain travel was notoriously difficult, and when kings do boast of road construction, it is when they sponsored the cutting of a mountain road. Nebuchadnezzar II claimed: “I cut through steep mountains, I split rocks, opened passages, constructed a straight road.”
Rock. See note on . trains my hands for war. See note on .
fortress. See note on . shield. See note on .
See note on .
For the Lord as a divine warrior, see note on .
lightning. See notes on , . arrows. See note on .
mighty waters. See note on ; see also the article “
new song. See note on . ten-stringed lyre. See the articles “
well-nurtured plants . . . pillars. The royal interest of this psalm in conjunction with the reference to a palace might conjure an image of flourishing civic projects. The splendor of a palace and city was enhanced by ornamental gardens. The Assyrian king Sennacherib (c. 700 BC) boasted that he adorned the city of Nineveh with a “great park” containing all kinds of herbs and fruit trees, and that he allotted plots of land for the people to plant orchards. In addition, he developed an elaborate irrigation system to keep the plantings lush. Similarly, fine architecture was a credit to any monarch who experienced success in his reign. Sennacherib spoke of the elaborate portico of his palace with copper and cedar pillars to support the grand doors. Such pillars were sometimes carved in human shape. This psalm draws on such images to describe the blessing of offspring who flourish as the most important pride of any community (see notes on , ).
Our barns will be filled. Continuing the description of a prosperous society (see note on v. ), the psalmist speaks of agricultural fertility. Verses allude to social conditions arising from covenant blessing () in contrast with those of a curse (). Azatiwata, a Hittite official (c. 700 BC), prayed for blessing upon his own city measured in terms of children, grain and livestock, similar to . These are the three most important components of life for people in an agriculturally based society.
breaching of walls. Wall carvings from Assyrian palaces illustrate the work of soldiers in siege engines that ram and claw at a city’s defensive structures in order to penetrate the walls (see the article “
glorious splendor. See note on .
everlasting kingdom. A parallel idea is found in the words of the servant-deity Kothar wa-Hasis to Baal urging him to assume eternal kingship. The Ugaritic expressions “eternal kingship” and “your [rule from] generation to generation” are cognate to the Hebrew “everlasting kingdom” and “all generations,” respectively. A comparable expression is used in Akkadian as well, illustrated in a decree to build an Akitu house (used to house the god temporarily in the New Year’s festival) for a god that would last for generations. In Biblical usage, these expressions can simply mean a lifetime or an indefinitely long time into the future (e.g., ; ; ), but in contexts regarding divine rule, the rhetorical force stresses endless time (cf. both terms in regarding the endurance of God’s name). In a letter to Esarhaddon, one of his administrators expresses the hope that Nabu and Marduk might give the king everlasting years, a just scepter and an everlasting throne.
lifts up all who are bowed down. This benevolent attitude was expected of any good god in ancient Near Eastern culture. The Hymn to Marduk concludes with the recognition that he is the one who raises up the weak and guides the meek. He brings protection and recovery from illness The psalmist, of course, recognizes Yahweh as the one who accomplishes these things.
satisfy the desires. In the ancient Near East, the gods had created people to provide for the needs of the gods. If people did that, the gods had to ensure that the people were protected from enemies and that their crops grew. Desires for safety and sufficient food were thus satisfied by the gods. In a challenge between the Canaanite gods Baal and Mot, Baal contests Mot’s claim that he reigns by virtue of his ability to satisfy the people of the earth. Closer in tone to is the Hymn to Marduk, which praises the god out of “sweetness” of the thought of him who provides the produce of the earth; however, the ultimate purpose is to provide offerings for the gods, which the ensuing lines of the Marduk hymn indicate. In Israelite thinking, Yahweh had no needs, and his provision for his people was part of his covenant relationship with them. Their faithfulness to the covenant assured the blessings of the covenant, which would satisfy their desires.
Do not put your trust in princes. The goddess Ishtar admonishes the Assyrian king Esarhaddon similarly: “Do not trust in man.” The young Esarhaddon had recently attained the throne after a civil war, and the instability of such a situation would have led to dependence on military leaders and other officials of court. In , the psalmist warns against the temptation to place hope in any human, who ultimately has no control over his own destiny let alone the welfare of others.
When their spirit departs. See note on .
He upholds the cause of the oppressed. The psalmist lists a series of actions that demonstrate the Lord’s disposition to help the oppressed. These can be correlated to comments in other psalms: “gives food to the hungry” (v. ; see note on ); “sets prisoners free” (v. ; see notes on , ); “lifts up those who are bowed down” (v. ; see notes on ; ). The duty of any human king to defend the widow and orphan is well known in the ancient Near East (see notes on , ), and the same assumption would apply to any deity.
He heals the brokenhearted. The trauma of exile was a painful reality for many war-torn peoples in the ancient Near East (see note on ). Restoration of people’s suffering from exile was a concern in both Mesopotamian and Israelite religion. The need for emotional healing and restored personal relationships is expressed in a Babylonian prayer to the gods Shamash and Marduk in which the worshiper indicates the sadness of the passing years of captivity and his longing that his unhappiness be relieved.
determines the number of the stars. Because of its importance in divining the will of the gods, Mesopotamian astronomy attained a high degree of precision and sophistication. Interpreting divine messages from the position of the stars was comparable to reading a text inscribed on a tablet. Indeed, the stars and constellations were called “heavenly writing.” The interpretive tradition dates from the third millennium BC, and by the mid-second millennium, scribes were copying detailed lists of predictive omens based upon astronomical observations, which reached a sophisticated literary form in the first millennium.
The Babylonian Creation Epic credits the god Marduk with setting the stars and constellations of the gods into place in the heavens (see notes on , ). That text uses technical terminology found in an astrological omen list organized according to the paths of particular stars in the astronomical calendar. Based upon the positions of stars relative to one another, Babylonian scholars predicted events on earth; e.g., “If the moon is surrounded by a halo and the Pleiades stand in it: in that year, women will give birth to male children.” As effective representations of the gods, stars also played a role in magical rituals to invoke divine help. While astrological application to individual destinies at birth appear in the Old Babylonian period, only late in the first millennium BC did this concept become more developed (i.e., into personal horoscopes).
Egyptian religion portrays the stars embodied in Nut, the sky-goddess (see the article “
covers the sky with clouds. While Canaanites worshiped Baal as the god of the clouds and rain (see notes on ; ), his Mesopotamian equivalent was known as Adad. A prayer to Adad calls upon him as the one who forms clouds in the heaven and rains down abundance, and another prayer describes the resulting joy of the mountains and meadows that have become green. The psalmists routinely use the same kinds of metaphors, descriptors and activities to describe Yahweh that Israel’s neighbors use to describe their gods. Israel does not, therefore, have a unique theological rhetoric, but it has one that is familiar throughout their world.
not in the strength of the horse. See note on .
snow. See note on .
all his angels. In Mesopotamian and Egyptian hymns, other deities are sometimes called upon to praise the god or goddess of the hymn. The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (c. 650 BC), e.g., calls on all the gods to bear testimony to the greatness of Marduk. In an Egyptian hymn to Amun, Amun is hailed as one to whom the gods give praise, the creator who brought light to the world.
sun and moon. See notes on ; .
waters above the skies. See note on .
sea creatures . . . depths. See the article “
snow. Snowfall in the southern regions of Israel is unusual, occurring about once every five years in Jerusalem, which is in the hill country, in contrast to the low coastal plain or the Jordan Valley, where snow is extremely rare. However, in the mountainous north and eastern plateaus, snow falls every winter and in places can remain throughout the winter and perhaps year round on Mount Hermon (cf. ). In ancient times, snow and ice were marvels of creation (see ; ), as were lightning and hail, which were understood to originate from the divine realm.
raised up . . . a horn. See notes on ; .
dancing. Scenes of dancing from pottery and engraved stone are known from the Near East as early as the fourth millennium BC. Egyptian iconography portrays dancers participating in festive religious processions. The god Baal Marqod (lit. “Lord of the Dance”) is known from Phoenicia. While rare, depictions of dancing have also been found at archaeological sites in Israel dating to the Biblical period.
Much of the dancing that is attested in the ancient world takes place in religious contexts, though both Mesopotamian and Egyptian sources frequently depict dancers involved in entertainment. The dancing connected to festivals would probably resemble folk dancing of today, featuring the coordinated movements of a group of dancers. At other times the dances could more resemble ballet, where a scene or a drama is acted out. Single dancers usually performed either whirling, squatting, leaping, hopping-type dances or acrobatics approximating a modern gymnast’s routine. Dancers sometimes performed either scantily clad or in the nude. In religious contexts, the participating officials (i.e., priests and administration) at times danced, not just the professionals. In one Hittite ritual this specifically included the queen. There are no known examples of dancing kings.
The OT attests to the importance of dance in ancient Israel. After Yahweh’s victory over the Egyptians at the crossing of the Red Sea (see the article “
praise . . . and a double-edged sword. The coupling of these two seemingly incongruous ideas is understandable against a historical background such as the rebuilding of Jerusalem after the exile. Nehemiah was commissioned by both God and the king of Persia to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, yet he and his fellow Jews lived and worked under constant danger of military attack from the surrounding nations (). There is no explicit link between the historical setting of Nehemiah and the origin of ; however, it illustrates how war and worship might be compatible under a theocracy (cf. , ). Furthermore, warfare in the ancient world was often construed as related to the activity of the gods (a divine warrior leading the army, see the article “
fetters . . . shackles. Though the Hebrew terms used here are not the typical ones, it is likely that the former were wrist cuffs chaining the hands together, while the latter went around the ankles to chain the feet together (as is clear in ). Iron was used for these by the Assyrians as early as the eighth century BC.
trumpet. See note on . harp and lyre. See the articles “
timbrel. See the article “
cymbals. The Hebrew term is related to the verb “to resonate” or “to ring,” and with ancient sources it is commonly understood as “cymbal.” Cymbals are well attested in the ancient Near East, being made of bronze and so enduring the ravages of time until discovered by modern archaeologists. They are of two different sizes, the smaller averaging about three inches (7.5 centimeters) in diameter and the larger approximately six inches (15 centimeters). The difference between cymbals implied in the words “clash” and “resounding” may allude to these two types (higher and lower pitch), or it could refer to the different manners in which cymbals can be played (single clash or allowed to resonate). See the article “