Chapter 344 of 379

Annotations for Revelation

The revelation from Jesus Christ. Book titles often listed the purported author—here, “the revelation from Jesus Christ.” Ancient writers often included titles on the outside of their scrolls, but by the middle of the second century some scribes began transcribing earlier writings into codices, which are essentially the kind of books we use today. Consequently titles that often originally appeared on the outside of documents now often appear in our works as the opening line of the document. sending his angel. Apocalyptic literature often reported God sending revelations through angels; this is not surprising, since God had sent some revelations this way in the Bible (; , , ; ; , ; , ; ). his servant John. Authors of most traditional Jewish apocalypses borrowed names from famous Biblical figures who lived centuries earlier, perhaps because some of their contemporaries believed that prophecy was no longer as active in their own day. By contrast, John writes in his own name; early Christians believed that prophecy did remain active. servant. See note on .

Blessed is the one who reads aloud the words of this prophecy. Before printing presses were available, people of means often “published” works especially in public readings, perhaps most often at banquets. But Revelation was read in churches alongside OT Scripture, suggesting its special authority (cf. also ). Even in urban areas, most people could not read much; thus one person would read the work and others would listen. blessed are. Introduces a beatitude, a form common especially in the OT and ancient Jewish sources (see note on ). near. Imminent. This means that the book of Revelation makes its demand on the present—not that it specifies a particular time frame (cf., e.g., ; ; ).

A work that was not a letter per se could include the same form of introduction as letters because it was sent to someone (cf., e.g., 2 Maccabees 1:1). The preface of a work would often set its tone; expansions on any part often introduce themes in the rest of the work—here the emphasis on God, including Jesus Christ.

Asia. The Roman province of Asia, in western Asia Minor; Christians had multiplied strongly there by this period (cf. ). John names seven of the most prominent and strategic cities in the region, from which word would quickly spread to outlying areas. The leading council of Asiarchs () met each year in a succession of seven cities, including six of the seven cities to which John writes. (He replaces Cyzicus, far to the north, with the more centrally located Thyatira.) Ephesus, the first city he mentions, was the most important city in the province, but also the first of the seven cities to which a messenger from Patmos, just 40–50 miles (65–80 kilometers) away in the Aegean Sea, would have come. Grace and peace. See note on . him who is, and who was, and who is to come. A writer would sometimes bracket off a section by starting and finishing on the same phrase (vv. , ). This title represents a common Jewish way of understanding the Biblical name “I AM” (). seven spirits. Some take the seven spirits as the seven archangels of Jewish tradition; more often scholars connect them with the sevenfold Spirit of God in , allowing for a Trinitarian reading of vv. .

faithful witness. Sometimes a divine role (), although not limited to God (). firstborn from the dead. Most Jewish people expected all the righteous dead to rise at the end of the age (); Jesus’ followers believed that he inaugurated that future event in the midst of history, as “firstborn from among the dead” (; see ; cf. ). ruler of the kings of the earth. The Roman emperor claimed to rule the earth, ruling subordinate kings, as did the Parthian ruler in his part of the world. In , however, God’s firstborn rules over the other kings of the earth.

a kingdom and priests. John applies to all believers (cf. ; ), who have been grafted into the Biblical heritage of Israel, a title and mission already designated for Israel (). Yet Exodus’s “kingdom of priests” here becomes a kingdom (who will reign, ) and priests (who in Revelation offer the incense of prayer, ). to him be glory and power for ever and ever! Whereas traditional Jewish texts praised God the Father, here the praise is directed toward Jesus (cf. ), the one who died for us (v. ) and made us priests to his Father (v. ).

coming with the clouds . . . and all peoples on earth “will mourn because of him.” Jesus’ return in the clouds (probably of divine glory) reflects ; that those who pierced him would see him and would mourn reflects . This may echo an earlier saying of Jesus (see ). peoples. Lit. “tribes.” Might echo the Greek version of , though “tribes of the earth” appears together elsewhere in the Greek translation of the OT (e.g., ; ). Not only Israel but also many other peoples were organized into tribes; Philadelphia, for instance, had seven, and Persia reportedly had 12. Athens, Rome, and other cities and regions had tribes.

the Alpha and the Omega. Using the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, John describes God as the first and the last (some Jewish writers did the same with the first and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet). He thus evokes God’s title in Isaiah: the first and the last (; ; ). the Almighty. The Greek version of the OT regularly calls the Lord of hosts “Almighty.” Although Romans often called various deities “almighty,” their gods remained subject to the whims of fate; Israel’s God, by contrast, was sovereign over fate.

After completing his letter introduction (vv. ; see note there), John turns to a narrative introduction; narrative introductions were common in speeches, treaties and elsewhere.

on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. Often people of lower social status were executed, enslaved or banished to the mines or to die in gladiatorial combat. On the likely view of Revelation’s authorship, however, John was aged, and sometimes those in authority sentenced persons more lightly on account of their age. Only the emperor could order the harshest form of banishment; it is more likely that John was sentenced by the governor. John probably was thus exiled on Patmos but not sentenced to labor in the mines. Romans often punished people by banishing them, most frequently (to limit opportunity for escape) to islands. They often used two groups of islands in the Aegean Sea near Asia Minor. In one of these island chains, the Sporades, lay Patmos. John thus could easily receive visitors from Ephesus, just 40–50 miles (65–80 kilometers) to the northeast. Patmos had a Greek gymnasium and a cult of Artemis.

the Lord’s Day. Some scholars contrast “the Lord’s Day” here with the monthly “Lord’s day” in some cities of Asia Minor, which was dedicated to venerating the emperor. in the Spirit. Probably suggests John’s experience of inspiration (cf. ; ; , ).

seven golden lampstands. Throughout the ancient Mediterranean world, including in Asia Minor, the seven-branched lampstand was the most common symbol of Israel and Judaism. It was thus a natural symbol for a congregation of followers of Jesus, the Jewish Messiah.

The goal of many Jewish mystics and apocalyptic seers was to view God on his throne, but Revelation opens with Jesus as the revealer. Here the combination of elements from different Biblical passages does not reduce Jesus to the least of the images (that of an angel). Instead it draws on various Biblical images of splendor to communicate the greatest splendor.

someone like a son of man. Alludes to the figure in , who is destined to reign. robe reaching down to his feet . . . golden sash. Some scholars argue that Jesus’ robe and sash may recall the Biblical high priest (; ; ); but cf. also , relevant in this context.

hair . . . white as snow. Recalls the Ancient of Days before whom the son of man appears in (the “snow” there described his clothes). eyes . . . like blazing fire. Fire was often used to depict the supernaturally flaming eyes of divine beings or angels, especially the spectacular angel in .

feet . . . like bronze. Connects with the magnificent angel in , but also the angelic living creatures in ; metal glowing as if in fire, as here, reflects God’s own glory in . voice . . . like the sound of rushing waters. In , the angel’s voice sounds like a multitude, but the description here more closely recalls God’s voice in (and ).

seven stars. See note on v. . out of his mouth was a sharp, double-edged sword. Evokes the Messianic mouth of judgment in and Jewish images of God’s Word as a warrior with a sword. face . . . like the sun shining in all its brilliance. Greek texts sometimes portrayed deities shining like the sun or lightning; Jewish texts did the same for angels (cf. ) and others, but also for God himself.

I fell at his feet as though dead. Prophets often fell prostrate before divine and angelic glory (; ; ; ; ; ; also developed in Jewish tradition). Do not be afraid. Both in Scripture () and in Jewish tradition, the revealer often raised prostrate people to their feet and/or told them not to be frightened. I am the First and the Last. This is precisely the title that identifies deity in the same context (cf. v. ; ; ; ); Jesus opens his revelation to John by affirming his deity.

I hold the keys of death and Hades. In Greek literature the dead came “to the gates of Hades”; Scripture described them as “the gates of death” (; ), sometimes translated in the Greek version of the OT as the “gates of Hades” (as in ; ). Egyptians believed that their afterlife-god Anubis held the keys to this underworld; Greeks assigned control over the house of Hades to their god of that realm, Hades. By contrast, Jewish sources assigned the keys of death and Hades exclusively to the one true God.

what is now and what will take place later. Greeks thought their gods could reveal past, present and future, but in Jewish tradition, only the true God revealed these matters (cf. ; ).

The mystery . . . is this. Both in Scripture (, ) and apocalyptic traditions, God often revealed mysteries. seven stars. Whereas Gentiles often thought of stars as divine, Jewish observers usually considered them angels. Because of widespread interest in astrology in antiquity, many Gentiles and even many Jews felt that stars controlled the Gentiles’ future. Here the stars are in Jesus’ hand. Jewish tradition recognized guardian angels of nations (based partly on , ) and of individuals; here the idea seems to be guardian angels of churches. seven lampstands. See note on .

Like all letters that were not carried by imperial couriers, the book of Revelation would be carried by travelers or (in this case) personal messengers; apart from official business of the empire, no public postal service existed. The letters to the seven churches are “prophetic letters,” a sort of writing that appeared earlier in the Bible (; ), early Jewish literature, and in some ancient Near Eastern sources.

Given the authority of these letters, they resemble in one respect edicts of emperors. Yet they resemble even more closely the Biblical format of prophecies concerning various peoples (; ; ; ), here applied more specifically to God’s people dispersed in different cities (cf. ). Each letter is a prophetic message from Jesus (e.g., ) through the Spirit (e.g., ) who is inspiring John (). The phrase “these are the words” () is identical with the standard messenger formula in the Biblical prophets (in the Greek translation of the OT; also ). Each letter follows a similar pattern:

• To the angel of the church in (a city) write

• Jesus (depicted in glory, often in terms from ) says

• I know (in most instances some praise is offered)

• Yet (where relevant) I hold this against you

• Whoever has ears, let them hear what the Spirit says to the churches

• To the one who is victorious (a promise)

Being victorious was often an athletic image (see “crown” in the note on ) and a military one (as in ; ). That the message is from Jesus, following the same form as earlier Biblical messages from God, plainly implies Jesus’ deity. Even Gentiles believed that inspired messages came from gods (or, more commonly in a later period, deified heroes). Indeed, the descriptions of Jesus’ glory formally resemble the sort of epithets with which Greeks often addressed their deities. ◆

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Ephesus. The region’s most prominent city, more powerful than Pergamum politically and more favored than Smyrna for the imperial cult. It was also the nearest of the seven cities to Patmos (see notes on , ). Ephesus had a large Jewish community (), but was mostly pagan. The first emperor, Augustus, had allowed Ephesus to build two temples in his honor, and the current ruler, Domitian, had named the city “guardian” of the imperial cult, making it the foremost center of the imperial cult in Roman Asia. Ephesus, in fact, hosted a new cult of the emperors that had opened about five years before Revelation was written. Ephesus was also known for the practice of magic () and, more than any other religious issue, the worship of Artemis (). seven stars. See note on . seven golden lampstands. See note on .

tested those who claim to be apostles but are not. False teaching posed a major danger in Ephesus in Paul’s day (, ; ; ), but their discernment had improved. (Their improved discernment is also reported by Syrian bishop Ignatius in the early second century.)

You have forsaken the love you had at first. If the love is for God, cf. ; if for fellow believers, cf. the contrast with “hate” in v. ; it might mean for both.

I will . . . remove your lampstand from its place. Ironically, even the city of Ephesus eventually had to relocate a few miles/kilometers away because the Cayster River kept silting up the harbor. The primary threat expressed in this verse, however, is to the church: the removal of its lampstand would mean that it would cease to exist as a church—whatever else, if anything, it might continue to be.

Nicolaitans. Today we can only guess at their identity. Some nearly a century after Revelation associated them with Nicolas of Antioch (); others associate them with followers of “

” ().

Whoever has ears, let them hear what the Spirit says. For this invitation to hear, cf. Jesus’ words in , . Because Jewish tradition associated the Spirit especially with prophetic inspiration (cf. , ; ; ), it is no surprise that early Christian prophecy was sometimes identified with the speaking of the Spirit (). tree of life. Jewish texts often used it to symbolize various things associated with righteousness. Some texts, however, used it as here—a source of eternal life (; cf. ). paradise. A term used in the common Greek translation of the OT for gardens but especially the Garden of Eden (; ). Many Jewish sources portrayed the destiny of the righteous as Eden, and of the wicked as Gehenna. The image of gardens would be familiar in Asia Minor, including in Ephesus, where the garden estates of the Ephesian cult of Artemis included some tree-shrines.

Ancient writers often underlined points through a series of contrasts. In this letter, Jesus is “the First and the Last, who died and came to life again” (v. ). Those in poverty prove rich; those who slander them “say they are Jews and are not” (v. ), and if they prove “faithful, even to the point of death” (v. ), they will receive the crown of life.

Smyrna. Along with Pergamum (v. ), Smyrna competed (usually unsuccessfully) with Ephesus for preeminence. Smyrna was the second city in Asia permitted to establish an imperial cult. who died and came to life again. Some commentators connect the emphasis on resurrection here with Smyrna’s recovery centuries earlier, sometimes compared with a sort of resurrection; more important is the relevance to Christians who may soon face death (v. ).

slander of those who say they are Jews and are not. Jews were exempt from worshiping the emperor; if Jesus’ followers became unwelcome in the synagogues, however, they became vulnerable to accusations of disloyalty against Rome. Smyrna’s Jewish community apparently remained on good terms with their city, but they could not afford to take chances. The Judean war against Rome two decades earlier resulted in a special tax Jews everywhere in the empire had to pay. Many Asian Jewish leaders thus could have grown uncomfortable with any association with prophetic, Messianic movements like the movement that followed Jesus. (Later, in the early second century, some Jewish accusers participated in denouncing Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna and a disciple of the apostle John, at Polycarp’s execution.) Normally Roman officials tried cases only if accusers brought them forward. Such slander could be in view here (cf. earlier accusations in ; , ; ; ; ; ). Commentators often envision a similar background for the Gospel of John. a synagogue of Satan. Some other Jews (especially those who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls) condemned the rest of Israel as apostate, calling them even “the congregation of Satan.” John applies this harsh language only to the believers’ direct opponents. This is not a model for how Gentile Christians should address synagogues; this was the sort of intra-Jewish challenge that characterized strong debates about Jewish identity among various competing Jewish groups in this period.

put some of you in prison to test you. People were normally imprisoned until a trial concluded (followed by either release or punishment). ten days. People could languish in prison for long periods of time, but here the impending execution sounds swift. Daniel and his colleagues were tested for ten days (), and then exalted; the Smyrnean believers will be exalted through martyrdom. Be faithful, even to the point of death, and I will give you life as your victor’s crown. Jewish traditions sometimes described martyrs as faithful in facing death and promised them eternal life and a crown of victory. crown. Jewish tradition also described other eternal rewards as crowns; for the image, borrowed from the garland that was the normal prize for athletic victories, see the article “

” In this passage the “crown” might also have a secondary purpose, a subtle contrast with Smyrna’s claims to power: Smyrna’s citadel was often compared with a crown, and nearly 20 percent of inscriptions from earlier centuries contain this emblem.

second death. Some other Jewish texts depict the horror of the second death, which could refer to annihilation or resurrection for eternal torment. Revelation apparently depicts the harsher option: the second death () is the lake of fire (; ), which apparently involves eternal torment ().

Pergamum. A famous and prosperous city with a population often estimated between 100,000 and 200,000 inhabitants. Because they allied themselves with Rome’s imperial ambitions in the East early, they had secured special favor with Rome. sword. Cf. ; might contrast with the Roman government’s “right of the sword,” i.e., to execute capital punishment; Jesus, not the governor, holds the power of life and death (cf. ). Because this letter focuses on false teachers, however, the sword refers especially to Jesus battling these teachers (vv. ). The Biblical prophets often used the image for the judgment of war.

where Satan has his throne. Some associate Satan’s throne in Pergamum with the healing cult of Asclepius there (symbolized by a serpent); more often scholars think of the famous, massive, throne-like altar of “Zeus the Savior.” Likeliest of all suggestions so far is the imperial cult; anyone visiting the city would immediately see the old temple of Augustus on Pergamum’s citadel. Among the proposed associations of the throne here, the cult of the emperor would also be the likeliest cause of persecution.

Balaam. Jesus may refer to the original Balaam whose teaching they follow (cf. ; ), or this may be a nickname for a local false prophet (as in v. ), evoking the Biblical Balaam’s gravest offense. He led Israel into sin in order to remove them from God’s favor, recognizing that this was the only way to destroy them (). The sins into which he led Israel were sexual immorality and food offered to idols (), sins that remained temptations in pagan society (). Balaam was ultimately killed for his treachery (; ). food sacrificed to idols. By the early second century, Roman officials recognized Christian influence in refusal to eat sacrificial meat, and actively repressed Christians for this. See the article “

” sexual immorality. Rife in Greek-influenced cities in the first century (see the article “

”). Some, however, suggest a figurative use here (cf. , ); Scripture often used the image for spiritual unfaithfulness (e.g., ; ; ; ; ; ; ).

hidden manna. Alludes to a Jewish tradition that the temple vessels, the ark of the covenant and the manna once deposited in the ark would be restored in the Messianic era (in contrast to ). John thinks not of the earthly ark of the covenant but of the heavenly one (), and of God’s provision in the present world (cf. , ) and the future one (; ). This promised manna contrasts starkly with food sacrificed to idols (v. ). Cf. note on . white stone with a new name written on it. The meaning of the white stone is debated, because people used stones in various symbolic ways; often such a tessera or small block of stone or ivory would contain inscribed words or symbols. white. Often symbolized purity and life; also, though most building materials in Pergamum were of dark brown granite, that city used white marble for its inscriptions. Some scholars contrast here a black stone, the sacred totem of the Phrygian Mother Goddess. Some compare pebbles as admission tokens for public assemblies or festivities (here, manna at the Messianic banquet; cf. ; ). Others compare jurors voting for acquittal with a white stone, implying here promised vindication (cf. v. ). new name. Alludes to and especially , which promise that God will give his people a new name, removing their shame (). This would fit the time of the new Jerusalem and new creation ().

Thyatira. Like Sardis (), Thyatira was in the region of Lydia. Asia hailed emperors as deities and saviors; an emperor was also considered the son of a god, the previous emperor. (Some scholars further suggest a contrast with Zeus’s son Apollo, a patron deity of Thyatira with whom some scholars link deified emperors.) Son of God. This is Revelation’s only use of this title; still, it was a common title for Jesus (e.g., ; ). burnished bronze. Jesus also reminds Thyatiran hearers of his feet like bronze (); metalworking was a prominent industry in Thyatira, so its residents would be familiar with the image of glowing bronze.

Jezebel. A nickname for a false prophetess, evoking the Biblical Jezebel’s sin of turning Israel away from God. calls herself a prophet. The earlier Jezebel was not a prophet, but she sponsored 850 false prophets () and tried to kill God’s true prophets (; ). she misleads my servants into sexual immorality. See note on v. . Jezebel is never accused of literal sexual immorality, but she sponsored its spiritual equivalent by leading Israel away from its God (, which also compares her activity with witchcraft; cf. ; ). It is debated whether the sexual immorality of Thyatira’s Jezebel is literal (cf. , , ; ; ; ; ), since the children of v. are undoubtedly not her literal children (see note on v. ). Certainly literal sexual immorality was widespread in the culture (cf. ; ; ); both elements may be present, but even if the image is wholly figurative, it plays on the moral horror with which Jesus’ movement and Judaism viewed literal sexual immorality. eating of food sacrificed to idols. See note on v. . If believers in Pergamum risked persecution to avoid idolatry, Thyatiran believers may have faced economic risks. Thyatira’s economy depended heavily on merchants, craftspeople and their guilds (cf. also ). Refusing to join the guild of one’s trade could prove economically disastrous, but guild meetings included a common meal first dedicated to the guild’s patron deity. To refuse to share the meal was tantamount to refusing connection with the other members of the guild, whom one needed for economic survival. Aspects of the imperial cult also eventually affected most trade guilds.

bed. Both a place for intercourse and a place where someone very sick remained. God sometimes used sickness as a judgment (e.g., ; ; , , ; ).

strike her children dead. Jezebel’s children are presumably her disciples, perhaps members of house churches under her influence. I am he who searches hearts and minds. In the OT and Jewish tradition, God is the one who searches hearts and minds (e.g., ; ). I will repay each of you according to your deeds. See note on .

deep secrets. Language such as this could be used for profound truths associated with divine wisdom and/or revelations; here it is false revelation.

Jewish groups such as the Qumran community who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls applied (cited in v. ) to the Davidic ruler par excellence, the Messiah. He would rule the nations (cf. ; ). I will give authority . . . that one ‘will rule them with an iron scepter and will dash them to pieces like pottery.’ Closely follows the common Greek version of . Jesus thus shares his authority with his people (cf. , ). “Rule” (v. ) might better be translated “shepherd.”

morning star. Ancients revered the planet Venus, the “morning star,” and sometimes applied the image to glorious rulers (). Romans associated Venus with triumph and reign, hence they praised Venus (whom they claimed as their ancestor) for their conquests. More relevant here, Jesus is himself the morning star (), undoubtedly the promised star of , which many ancient Jews understood Messianically. Interpreters often connected texts based on shared key words; (see ) and both contain the term “scepter” (even though is not quoted in full here).

Sardis. Although the city was deeply committed to its prestigious form of pagan belief, it welcomed its large, monotheistic Jewish community. Local Jews later secured some of the most valued land in the city to build one of the largest synagogues in antiquity, roughly the length of a football field. Apparently Christians too were tolerated here. seven spirits. See note on . seven stars. See note on . reputation of being alive, but you are dead. Scholars suggest various backgrounds for this statement: some local religion focused on seasonal renewal of life; Sardians could see both their Acropolis and Necropolis (the latter a burial place for the dead); and, most plausibly, a contrast with their famous past under Croesus. The most important function of the contrast, however, is a deliberate contrast with the Lord himself, who was dead and is now alive (; ).

if you do not wake up, I will come like a thief. Sardians knew their local history. An earthquake at night devastated Sardis about eight decades earlier. Scholars also suggest that conquerors had never overtaken Sardis by conventional war, but had twice conquered it unexpectedly because the guards had failed to watch adequately. Still, the coming “like a thief” most directly evokes Jesus’ own words (; ) often repeated by early Christians (; ; ).

a few people . . . who have not soiled their clothes. In ancient temples, worshipers dared not approach deities with soiled clothes; the normal apparel in temples was white or linen.

never blot out the name of that person from the book of life. Cities in Asia Minor had citizen-registers; in an earlier period Sardis was known for its royal archives. In some cities, names of errant citizens were deleted from the register immediately prior to their execution. blot out. The image here most directly stems from , which came to be applied to a heavenly book of life (; ), especially in ancient Jewish writings (cf. also ; ).

holds the key of David. Jesus is not only the “root of David” (; ), but also subsumes under his kingship the full role of chief steward of the royal household. This official controlled entrance into the royal palace, a position of the highest authority in the kingdom (, especially v. ; cf. ; ). As such Jesus—not the synagogue leaders in v. —determines who may enter his household and who may not.

synagogue of Satan. Synagogue leaders in Philadelphia, wrongly claiming that they act for Israel’s God, have marginalized Jewish believers in their synagogue (see note on ). fall down at your feet. The Biblical prophets had promised God’s people that the Gentiles would bow down to them (; cf. ; ; others in ; ; ), as Jewish tradition also recognized (but here applied to hostile Jews). acknowledge that I have loved you. Here the leaders must recognize that God has chosen these believers among his people () and that he has loved them (; especially ).

crown. See note on .

a pillar in the temple of my God. Though expelled from a synagogue, the believers remained part of God’s temple. This verse recalls , in which foreigners and eunuchs, excluded from the traditional temple (; see note on ), would have a place and an eternal name within God’s house, better than that of Israelites. Everyone would expect the new temple to include pillars () just as the old one did (; ; , ). Personified pillars specifically functioned as an image of strength or blessing in antiquity, including in Scripture (; ; ). Ancient pillars often had honorary inscriptions on them. name of my God and the name of the city of my God . . . my new name. In the first century, Philadelphia adopted two new names, but other factors are more relevant for understanding the promise here. God promised his people a new name (; see note on ) and emphasized the importance of the new Jerusalem’s name (; ).

The city of Laodicea lay in Phrygia’s Lycus Valley, ten miles (16 kilometers) west of Colossae (; ) and six miles (10 kilometers) south of Hierapolis (). Pagan worship, especially of Zeus but also of numerous other deities (such as Dionysus, Helios, Hera, and Athena), flourished there. A significant Jewish community lived in Phrygia (; , ), but they seem to have blended into Greek culture in many respects.

Laodicea boasted great resources (see notes on ), but while the Laodicean Christians likely shared their Laodicean neighbors’ pride over their self-sufficiency in many respects, they presumably also shared a common dislike for their water supply ().

Laodicea was known as a wealthy banking center, and it had flourished especially under the dynasty of emperors ruling in John’s day. The city hosted gladiatorial games and boasted a theater. More important, it was the capital of the Cibryatic convention, which included at least 25 towns. Local civic pride grew quite fierce in some cities of Asia, and Laodicea vied for power with its primary rival in Phrygia, namely Antioch. So arrogant was Laodicea about its wealth that when the emperor proposed to help rebuild Laodicea along with other Asian cities destroyed by an earthquake in AD 60, Laodicea refused the funds.

Laodicea’s water was full of sediment. The terra cotta pipes of Laodicea’s water tower are full of thick lime deposits; likewise, lime deposits on the waterfall cliff just opposite Laodicea provided a constant visible reminder of their water problems. Laodicea lacked its own water supply, having no direct access to the cold water of the mountains or the hot water of the nearby springs in Hierapolis to the north. In contrast to its claims to self-sufficiency (), it had to pipe in its water from the south; though much of the aqueduct from the south was underground, nearer the city it came through stone barrel pipes, thus remaining vulnerable to any intended besiegers who wished to cut off the city’s water supply. More important for this passage, any water piped into Laodicea had grown lukewarm by the time of its arrival. ◆

Calcified water pipes in the remains at Laodicea.

Mark Wilson

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Laodicea. See the article “Laodicea.” ruler. The Greek term also often means “beginning.” Both Greek and Jewish religions sometimes describe God or supreme deities as “First” and occasionally called some deities “the firstborn”; the emperor also claimed to be “first” among equals, the “equality” part being a rhetorical fiction. More relevant is the Biblical background; elsewhere in Revelation “beginning” is an explicitly divine title linked with “first” (; ), a clear divine title in ; ; .

neither cold nor hot. Ancient sources complain that Laodicea’s water was full of sediment. (Their nicest comment was simply that it was not as bad as that of Hierapolis; Strabo, Geography 13.4.14.) See the article “Laodicea.” The water was also lukewarm by the time it arrived in Laodicea, though lukewarm water could always be heated. Mildly hot water was useful for bathing, and waters at hot springs such as those at nearby Hierapolis were considered helpful for relieving ailments. Cold water was useful for drinking, and available in nearby locations like Colossae. Most people preferred cold drinks, but hot drinks were also common at banquets. When speaking of water, both hot and cold are thus useful and pleasant. The point of lukewarm water, by contrast, is simply that it was unpleasant, useless, and disgusting—thus Jesus spits it out (v. ).

I have acquired wealth and do not need a thing. Laodicea was a prosperous community and banking center. Apparently local believers have absorbed local values, especially pride (cf. ). Ancient writers appreciated irony: in vv. the matters in which they pride themselves materially they lack spiritually. blind. For spiritual blindness, see, e.g., ; ; ; ; ; ; .

white clothes to wear . . . salve to put on your eyes. The community produced notable textiles, including cloth and carpets woven from black wool. They had a local medical establishment, and eye salve was produced in the region, although they also looked to healing deities for help.

Those whom I love I rebuke and discipline. See .

I stand at the door and knock. Even an acquaintance would invite in for food a neighbor who was knocking. I will come in and eat with that person. Sharing a meal established a covenant relationship. Present fellowship could foreshadow the expected Messianic banquet (; ).

sit with me on my throne. Cf. , ; see note on .

I looked. Ezekiel (e.g., , ; ; , , ; ), Daniel (, ; ; ) and subsequent visionary texts often included phrases such as (lit. here), “I looked, and behold.” a door standing open in heaven. Open heavens sometimes accompany theophanies and other revelations in Scripture () and Jewish apocalyptic sources. Come up here. Evokes God’s summons to Moses to receive his revelation (, ; ; ) in the context of Scripture’s first throne vision (). Jewish tradition elaborated Moses’ ascent (all the way to heaven) and spoke of others called to heaven in visions. Cf. John’s visionary language in ; .

a throne in heaven with someone sitting on it. Jewish apocalyptic writings focused on and developed the throne visions of Ezekiel and Isaiah; many mystics regarded such visions as their goal. Most peoples envisioned chief deities as enthroned, and God is enthroned in Biblical visions (; ; ; ). Apocalyptic texts often describe the visionary’s dangerous journey through various heavenly gates to reach God’s throne. By contrast, yet like earlier Biblical prophets, John is simply transported there by God’s sovereign summons (v. ) and the Spirit’s inspiration (cf. ; ). Some apocalyptic sources provide angelic help for the ascent, but John ascends simply by the Spirit, as in Ezekiel (; , , ; ; , , ; ; ).

jasper and ruby . . . rainbow that shone like an emerald. Some ancient apocalypses elaborated in great detail on God’s throne, seeking to amplify God’s majesty; readier to acknowledge the inadequacy of human images to communicate God’s grandeur (cf. ), John omits such adornment. The heavenly court nevertheless contrasts starkly with the pretense of merely earthly grandeur of emperors. jasper. An opaque gem (including but not limited to modern jasper) that is often reddish but sometimes green or other colors (cf. , ). ruby. Sardius, translated here as “ruby,” was normally red. In Ezekiel God’s throne appeared like sapphire (; ; cf. ), which is often deep blue and was often identified in antiquity with lapis lazuli. rainbow. Recalls the radiance of God’s throne in .

twenty-four elders. Some regard these elders as angels; others view them as the OT people of God. Two other common approaches may be more fruitful. First, the doubling of the 12 could represent all the people of God, perhaps OT and NT believers together (see ). Second, given their function in worship, they may represent the 24 courses of priests in the OT (e.g., ), since believers are a kingdom and priests (; ). In the art of Asia Minor a small number of priests seem to have represented a much larger number of worshipers. crowns of gold. Might evoke victories, as in , but when crowns were of gold they pointed instead to reigning or priestly functions or some sacred competitions.

lightning . . . thunder. Ancient Mediterranean peoples often associated them with chief deities, and of course also with the heavens. Here they may evoke especially God’s revelation at Mount Sinai (; ; ). seven lamps. An allusion to (cf. ).

sea of glass. Vast waters (cf. ) also appear in apocalyptic visions of heaven or paradise, probably developing OT images (; ; ), and the knowledge that rain and lightning fall from heaven. The most direct source here, however, is the bronze “sea” of Solomon’s temple for the priests to wash in (; ; , ), because heaven in Revelation appears like a temple (; ; , ; ; ). The heavenly worship contrasts starkly with earthly worship of the beast (, ). Solomon’s temple probably included a “sea” for the same reason that ancient Egyptian temples depicted heaven on their ceilings: a symbol of part of the cosmos to testify that their deity ruled the entire cosmos. glass, clear as crystal. Evokes the crystalline, heavenly expanse beneath God’s throne and above the throne angels in (cf. , , ). Most glass available in the first century was not very clear. four living creatures. Ancient Jewish descriptions of heaven often added to the OT, but they never neglected it. Thus even their more imaginative descriptions usually included Isaiah’s fiery “seraphim” () or Ezekiel’s cherubim supporting God’s throne (; ; ). covered with eyes. Might suggest that nothing on earth is hidden from these creatures (), with the implication, “How much less from God himself?” Cf. ; .

The faces reflect those in ; (except that in Ezekiel each creature had all four faces). Ezekiel’s vision probably employed the most powerful and regal of animals to communicate the majesty of the creatures that carry God’s throne.

Day and night they never stop. Ceaseless worship probably suggests both divine empowerment for worship and the worthiness of God (cf. ). Glorious nearly beyond human conception as these creatures are, they serve no other literary function here than to extol God’s holiness. John knows most of their song from , which had been incorporated into regular Jewish prayers. Even a holy priest among God’s holy people would count himself and his people unclean once he witnessed the supreme holiness of God ().

As in , Revelation envisions a heavenly temple. Throughout Revelation God’s people in heaven are worshiping (; ; ; ; ), while on earth God’s people are being slaughtered and followers of the beast are worshiping the beast (, , , ; ). The scenes of worship in heaven are fitting for a heavenly temple.

Heaven’s furniture regularly evokes the Biblical temple:

• the ark of the covenant (; )

• the tabernacle (; )

• the altars of incense and sacrifice (; ; ; ; )

• the sea (cf. , , ; see ; )

• the lampstands (; ; , )

• harps (, ; ; )

The church on earth is never closer to heaven than when we are offering God and the Lamb the glory they deserve; it is then that we most fully experience in the Spirit a foretaste of heaven (cf. ; ). A church that suffers in this world will long for heaven, and in turning our hearts toward our heavenly king we will find strength to remember that the future world belongs to us. ◆

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fall down before him. Nebuchadnezzar demanded that peoples fall down before his image and worship, but only the true God is worthy of such obeisance ().

our Lord and God. It is said that the current emperor, Domitian, expected worship as “lord and god.” Those familiar with the common Greek translation of the OT, however, would already recognize “our Lord and God” as a divine title (e.g., ; ). glory . . . honor . . . power. Praises could heap up related terms, reinforcing the recipient’s honor (e.g., ; ; ; ; ).

Legal documents normally closed by listing witnesses, usually about six in number. Such documents were normally sealed shut with hot wax over the threads that tied the scroll closed; then witnesses would press their personal seals into the hot wax, making an impression that matched their distinctive seal and attested that they were the witnesses.

No one could open the scroll without breaking the hardened wax seals that held the threads in place, and no one could replace such seals without the witnesses’ rings. Thus no one could tamper with the legal document until it was time to publicly open it. Seals reserved the contents of a document for its rightful recipient and authenticated the document with witnesses who attested it.

Some Jewish writers envisioned heavenly scrolls as sealed documents to prevent any accusation of tampering (1 Enoch 89:71). In a later writing, 3 Enoch, these seals could be broken only by high angels before the document was handed to God. A book of judgments could be sealed (); this was the case with the scroll in , which, like the one here in , contains writing on both front and back. Here, however, the judgments (or at least the first set of judgments) are not the contents of the book but the attesting witnesses in the seals (). They show that God will call the world to account. ◆

Model of a papyrus document sealed with four clay bulla.

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

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a scroll. Jewish traditions often portray writings in heaven that contained God’s heavenly laws or decrees about people’s destinies in this life or eternally (for the book of life, see note on ). writing on both sides. People usually wrote on only one side of a scroll, its “front” (what was inside as one unrolled it). They usually employed the back only if they ran out of space on the front. The description here evokes , a scroll of bad news (see note on ).

I saw. Typical visionary language, not only in the Bible (; ; ) but also in apocalyptic literature. seals. See the article “Sealing Documents and Revelation 5.”

no one . . . could open the scroll. Normally a scroll’s seals should be broken only by those to whom it is addressed or by officials; moreover, these seals, on a book in the right hand of the living God (v. ), are too strong for ordinary mortals to break.

Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David. Ancient literature, including Jewish literature, regularly used lions as images of great strength. Lions were considered the courageous, powerful rulers of the animal kingdom. The specific image of the Lion of the tribe of Judah comes from , which refers to a ruler from Judah who will rule the nations; Jewish tradition naturally applied it to the Davidic Messiah. Revelation links this image with the Root of Jesse (David’s father) in . The ruler described there restores David’s truncated line (), is anointed by the sevenfold Spirit () and is appointed to rule all the nations with peace (). Some Jewish sources portrayed him as a mighty warrior prince.

Lamb. In contrast with the lion of v. , lambs epitomized helplessness in ancient sources. They were the most vulnerable of sheep, which were in turn portrayed as the weakest of creatures, often victims of lions and other predators. looking as if it had been slain. A slain lamb, weakest of all, evokes OT sacrifices (e.g., ; ; ), and especially the Passover lamb, which delivered Israel from the climactic plague (). seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God. Male lambs could have two horns, but not seven. Horns could symbolize kings or power (; ); here John says that they represent the seven spirits of God—God’s power rather than human might (cf. ). John also identifies the horns here with seven eyes, which he might identify with the Spirit (; ). In the seven eyes belong to God himself; Jesus here again appears as divine.

harp. Harps (also ; ) fit the setting of the heavenly temple (cf. ; ; , , ). golden bowls full of incense. Incense offerings were also standard in temples; golden bowls were considered the most exotic. prayers. For incense as prayers, see . Jewish tradition depicted one of the chief angels presenting the prayers of God’s people before God; here the heavenly chorus offers them to Jesus.

a new song. May imply a freshly inspired song in addition to the praises already available; in any case, in the OT it is offered to God alone (; ; ; ; ; ; ). Jewish people often praised God for redeeming Israel (e.g., ). At Passover Jewish people sang hymns to celebrate God’s redemption of their people from Egypt. every tribe and language and people and nation. Something like this fourfold formula occurs in varying sequences seven times in Revelation (; ; ; ; ; ; ); it matches a threefold formula that occurs six times in Daniel (, , ; ; ; ). The first of these in Daniel is fourfold in the Greek translation (). Daniel announced that the Son of Man would rule all these peoples (). every . . . people. The Roman Empire conquered as far north as Britain and had trade connections with India, China, and east Africa; educated people knew of much of the world. John’s vision of all peoples before God’s throne thus would have appeared humanly impossible in his day—though the past two centuries have witnessed a remarkable degree of fulfillment.

a kingdom and priests. See note on . they will reign. God’s people would reign with him forever (, ).

ten thousand. The largest number readily available in Greek. The figures come from , a passage often used by Jewish writers to praise God’s infinite greatness.

Worthy is the Lamb. Jewish people recognized that God alone merits the praise of all creation (; ; ; ). Here the Lamb receives worship alongside God the Father. power . . . praise. On piling up related terms in praise, see note on . Multiple elements in a list of praises emphasized the subject’s greatness (cf., e.g., ; ; for a king, ). Long lists of praises appear elsewhere (e.g., ; ), sometimes in sets of seven, as here (in the Dead Sea Scrolls, see 4Q403 f1i.2–4; in the Mishnah, see Pesahim 10:5). praise. Cf., e.g., .

in heaven and on earth and under the earth and on the sea. Greeks divided the rule of their deities among heaven, earth (and sea) and below the earth (the realm of Hades), or heaven, earth (and Hades) and the sea. Earlier Scripture also sometimes emphasized God’s sovereignty over heaven, earth and sea (; ; ; ; ). and to the Lamb. See note on v. .

Amen. Closed prayers and many Jewish works. worshiped. The Greek word often implies prostration, reinforcing “fell down”; for the meaning, see note on .

Romans listed fearful omens. More important, Biblical prophets often listed together the judgments of war (sword), famine and plague (e.g., ; ; ; ; ; ; ); the present vision makes war emphatic by separating conquest (vv. ). Many ancient prophecy teachers catalogued special sufferings they expected in the degenerate time of the end; Jesus listed such sufferings but warned that many occur throughout the present era (, ; ).

The four riders most directly recall , where riders on horses of four different colors represent the Lord’s patrol (). Later God sends out four chariots, each drawn by horses of a different color as his patrol (); by Revelation’s period cavalry had shifted from chariots to riders. Here they appear with a more active role as angels of judgment.

seals. See the article “Sealing Documents and Revelation 5.” living creatures. See note on .

white horse. White horses were especially prized. Its rider held a bow. Biblical prophets used the bow as a frequent image of conquest, though associating it especially with eastern peoples known for their archery. Most fearful to the Roman Empire, Rome’s most formidable enemy, Parthia, was known particularly as mounted archers. They were the only group of mounted archers known in the ancient Mediterranean world. Many Jewish people expected Parthians to play a role in the future war. For the most part, the Euphrates () divided the Roman and Parthian Empires. See the article “Parthia.”

fiery red one. The much-vaunted “Roman peace” was merely Roman propaganda; the empire’s borders were never fully secure. Later rabbis associated Zechariah’s red horse (; ) with bloodshed. large sword. The “sword” represents the judgment of warfare and violent death more than 100 times in the OT alone. Because Revelation does not mention different nations here, some scholars suggest that people killing each other here might refer to civil war. Rome’s most remembered battles of recent generations were wars within the empire itself, including Rome’s own civil wars. Because it involved bloodshed of one’s own countrymen, many considered civil war the most horrible kind of war.

Famine (vv. ) and plagues (v. ) usually closely follow war, killing civilians as well as combatants. In antiquity, fugitives from war often crowded cities, which were soon besieged and sometimes starved into submission. Pestilence sometimes followed from rotting corpses in the water supply. Both Gentiles and Jews recognized that such hardships often represented divine judgments calling for repentance. Biblically, these normally are judgments on societies, not specifically the individuals who suffer them.

a pair of scales. The balance; it was normally used in the marketplace to weigh out the amount of food one could buy for one’s money. Basic Mediterranean staples, depending on one’s location, were barley, wheat and perhaps cheese and olives, plus fish for those near bodies of water.

Two pounds of wheat for a day’s wages. Hired laborers on a farm might be paid as little as two loaves of bread a day (about one pound [0.5 kilograms]), just enough food for themselves. More commonly they were paid in money, and enough to also feed families (on average perhaps two meals a day) in times when employment was available. six pounds of barley. Two pounds (one kilogram) of wheat was the amount ancient texts deemed necessary to feed a single worker for a day (though if supplemented with other food, a worker might eat just two-thirds that amount), but if he had a family to support (as most workers did) he would buy instead three times as much barley, which was cheaper. The grain here costs 5 to 15 times what it might in better times. Given the average size household in poorer regions like Egypt, many of the younger children would die or be stunted by malnutrition. do not damage the oil and the wine! God’s mercy appears in the midst of judgment. Destroying standing crops in the fields destroyed a year’s produce, but only the most savage enemies destroyed olive trees and vineyards, which would take years to grow back. The imagery would be stark for John’s audience. When Revelation was written, Asia Minor was producing a profitable surplus of wine for export but had to import grain from elsewhere; ordinary people thus paid higher prices for grain.

Death, and Hades was following close behind him. Personified Death and Hades appear together in some Biblical poetry (; ; ; ; ). kill by sword, famine and plague, and by the wild beasts. The four riders together slay with sword (violent death, as perhaps in the first two riders), famine (the third rider), pestilence (perhaps the fourth), and wild beasts, perhaps added here because it elsewhere appears in Biblical lists of four plagues (; ).

Earlier Biblical prophets had predicted the witness of God’s people to the nations (e.g., , ; ; ; ), the conversion of the nations (; ; ; ) and the suffering of God’s people in the end time (). Like , this vision connects these themes.

under the altar. Probably recalls the place where priests poured the blood (hence the “life,” ) of sacrifices (e.g., , , , ; ; ; ). Jewish tradition by this period recognized martyrs as sacrifices accepted by God.

How long . . . ? . . . until the full number. A common Biblical plea for God’s swift intervention (e.g., ; ; ; ; ; ). In Jewish apocalyptic traditions, the righteous continued crying for vindication until the judgment; in one source (possibly later than Revelation), the righteous ask, “How long?” and an archangel responds, “Until your number is complete” (4 Ezra 4:33–37). Some other traditions also recognized that the full number of martyrs must be completed before the end. For the very blood of martyrs crying for vindication, cf., e.g., ; . For martyrs until the end, cf. perhaps .

great earthquake. Such an image might prove particularly graphic and terrifying for Laodicea and other cities devastated by earthquakes within the past generation or two. Jewish writers sometimes used similar poetic language for cataclysmic events within the present age (; ; ). The description here, however, fits a climactic, eschatological earthquake that truly removes mountains (; ; ; ) and which often appears in apocalyptic scenes of the end. sun turned black . . . moon turned blood red. Both Jews and Gentiles viewed even a mere eclipse of the sun or moon as terrifying, but this is no mere eclipse. Apocalyptic texts place the darkening of sun and moon at the end of the age, the usual Jewish interpretation also of passages on which this vision may draw (; ; ).

stars . . . fell . . . as figs drop from a fig tree. The language evokes , where the stars would fall “like shriveled figs from the fig tree.” The context there is judgment against Edom but also against all nations ().

The heavens receded like a scroll being rolled up. As in v. , Revelation continues to draw on , where “the heavens rolled up like a scroll.” One would normally unroll a scroll with the right hand while with the left hand rolling up what one had just finished reading. Other Diaspora Jewish writers associated this image with the entire dome of heaven collapsing on the earth as the universe fell apart.

kings . . . the mighty, and everyone else. No marks of status will exempt anyone—even Caesar—from judgment. both slave and free. Ancients sometimes summarized humankind by simply contrasting opposites. hid in caves and among the rocks. mentions hiding in the rocks and caves in the day of God’s wrath. Christians in Sardis may have envisioned the cave-tombs of the mountain facing their acropolis. Whereas caves and mountain clefts could hide one from human enemies, nothing could protect mortals from God’s wrath (v. ).

Fall on us. In the wicked “say to the mountains, ‘Cover us!’ and to the hills, ‘Fall on us!’ ” (used also in ). In some apocalyptic scenarios, on the day of judgment it is too late to repent. Thus the unrepentant here entreat mountains for cover rather than God for mercy. wrath of the Lamb! A shocking image, since lambs were considered among the most docile creatures (). The Lamb is again identified here as divine.

For the great day of their wrath has come, and who can withstand it? The question adapts : “The day of the LORD is great . . . Who can endure it?” The preceding verse in Joel speaks of the sun and moon being darkened. Cf. also : “who can endure the day of his coming?” The question’s answer comes in the following vision: the servants of God stand now and thus will stand in that day ().

As God protected his own people in Goshen during the plagues, so he would be with them as the world faced his judgments.

four angels standing at the four corners of the earth, holding back the four winds of the earth. Ancients associated the four winds with the four directions (cf. ), though most people viewed the earth as circular or oval, not square (cf. “the four quarters of the earth” in ). In Jewish apocalyptic works, God controls the winds and delegates them to angels, using them for blessing or judgment. In , God sent out four chariots (cf. ); the common Greek translation of describes these four heavenly “spirits” as the four “winds” of heaven (see on ). to prevent any wind from blowing. The blowing of four winds also could announce evil world empires (). Here God prevents the winds from blowing in judgment until he has marked his servants for protection (v. ).

another angel . . . having the seal of the living God. A king could delegate his seal to an agent authorized to carry out an activity on his behalf (e.g., ; ). Perhaps this angel was one of the witnesses who initially attested the plagues (; see the article “Sealing Documents and Revelation 5”).

seal on the foreheads of the servants of our God. A seal identifies God’s servants here (cf. ; ; ), in contrast to the mark of the wicked (; , ; ; ; ; cf. other visionary labels in ; ). It may attest ownership (cf. ). Views of the background vary. Jewish people showed their fidelity to God’s law by wearing phylacteries on the hand or forehead during prayers (see note on ). Some compare the marking of soldiers on the hand, forehead or neck (cf. note on vv. ), though this was not pervasive. Others compare the branding of slaves (cf. “servants” here), though very few ancient slaves were branded. Whatever the case, the most important background is , where God invisibly marks for protection his own before releasing judgment on others (cf. ; ). In one pre-Christian work, God invisibly marks the righteous with a “sign” to protect them and marks the wicked with a sign for destruction (Psalms of Solomon 15:6–9).

Some compare the form of the list in vv. to a military census (, , ; ). For some battles Israel’s leaders drafted 12 equal contingents from different tribes or regions (; ); battalions of a thousand were also fairly standard units. Because the only other occasion when John “heard” (v. ) a number recounts troop strength (), this might be God’s people depicted as an army (cf. ; , ; ; ). Some Jewish people expected an end-time army to wreak judgment on Gentiles (note especially 1QM, War Scroll in the Dead Sea Scrolls). If this imagery is in view here, however, John applies it symbolically; these are God’s servants (v. ), the redeemed (). Some apply the image to a nonviolent “army” of martyrs (cf. ; see note on v. ). Although Dan was the first listed to receive his inheritance (), his tribe is missing in this list. (Jewish sources say some negative things about each of the tribes, so citing their comments about Dan cannot fully explain his omission here.) The numbers 12,000 and 144 both recur together later in Revelation, suggesting that the 144,000 represent new Jerusalemites, the people of the new Jerusalem ().

144,000. See note on .

Although a second vision could add new information, sometimes it presented in a new way the content of a previous vision (as in ; ); sometimes it could also interpret what one had just heard (as in ). This vision transforms OT images of God and Israel (; see note on ) to address the Lamb and his people from many nations (v. ).

great multitude that no one could count. This multitude (in contrast to vv. ) may echo the promise to the patriarchs (; ; ). By the end of the first century, Christians likely numbered fewer than 144,000, much less an uncountable multitude (which must be no smaller than the numbers in ). John’s vision offered a promise well beyond merely human expectation! every nation, tribe, people and language. See note on . white robes. Many commentators relate the white robes to those of martyrs (). palm branches. Often used to hail victors in a military triumph; if vv. envision an end-time army (see note on vv. ), this “army” hails the true victor, the Lamb.

Cf. ; .

The rest of heaven responds to the multitude’s praises as in an antiphonal chorus (cf. ). For the accumulation of praise language, see note on ; for its sevenfold character, see note on .

who . . . where . . . ? Jewish sages and also figures in apocalypses sometimes asked questions that their hearers could not answer, provoking attention.

you know. Cf. . the great tribulation. Probably evokes (cf. also Jesus’ language in , using the same Greek terms). washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. Some imagery here is meant to shock: blood might purify ritually, but it notoriously stained what was white.

serve him day and night in his temple. Those who resisted the worship of other gods (, ) now serve in God’s temple. Various priests and Levites served day and night in God’s temple (; ); all believers are now priests (), though many are also sacrifices (). temple. For the heavenly temple, see the article “Heaven as a Temple in Revelation.” he . . . will shelter them with his presence. Alludes to the new exodus imagery of .

In , God promised that in the time of Israel’s restoration, his people would “neither hunger nor thirst,” nor would “the desert heat or the sun beat down on them.” Instead, God as the one with compassion on his people would “lead them beside springs of water.” God would shepherd his people (). In the context of being a “shade from the heat” (), a “banquet” for all peoples (), and the one who will “swallow up death forever” (), God would also “wipe away the tears from all faces” (). Here Jesus fulfills this divine role, and his followers from all nations (cf. ; ) receive promises designated for God’s own people.

the Lamb . . . will be their shepherd. Lambs were the weakest members of the flock, but here the Lamb leads.

silence in heaven. Interpretations of the silence vary widely. One proposal is that heaven is silenced to allow the prayers of the saints to be heard (vv. ); that, however, belongs to the next vision introduced in v. . More compelling, some apocalyptic works use silence to signal a return to the primeval creation, followed by the resurrection. Most relevant, however, is that silence could stem from awe or fear (; cf. ). Indeed, texts that first-century interpreters could apply to the day of judgment refer to the world’s silence before God at that time (; ; ; ; cf. ; ).

the seven angels who stand before God. In Jewish tradition, these were the seven archangels. trumpets. Used to gather people or issue military instructions; given other temple imagery in heaven (e.g., ; ; ; ; ), even more relevant may be the trumpets once used in the temple (; ; ; ).

incense . . . prayers. See . the prayers of all God’s people. Although full vindication may await the day of judgment (), lesser judgments before that day also offer a degree of vindication (vv. ).

the altar. See the article “Heaven as a Temple in Revelation.” thunder . . . lightning. See note on .

Many of the trumpet judgments, like many of the bowls (), evoke the plagues against Egypt.

Ex 7–10

Rev 8–9

Rev 16

Water turned to blood ()

Water turned to blood, wormwood ()

Water turned to blood (; cf. )

Fiery hail ()

Hail ()

Locusts ()

Locusts (, )

—

Darkness ()

Darkness (; cf. )

Frogs ()

—

Frogs? ()

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Revelation is not simply recounting what happened in Moses’ day; it is depicting judgments on the world in familiar Biblical terms—on the city figuratively called Sodom and Egypt (). Perhaps most important, the blood of the lamb delivers from the final plague of death (; ; ; cf. ).

hail and fire mixed with blood. People in the ancient Mediterranean world regarded dangerous hail or hail mixed with other things as a warning of divine judgment. Those who knew Scripture would think of the plague against Egypt in . a third of the trees were burned up. The destruction of one-third of the trees would cause shortages of fruit, including essential ancient staples such as olives, figs and presumably grapes for wine (vines were often counted as trees). all the green grass was burned up. The destruction of all the green grass would mean the impending death of sheep, goats and cattle—hence the end of the world’s supply of meat, milk and cheese.

huge mountain, all ablaze. Although a mountain ablaze might evoke Mount Sinai at the giving of the law (; ; ), in Jewish apocalypses stars sometimes appeared like burning mountains. In one Jewish account, a burning star falls into the sea and burns both the sea and Israel’s oppressors; this account and Revelation might both depend on the less obvious image in , .

a third of the living creatures in the sea died. This plague recalls . Most people ate more fish than meat, so this plague might prove devastating to the food supply faster than its predecessor.

a great star . . . fell from the sky on a third of the rivers and on the springs of water—the name of the star is Wormwood. Like the previous plague, this one contaminates water, yet it adds the severe bitterness associated with the wormwood plant. The probable Hebrew equivalent for this plant was known for its bitterness (; , ) and sometimes was associated with poison (; ; ).

A third of the day was without light, and also a third of the night. Gentiles feared darkness over the land, but the darkness here probably especially recalls the next-to-last plague against Egypt () and perhaps against its sun-god (). For partial darkness, cf. perhaps .

eagle . . . call out. The background of the eagle is debated. People sometimes used eagles to carry messages, but eagles obviously cannot speak. Greeks viewed eagles as omens (whether of good or evil) from Zeus. For this and other reasons the eagle could in some way symbolize judgment. Thus a Roman legion’s primary emblem was a silver or gold eagle; this eagle, however, portends a fiercer force than Rome (see , ). Scripture used eagles (as predators) as an image of judgment (; ; ; ). Indeed, the same Greek term is used for vultures (then considered a type of eagle) devouring dead bodies in ; (cf. the image in ; ). But the eagle here is the messenger, not the judgment itself. The image even applies to God’s protection (; ; cf. ), so it could be simply a majestic heavenly creature (cf. ). midair. Could refer to the middle of the heavens or could refer to the highest point of the heavenly dome over the earth, to allow for the message’s widest hearing. Woe! Woe! Woe to the inhabitants of the earth. Prophets and apocalyptic writers often used woes (laments) to announce judgments (here, the final three trumpet-judgments).

the Abyss. Conventional apocalyptic geography assumed a real location on earth called the abyss. Some also spoke of “the pit” as a place of damnation. Here God is sovereign even over creatures in places of evil (cf. ; ; , ).

sun and sky were darkened by the smoke from the Abyss. Locusts (v. ) could cloud the sky (, ).

Like most of the other trumpet judgments, locusts recall a plague against Egypt (; see note on ). The specific description of these locusts, however, stems from the book of Joel (; ), where the locusts are described as an invading army (e.g., ; , , ), but an invading eschatological army might be prefigured by the locusts (). The locusts here are more than literal locusts (see notes on vv. ); they might symbolize either a human army or a demonic one. Revelation might draw on characteristics of Rome’s feared enemy in the East, the Parthians (see the article “Parthia”). The horses (v. ; cf. note on ) stem from Joel (), but their long hair (v. ), characteristic of Parthians, does not come from Joel. Still, specifically Parthian connections here (in contrast with vv. ) are few. The locusts here are composite (see note on v. ).

locusts. See note on vv. . scorpions. See note on v. .

not to harm the grass . . . or any plant or tree, but only those people who did not have the seal of God. Clearly John does not envision normal locusts; locusts target the very sorts of vegetation that these locusts will not harm, but these locusts will harm people.

five months. Although the life span of different kinds of locusts varies significantly, many live roughly three to five months. That God sets limits on their destructiveness, both in intensity (v. ) and duration (vv. , ), may suggest his mercy and again underlines his sovereignty. This limited torment invites repentance (vv. ) to avoid eternal torment (; ). like . . . the sting of a scorpion. Scorpions were common in the eastern (and southern) Mediterranean world; their stings were proverbial for causing pain (not usually death in these regions).

The locusts looked like horses . . . their faces resembled human faces. Ancients often envisioned composite creatures, which they usually deemed superhuman. Griffins mixed eagles and lions; royal Egyptian sphinxes mixed human heads with lions’ bodies (turned into monsters among Greeks); the centaurs of Greek myth mixed horses and humans; Babylonians portrayed mixtures of humans with scorpions or horses. Many Greek composites were horrifying, lethal monsters. Those familiar with the Biblical prophets and Jewish apocalyptic literature, however, would recognize that some blending could be metaphor. horses. Could recall the Parthians (see note on ), but these already appear in Joel (; cf. ). crowns of gold. If gold crowns suggest royalty or high office (; ), they might suggest that each “locust” commands others, implying an army vaster than John can portray. They might also mock the bronze helmets of legionaries. human faces. Could indicate the composite design of an angelic creature (), but may also suggest that this is symbolic of a human army.

hair . . . like women’s hair. Most men in the Roman Empire in this period wore their hair shorter than did women (see note on ). Everyone knew that the feared Parthians wore their hair long, but ancient portrayals of monstrous or superhuman beings sometimes also included long hair; sometimes Greeks portrayed monsters with snakes as hair, but Revelation spares its audience that image here (though cf. v. ). teeth . . . like lions’ teeth. Reflects .

breastplates of iron. May compare locusts’ scaled bodies with the scales of the armor of eastern soldiers, as in some earlier Jewish texts. sound of their wings was like the thundering of many horses and chariots. Might suggest a human army, but the image comes directly from .

tails with stingers, like scorpions. Everyone knew that scorpions strike with their tails; some connect the tails with the Parthians (see note on v. ). Jewish people recognized that God used scorpions to execute his judgment.

Abaddon. Scripture regularly linked the Hebrew term Abaddon with death and the realm of the dead (e.g., ; ; ); the Greek version of the OT sometimes translates this as “Hades” (; ). In Greek, Hades was the sometimes-personified realm of the dead (), over which God () and Christ () have ultimate control. But here the control is delegated temporarily to an evil angel who appears to have been imprisoned with the other spirits of the pit. Apollyon. The present participle form of the Greek word for “destroy,” a noun cognate of which also sometimes translates “Abaddon” (; ; ; cf. ).

Some details of the invasion depicted here derive from the Parthians, Rome’s most feared enemy (see the article “Parthia”). Whether or not the scene refers to literal Parthians, such details would evoke terror for a Roman audience. (Some prophetic symbolism was intended more to evoke the right response than to predict details.) Literal Parthians obviously did not belch fire like the monsters here do (v. ). Greeks might envision the horrifying monster called the Chimaera, sometimes depicted as a goat with a fire-breathing lion’s head and a dragon’s tail. A Diaspora writer envisioned God creating fire-belching monsters specially to execute new judgments. Then again, Jewish apocalyptic sources could depict armies as animals or monsters. Whatever this army represents on a literal level, it is meant to evoke terror—and consequent repentance (vv. ).

four horns of the golden altar. The golden altar represents the incense altar (; ) rather than the sacrificial altar (); this judgment represents a further response to the prayers of the saints (). Middle Eastern altars normally had four horns.

In the first century BC, Pompey had established the Euphrates River as the boundary between the Roman and Parthian Empires, and that borderline remained in John’s day. In Roman sources, when the Parthians crossed the Euphrates, it was to fight the Romans. A later writer observes that only a river separated these two most powerful empires in the world.

The Parthians were the archrivals of the Romans, far more feared than the barbarians on the Roman empire’s northern frontier. Early imperial propaganda celebrated Augustus’s defeat of Parthia, but the Parthians had sometimes defeated Roman armies since then. Though Rome claimed to subject the north, west and south, Romans admitted that they could not defeat the Parthians to the east. The Parthians were known for their boldness and unpredictability in battle, including the annihilation of some Roman legions with the Parthian riders’ backward archery (see note on ).

Earlier, pagan prophecies of an Asian invasion of Rome had terrified the Romans. Some Jewish thinkers expected Nero, whom Christians believed to be an antichrist or at least a precursor to the final antichrist, to cross the Euphrates into Parthia, betraying Rome. They then expected Nero to lead a Parthian invasion of the Roman Empire. As part of the Roman province of Syria, Judea was close to the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire. Thus some first-century Jewish traditions also suggested that God’s angels would call together a Parthian invasion of the Holy Land. ◆

Plaque of Parthian archer, first–third century, Syria. Parthian archers were known for being able to ride forward while shooting backward.

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four angels who are bound at the great river Euphrates. Throughout Mediterranean literature, the Euphrates (also in ) appeared as the traditional boundary between Roman and Parthian territories. bound. Pre-Christian apocalyptic writers envisioned evil angels bound in various places, sometimes beneath the earth; other texts portray them as bound in bodies of deep water. Some Jewish prophecies warned of angels stirring the eastern kings of the Parthians and Medes to war and invading the Holy Land. Ancient hearers thus would probably think of the four angels bound in the river Euphrates as evil angels whom God would use as agents of judgment on a wicked world, by stirring the Parthians.

for this very hour and day and month and year. The designation of specific timing reminds the hearers that God is sovereign. a third of mankind. See note on v. .

twice ten thousand times ten thousand. Some commentators compare the figure here (200 million) with God’s hosts in ; ; even this evil army executes God’s purposes. The number also outnumbers not only the 144,000 (), but all of Rome’s legions—and probably the entire population of the ancient Mediterranean world.

horses. See note on v. . lions. See v. and note; lions also were considered the most dangerous beasts (cf. ; see note on ). sulfur. Yellow in substance but burns with a blue flame; sulfur was associated with Sodom’s destruction (; cf. ).

A third of mankind was killed. Though this is judgment, it is also mercy. In some other Jewish traditions, two-thirds of humanity would die from particular judgments. Striking a third () or a tenth () means that the majority still has a chance to repent (vv. ).

tails . . . like snakes. The serpent-like tails may evoke hideous pictures in Greek mythology such as Medusa or various demons with snake hair; cf. also the dragon in . Some relate the tails to the Parthians. A devastating Parthian battle tactic was to retreat uphill; when the Romans followed, the Parthian archers, who had perfected the art of riding forward while shooting backward, annihilated them with a hail of arrows.

still did not repent. God mercifully sends judgments to invite repentance (; ; cf. ; , ), as Jewish thinkers recognized. (Many Gentiles agreed, but with different gods, which is part of the problem here.) Despite God’s invitations to repentance, the world, like Pharaoh during the plagues on Egypt, refused to repent (). work of their hands. Following Scripture (e.g., ; ), Jewish writers condemned gods of wood and stone and precious metals. Both early Christians () and most Jews believed that the Gentiles’ deities were demons.

robed in a cloud . . . He planted his right foot on the sea and his left foot on the land. Being robed (cf. ) in a cloud (cf. ; ) and feet straddling land and sea emphasize the angel’s heavenly stature. Greeks told of superhuman giants, but Jewish tradition also depicted giant angels, some as high as the heavens. Their magnitude helped hearers to stand in awe of the God who was infinitely greater than such angels.

rainbow above his head. A rainbow surrounds God in , but in some Jewish traditions it is associated also with some high-ranking angels. face . . . like the sun. Jewish sources often mention shining angels (in Scripture, cf. ). legs . . . like fiery pillars. May recall the Greek view of the world supported by pillars (cf. also ; ); in Greek myth the giant Atlas supported the world. Appearing right after comparisons with the rainbow and the sun, however, the fiery pillars might evoke especially the heavenly pillar of fire in the wilderness (e.g., ; ).

voices of the seven thunders spoke. Ancients widely understood that the supreme God ruled thunder (see note on ), and in some ancient traditions thunder could sound like God’s voice (cf. ). For a voice from heaven, see note on .

Seal up what the seven thunders have said. Perhaps the contents of the seven thunders remain mysterious to teach that the hidden things belong to God (; ; cf. ).

raised his right hand to heaven. People sometimes lifted both hands toward heaven when swearing by heavenly deities; Jewish people lifted at least one hand when swearing an oath (cf. ; ).

he swore by him who lives for ever and ever. Recalls ; in Daniel the angel announces three and a half more years, but here the angel notes that with the seventh trumpet the end is at hand (v. ).

I took the little scroll from the angel’s hand and ate it. Ezekiel also found a scroll in a heavenly hand (). God instructed Ezekiel to eat the book (; ; cf. ). It tasted as sweet as honey in my mouth, but . . . my stomach turned sour. As in Ezekiel (), the book proved as sweet as honey in his mouth, not surprising for God’s words (; ; ). That the scroll proves bitter in John’s stomach may reflect the message’s content: woes (cf. ).

prophesy . . . about many peoples, nations, languages and kings. Whereas Ezekiel was to deliver the message only to the people of Israel (), John would prophesy to many peoples, like Jeremiah ()—and the two witnesses ().

measure the temple. Measuring might symbolize a promise of preservation or greatness, as in the measuring of Jerusalem (; ) or the temple (, especially ); or the spiritual unpreparedness of Israel (). Whatever the case, some measurements finally appear (only in )—but for the massive new Jerusalem, which is shaped like the Most Holy Place. This could suggest that the small, persecuted remnant oppressed during this age belongs to the glorious Holy City to come.

it has been given to the Gentiles. Gentiles had been welcome only in the outer court (see note on ). Before the temple’s destruction in AD 70, most Jewish tradition considered the temple invulnerable, but some believed that it had been desecrated and would be destroyed (see note on ; for fulfillment, see note on ). Once it was destroyed, the entire temple, not just the outer court, was destroyed. Jerusalem remained under Gentile rule for centuries after AD 70, and especially after AD 135, when it was rebuilt as a Gentile city. Some Jews spoke figuratively of God’s people as a temple (in the Dead Sea Scrolls; cf. ; ).

Following an ancient Jewish tradition in 4 Ezra, some church fathers (such as Hippolytus, Tertullian and Jerome) believed that because Enoch and Elijah had never died they would return as these witnesses. Many Jewish people expected future prophets who would be like Elijah () and Moses (); echoes of these prophets’ works appear in v. . Because of deviations from these OT models (e.g., in vv. ), other interpreters view them as symbolic for God’s people more generally as witnesses (see notes on vv. ).

two witnesses. Those who take the witnesses symbolically debate the reason for two of them; some think of the need for at least two witnesses (; ; ), and/or to match the two olive trees or a king and priest (see note on ), and/or the contrast with two evil leaders in . 1,260 days. Equivalent to 42 months of 30 days each, probably adapted from ; see the article “Time in Revelation.” sackcloth. Signified mourning and self-humiliation, often specifically the mourning of repentance.

two olive trees. Recalls the anointed king and priest (). In the immediate context in Zechariah, these were Joshua and Zerubbabel, who worked for the good of a city trampled by Gentiles (; cf. ). The lampstand in may refer to the source of the Spirit (see ); presumably it burned the same olive oil with which “the two who are anointed to serve the Lord” () were anointed. Those who take v. as symbolic may envision here a kingdom and priests (; ), corresponding to the olive trees of king and priest in Zechariah; this would fit the symbolism elsewhere in Revelation of lampstands as churches (; see note on ).

fire comes from their mouths and devours their enemies. Fire destroying enemies evokes Elijah (, ; see note on ), but it coming from the mouth alludes instead to the figurative image regarding Jeremiah in (cf. ; ).

shut up the heavens. Evokes Elijah. turn the waters into blood. Evokes Moses, as does the ability to strike with other plagues. Jewish people expected future prophets like Elijah () and Moses ().

beast that comes out from the Abyss will . . . kill them. The Greek text here suggests that the beast () from the Abyss (see and note) wages war with them and conquers them. Some Jewish people expected end-time holy war, but the witnesses here have finished their mission and submit to martyrdom (cf. notes on , ). Ancient writers valued irony; here the beast conquers the witnesses, but from heaven’s perspectives those who resist the beast are truly victorious (; , ; ; ).

Their bodies will lie in the public square. Being refused burial was shameful treatment reserved for the worst criminals; the only worse fate was, as here, for the bodies to be publicly displayed. great city. Elsewhere in Revelation, the “great city” is Babylon (), but see the end of this note. figuratively. The Greek term here may mean “according to insight revealed by the Spirit” (cf. ; ; ). Sodom. Fire devoured Sodom (; cf. ). Egypt. Plagues fell on Egypt (see note on ). where also their Lord was crucified. Just outside Jerusalem; the witnesses were seen by the world (vv. ). In a sense, the city described here may thus symbolize the world system (which could include Judeans, cf. ; ); it contrasts with the Holy City, the new Jerusalem to come ().

three and a half days. May recall the years of their ministry (v. ), indicating a defeat much briefer than the ministry (cf. v. ). On the narrative level it also suggests, in a Mediterranean setting, that their corpses are rotting; cf. note on . every people, tribe, language and nation. See note on .

celebrate by sending each other gifts. In , God’s people celebrated escape from genocide and the destruction of their enemies. Here, by contrast, the enemies of God’s servants exchange gifts after killing them (though cf. later ).

the breath of life. May also be translated “the Spirit of life” (see ), associating the Spirit with resurrection as in , . This breath evokes and contrasts with the false life imparted in .

they went up to heaven in a cloud. Jewish traditions added some other ascensions, but the best known was the one described in the OT: Elijah (cf. vv. and notes) was caught up to heaven ().

a tenth of the city. Biblical prophets sometimes limited the surviving remnant after judgment to a tenth who would ultimately follow the Lord (; ). Seven thousand people were killed. Could epitomize a remnant (). Here, however, in God’s mercy, it is a tenth (the 7,000) that dies, whereas most of the city turns to God (“gave glory to . . . God” can carry this meaning; cf. .)

seventh angel sounded his trumpet. Although the final trumpet concludes the series of the seven trumpets, trumpets were also blown at a king’s enthronement (; ; ). Many Jewish people prayed daily for the coming of God’s kingdom, which would finally supplant the series of world empires (; cf. ). (For the eternal reign of God, cf. ; ; for that of David’s house, cf. , ; ; for the Davidic prince, cf. ; for the son of man, cf. .) kingdom of our Lord and of his Messiah. May recall , where the nations challenged God and the Messiah but would ultimately be crushed (see the nations’ anger in note on v. ).

have begun to reign. Biblical voices already celebrated God’s reign (e.g., ; ), but a climactic arrival of the kingdom appears here (see note on v. ).

The nations were angry. Quoted from the common Greek translation of ; there, God’s king would respond angrily by destroying the nations (). your servants the prophets. The OT mentions God’s servants the prophets nearly 20 times, though the image here might apply to all God’s people (cf. ; ; ). destroying those who destroy the earth. Echoes the common Greek translation of , perhaps suggesting that the evil empire, like the earlier Babylon, devastates the whole earth.

within his temple was seen the ark of his covenant. Jewish people often believed that God had hidden the ark, but that it would be restored in the end time (see note on ). Previously the ark of the covenant remained secluded from view in the Most Holy Place (; ); now it is revealed to the world. Romans displayed edicts in public places, such as temples; God’s covenant law was deposited in the ark of the covenant. lightning . . . thunder. May evoke God’s revelation at Mount Sinai (see note on ).

John calls both the woman and the dragon “signs” (see , ; cf. ). This was often the language of prophetic assurances (e.g., ; ; ; ; ; , ; , ). Greeks sometimes applied the term to constellations in the heavens, such as Virgo (a woman) and the dragon Draco or the serpent. Images such as those John uses were thus familiar among his Gentile contemporaries. John’s signs do not, however, communicate astrological meaning; instead they reapply traditional, and often Biblical, symbols in new ways.

The woman is a mother, somehow the antecedent of the faithful bride of Christ, the new Jerusalem () and the contrast to Babylon the prostitute (). Although early Christians shared the common experience of the surrounding Greco-Roman world, the one theological resource they shared most was Scripture. There the Prophets portrayed righteous Israel as the mother of the restored future remnant of Israel (e.g., ), an image they mixed with that of Israel as a bride (). In Jewish tradition Zion or Jerusalem often appeared as a mother (see note on ).

Many people in the ancient world believed giant serpents or dragons existed literally in other parts of the world, but John again speaks only of a “sign” (). Serpents were significant in the cult of Asclepius, which was prominent, e.g., in Pergamum. More important was the myth of the dragon opposing a mother in childbirth. In Egyptian mythology, Isis (Hathor), portrayed with the sun on her head, birthed Horus, and the dragon Typhon sought to slay her, but she escaped to an island and her son Horus overthrew the dragon. In the Greek version of the story, the great dragon Python, warned that he would be killed by Leto’s son, pursued the pregnant Leto, who was hidden by Poseidon on an island that he then temporarily submerged. After Python had left, Leto birthed the god Apollo, who in four days was strong enough to slay the dragon. Many scholars argue that cities in Asia Minor blended the emperor with Apollo. Here, however, the emperor, like Apollo and Gentiles’ other supposed deities, was a pawn of the doomed dragon!

Earlier Scripture provided Revelation precedent by adapting similar mythical images. God’s conquest of the primeval dragon Leviathan (; ) symbolizes especially God’s conquest of Egypt (nicknamed “Rahab,” ) when God brought his people through the sea (; ). Jewish tradition developed various stories about Leviathan as a literal beast whom God would destroy at the end.

But for John, the dragon is especially the “ancient serpent” (), the one in Genesis who led Adam and Eve to death by enticing them to disobey God () like Balaam later did with the Israelites (; ; see note on ). Similarly, Jewish tradition sometimes identified the serpent with the devil or linked him with the devil in other ways. ◆

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a woman . . . about to give birth. The prophets portrayed righteous Israel as the mother of the restored future remnant of Israel (; ; ; ; ), and also as the mother of the leader who embodied Israel’s restoration (; cf. ). The Dead Sea Scrolls also depict a period of great tribulation as childbirth, possibly to bring forth the righteous remnant. The “sun, with the moon . . . and a crown of twelve stars” confirm this vision as symbolizing Israel or its faithful remnant (). If she symbolizes Israel’s righteous remnant before Christ’s exaltation ()—righteous Israelites and Gentile converts—she may also represent God’s true followers after Christ’s exaltation (), although this interpretation is debated.

an enormous red dragon. In Isaiah, God promised the suffering, pregnant Israel that she would truly bear new life in the time of the resurrection (), the day of God’s wrath in which he would slay the serpent (). In the exodus God crushed this monster when he brought his people through the sea (). red dragon. In Egyptian myth, the hostile dragon Typhon is red. John connects this dragon with the “ancient serpent” of (see note on ). seven heads. In Scripture, the serpent Leviathan had many heads (), identified in Canaanite tradition as seven.

swept a third of the stars out of the sky. Jewish thinkers often identified stars as angels. Jewish tradition taught that Satan’s revolt had long ago led to the fall of many angels (often associated with ), a perspective apparently echoed in ; . Here the image is reapplied (or perhaps reenacted) Christocentrically: the greatest revolt of Satan and the ultimate goal of angelic apostasy was opposition to Jesus’ mission on earth. that it might devour her child. In ancient myths, a dragon tried to kill a newborn divine child that was destined to slay the dragon if the child survived and grew; see the article “Symbolism in Revelation 12:1–6.” John’s dragon is a Biblical image (see notes on vv. , ), but his vision adapts the myth to depict the dragon-slayer as a child.

male child, who “will rule all the nations with an iron scepter.” Recalls ; cf. ; . The emphasis here is not his birth but his enthronement (cf. ; ).

Following Daniel, writers could envision a final three-and-a-half-year tribulation (; , ). Nevertheless, various Jewish traditions adapted the duration of the final tribulation, suggesting a range of durations (most commonly 40 years). Is it possible that Revelation adapts the period? Although the matter remains debated, the following observations could support the possibility that Revelation adapts this period symbolically:

1. As noted, some of John’s contemporaries also symbolically reapplied Daniel’s figure for the tribulation.

2. Daniel itself reapplies Jeremiah’s 70-years prophecy to a much longer period (, ).

3. Jesus apparently expected Daniel’s tribulation to be at least partly fulfilled in the events of AD 66–70, when the temple was desecrated, destroyed and became a site for sacrifices to Caesar (see notes on , ; ); on the usual date of Revelation, this desolation had already taken place.

4. Revelation rarely takes over Jewish symbols of the end, even from Scripture, without reapplying them in light of Jesus (for symbolic numbers, see note on ).

5. More concretely, sound as if this tribulation period immediately follows Jesus’ exaltation (i.e., starting somewhere around AD 30).

6. Satan’s expulsion from heaven coincides with “salvation,” the “kingdom,” and his loss of any right to accuse Jesus’ followers before God, now that Jesus is exalted ().

Whether Revelation adapts Daniel’s time period will continue to be debated. If it does so, however, it probably does so to tell us about the kind of time rather than the length of time, i.e., to use it to depict a period of great, end-time tribulation. If Jesus Christ is king, and if he has come yet will also come again, then Christians are already living in the final era (; cf. ; ; ; ; ). Although the consummation remains future, Christ’s kingship has inaugurated Satan’s expected future defeat. Although interpreters may find in other passages a special end-time tribulation, Revelation might here (most clearly in ) apply the image of end-time tribulation to the period between Jesus’ comings—giving a Christocentric interpretation of time and a fresh, Christocentric approach to traditional Jewish end-time expectation. ◆

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fled into the wilderness to a place prepared for her by God. God’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, which is portrayed as a dragon (; ; ), is now revisited in a new exodus. In Gentile myths about the dragon pursuing a mother, the woman escapes to an island. The distinctly different image here instead recalls Israel’s exodus into the wilderness. Because the prophets had promised a new exodus into the wilderness at the time of Israel’s future redemption (; ; see note on ), some Jewish people literally withdrew into the wilderness to await its arrival, and some Messianic claimants arose there. Others sought refuge from oppressors there. 1,260 days. Adapts Daniel’s great tribulation (cf. ); working from a 360-day year, 1,260 days would be three and a half years (; ). Some scholars believe that John adapts Daniel’s figure with a new meaning here, as he apparently does with the “ten days” in (see note there; cf. ). See the article “Time in Revelation.”

Michael and his angels fought against the dragon. Based on Daniel (, ; ), Jewish thinkers recognized Michael as Israel’s guardian prince. Although he could ward off the angels of other nations, Michael would be ordered to withdraw when Israel would face its final tribulation (). The Dead Sea Scrolls anticipated an end-time holy war, and Jewish sources elaborate on Michael; here, however, the heavenly victory coincides with Christ’s triumph on earth.

ancient serpent. In Genesis, this serpent led Adam and Eve to death by enticing them to disobey God (), as Balaam later did with the Israelites (; ; see note on ).

the accuser . . . accuses them before our God day and night. Jewish tradition elaborated the Biblical picture of Satan as an accuser (), sometimes directly before God’s throne (; ). Some later Jewish sources claimed that he accuses God’s people day and night. Christ’s exaltation (v. ) spells Satan’s expulsion from his role as heavenly prosecutor (cf. ).

filled with fury. Cf. (see note there).

he pursued the woman. In Jewish tradition, Satan would be unleashed in special fury against Israel in the end time.

wings. Could evoke wings to flee into the wilderness in , or could refer more directly to God’s help. In the first exodus, God carried his people on eagles’ wings (; ); in the new exodus God would renew his people to soar like eagles (). wilderness. See note on v. . taken care of. The miraculous provision in the wilderness here evokes the manna God gave his people in the wilderness. a time, times and half a time. Points to the three and a half years of great tribulation, as in ; ; see the article “Time in Revelation.”

the serpent spewed water like a river. In Greek stories river deities could send floods against their enemies (Homer, Iliad 21.248–327); in Scripture, the serpent that God overthrew in the first exodus lived in the waters (; ; ; ; ). A flood of water could represent any sufferings (; ), including unjust opposition (; , ; ); serpents’ mouths represent slander in . But God would be with his people through the waters ().

the earth helped . . . by opening its mouth and swallowing the river. In the most common form of the Greek myth of the serpent opposing the woman, the serpent was a son of Earth; here, however, the earth, obeying God, helps the woman. (In a different version of the myth, Earth raises up the Aegean island of Delos to help the mother.) Jewish texts portray the earth, at God’s command, swallowing sinners, or Sheol swallowing the end-time invaders of the Holy Land. Most relevantly, Scripture poetically depicted the defeat of Israel’s pursuers in the sea as the earth swallowing them (, ).

the dragon was enraged. Cf. v. ; ; see note on . went off to wage war against the rest of her offspring. Echoes the promise of the woman’s seed suffering from and overcoming the serpent (; see note on ). For how the devil wages war on God’s people, see .

From Egyptians to rulers of empires to the east of Israel, many peoples affirmed that their rulers were divine. When Alexander the Great conquered Persia, he began to accept veneration that was difficult for his Greek and Macedonian followers to accept. Even Greeks, however, had long maintained thin boundaries between deity and humanity: heroes could be deified, and many philosophers spoke of the soul as divine.

The imperial cult took different forms in different locations. Although the Romans did not initially deify their rulers while they lived, they welcomed the desire of many subjects in the eastern empire to worship them; this solidified loyalty to the empire. The Romans deified their rulers only after their death, like Greek heroes; thus the few first-century emperors who demanded worship as gods while they still lived—Caligula, Nero and Domitian—ended up instead widely despised after their deaths.

Ephesus and Smyrna were the first prominent cities of the Roman province of Asia Minor permitted to build temples honoring allegedly divine emperors. In AD 89/90, maybe five or six years before the book of Revelation arrived in the churches of Asia, Ephesus issued a coin that conformed Domitian to the image of the chief deity Zeus. Domitian also dedicated an imperial statue nearly 25 feet (eight meters) high in the imperial temple in Ephesus. Individuals faced social pressure to participate in public cults, but unless they were accused of disloyalty, no one would hunt down nonparticipants to ensure their participation. Judea was exempted from offering sacrifices to the emperor; they instead agreed to offer sacrifices to the one true God on behalf of the emperor’s health. (Christians expelled from synagogues might well lose their exemption.) The abolition of these sacrifices in AD 66 constituted a de facto declaration of war against Rome. After Jerusalem’s destruction, Roman soldiers set up on the site of the temple their standards, which bore the emperor’s image, and worshiped the emperor. ◆

Massive Roman emperor statue found at Ephesian temple. Only a head and arm were found, but the entire statue was probably 25 feet (eight meters) high.

Bronze coin of Nero wearing the radiate crown of divinity.

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shore. Reflects “the nations” over whom the beast rules (). a beast coming out of the sea. The beast here recalls , where four beasts arise from the “sea” (). the sea. Might evoke again the mythical serpent (; ; ; see note on ). Judeans, Ephesians and others experienced Rome as coming from “the sea.” ten horns and seven heads. The ten horns may recall the fourth beast of , (see next note). Together with the seven heads the ten horns also look back to another beast, the serpent (). blasphemous name. Probably evokes the arrogant boasts of , ; John’s churches might think of divine titles—such as “lord,” “god” and “son of god”—given to emperors.

leopard . . . bear . . . lion. Daniel’s four beasts are: a winged lion (a griffin) that became somewhat human; a devouring bear; a winged leopard; and finally a ten-horned beast fiercer than its predecessors (), preceding the Son of Man’s coming (). Jewish tradition in this period understood Daniel’s fourth beast as Rome, which most Jews believed would be the fourth world empire to subdue Israel. Yet Revelation’s beast differs even from Daniel’s four-headed fourth beast; Revelation’s beast has seven heads and includes features of the leopard, bear and lion. By encompassing all the beasts, this beast embodies the spirit of evil empire—even beyond Rome, the evil empire of John’s day.

Nero was the first emperor to declare an official state persecution against Christians. Further, he burned hundreds of Christians alive to light his imperial gardens at night and butchered others in various ways. Nero’s local persecution in Rome, however, merely paved the way for many persecutions that followed.

Months of civil war followed Nero’s death on June 9, AD 68, as new imperial claimants vied for power. Nevertheless, at the end of the first century, people in the empire still commonly believed that Nero remained alive. Various impostors arose claiming to be Nero, one of them less than a decade before Revelation was written. That most recent false Nero terrified the empire, garnering the support of the feared Parthians (cf. concerns in ; [see notes there; see also the article “Parthia”]).

Some Jewish visionaries claimed that Nero would return, perhaps from the dead, perhaps leading the Parthians. Some early Christian writers expected a new Nero they called “a great beast.” The tradition that Nero would return to persecute Christians became so widespread that in the Armenian language “Nero” actually became the equivalent for Antichrist. Ancient commentators such as Tertullian, Jerome, Augustine, as well as most modern commentators, have seen Nero as a model for the expected evil emperor. See the article “The Mark of the Beast.”

None of this means that John expected Nero to return literally. Romans could speak of particular emperors as being like earlier emperors or other figures; e.g., Tiberius was an “Augustus.” The evil imperial power came like Nero, just as the figures in came in the spirit and power of Moses and Elijah. ◆

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fatal wound had been healed. The return from death here parodies Jesus’ resurrection. The restored head here is probably a Roman ruler (see note on ). This could play on ancient expectations of Nero’s return that circulated at the time that Revelation was written (see the article “A New Nero”). For persecution of Christians, see note on v. . Revelation’s primary background for picturing a ruler as a head is in Daniel (); but early Romans also saw a severed head, found buried in the earth during Rome’s building, as an omen of Rome’s future rule.

Who is like the beast? Parodies the worship properly due to God alone (). People worshiped the dragon as well as the beast. In John’s day, people not only worshiped the emperor, but sacrificed to the gods on behalf of his health.

proud words and blasphemies. Might evoke the boastful speaking of , , and speaking “against the Most High” in . The dominant ruler of the final beast would persecute God’s holy people for three and a half years (, ; cf. ; ), or about 42 months.

to slander his name and his dwelling place and those who live in heaven. Cf. . The older brother of the current emperor, Domitian, had presided over the burning and desecration of the temple; but John refers to the heavenly temple, in Greek here probably identified with “those who live in heaven” (cf. ).

wage war against God’s holy people. Cf. , . Biblically literate hearers understood that God would vindicate them (), at the time the son of man receives the kingdom (). Emperors portrayed themselves in military form and at least claimed to perform a significant military role; but here instead of making war on external threats to the empire’s security, the ruler makes war on God’s holy people, who do not strike back with violence. every tribe, people, language and nation. See note on . Their submission to the beast was not necessarily initially voluntary (cf. ). Claims to rule humanity (e.g., , ; ; ) were usually hyperbolic; the emperor Augustus had claimed to rule the entire inhabited world, having even subdued the Parthians (see the article “Parthia”). This was, however, merely propaganda to impress his empire’s subjects (cf. ; ; see notes there).

book of life. Often appears in Jewish tradition (see note on ), but in Revelation it belongs to the Lamb.

This judgment-prophecy echoes ; .

two horns like a lamb. May evoke the ram of , but it parodies the seven-horned Lamb of . spoke like a dragon. Its message reveals its true connections.

made the earth and its inhabitants worship the first beast. Some regard this second beast as the priest of the first, royal beast (contrast here the positive king and priest image in the note on ).

an image in honor of the beast. Nebuchadnezzar demanded that all peoples worship the image he set up; Jews and Christians honored Daniel’s friends who preferred martyrdom to such worship (). But whereas Daniel’s friends were divinely rescued (), Revelation warns that many faithful Christians will die (, ). Christians in Asia Minor had large reason for concern. Shortly before Revelation was written, Domitian dedicated an imperial statue nearly 25 feet (eight meters) high in the imperial temple in Ephesus. Not many years after Revelation was written, a governor in Asia Minor refers to an existing legal tradition of executing Christians who refuse to worship the emperor’s image.

the image could speak. Babylonian and Greco-Roman magic included rituals that sought to animate images; an entire branch of magic specialized in animating statues so they could give prophecies. Both traveling charlatans and priests of some cults staged wonders like moving or speaking statues, although it is not clear that this was common. Scripture recognized that false prophets could work () or predict signs (); cf. ; .

Whereas the mark on the righteous was to protect them in and some other texts, a popular first-century BC Jewish work also includes a mark of destruction on the forehead of the wicked (Psalms of Solomon 15:6–9). These marks were symbolic signs visible only to God and his angels, not to people.

The use of a mark to enforce national or empire-wide unity already had a long history that would be known to John’s audience. Jewish people in Egypt reported that one ruler of Egypt wanted to brand Jewish people in his realm with an ivy leaf, the symbol of Dionysus.

Ancients, including some Diaspora Jews such as Philo, were adept at using symbolic numbers and calculating special numbers. Scholars offer various connections. The number 666 is a doubly triangular number (there are only four such numbers between 100 and 1,000). Geometers valued triangular numbers just as they valued square numbers. Just as any number with the same number of identical units vertically and horizontally forms a square, a triangular number is one in which the top level has one unit, the next level has two, the next has three, and so forth, so that one can form with it something like an equilateral triangle. The triangular number with a base of 36 units is 666; the triangular number with a base of eight is 36, so that 666 is not only triangular but has a triangular number as its base.

The number 666 is also almost two-thirds of 1,000, and Revelation sometimes calculates judgments in thirds (; , ). Thinkers as early as the second century suggested that six here might function as an evil parody of seven (a key number in Revelation). Indeed, calculated as a number, the name “Jesus” comes to 888.

Others argue that the invitation to the reader to calculate the number () points to a particular name. Both Greek and Hebrew used letters also as numerals, so one could add up the letters in a name as numbers, as many Jewish thinkers did. One Jewish prophecy tradition treated names of various rulers as numbers. People in the empire played on the number of “Nero Caesar” in Greek letters. There are two ways to spell “Nero Caesar” in Hebrew letters; one comes out to 666, and the other to 616. Some manuscripts of Revelation have here 616 instead of 666—as if some knew the riddle’s answer but calculated it differently. Transliterated into Hebrew a particular way, the Greek term for “beast” also comes out to 666, and “of the beast” comes out to 616. ◆

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a mark on their right hands or on their foreheads. The mark on the right hands or foreheads may parody the Jewish practice of strapping boxes of Scripture (phylacteries) on the forehead and left hand as a sign of loyalty to God’s covenant. Sometimes slaves could be branded, though branding on the forehead was a sign of disgrace rather than loyalty; sometimes soldiers could be branded on the hands as a sign of loyalty. See the article “The Mark of the Beast.”

could not buy or sell unless they had the mark. A mid-third-century emperor demanded certificates of sacrifice to the emperor to participate in commerce and escape prosecution. Many Christians bribed officials to get the certificates; some others were executed. There is no evidence for such certificates in John’s day; nevertheless, the threat existed. One could not even handle money without involvement in the imperial system, since coins regularly bore the emperor’s image. In cities such as Thyatira, trade guilds committed to pagan gods dominated some spheres of commerce.

That number is 666. Enigmatic riddles were common in prophecies. Various meanings have been proposed for 666. One of the most common relates to six as a parody of seven; another is the idea that this evil ruler would be like Nero. See the articles “The Mark of the Beast,” “The Imperial Cult.”

Mount Zion. The temple mount and, more broadly, Jerusalem. Although Jerusalem after AD 70 lay mostly in shambles and the nations trampled God’s sanctuary even symbolically (), the prophets had promised Zion’s restoration (; ; ; , ). 144,000 who had his name . . . on their foreheads. Ancient writers often emphasized points by stark contrasts; those who have the name of the Lamb and God the Father written on their foreheads contrast starkly with those who bear the number of the beast’s name on their hands or foreheads (; see the article “The Mark of the Beast”). With letters calculated as numbers, the name “Jesus” comes out to 888. Whereas 666 is a doubly triangular number, 144 is a square number (12 x 12), and 144,000 is 144 times the cube of 10 (i.e., 10 x 10 x 10). Because “Mount Zion” is mentioned in this verse, the 144,000 (see notes on , ) thus probably represent the new Jerusalemites, the people destined for the city that was 12,000 stadia cubed with a wall of 144 cubits (; see note on ; see also the article “

”).

rushing waters . . . thunder. These could represent the voice of God (; ; ; see notes on ; ) but in this context probably reflect the sound of the innumerable heavenly multitude (; cf. the sound like a tumult in ; ). harps. See note on .

new song. See note on ; for its content here, see note on .

they remained virgins. Some scholars suggest that the 144,000 are celibate because they are dedicated to spiritual holy war (cf. ; ; Dead Sea Scrolls; see note on ). Further, they are the male image corresponding to Christ’s pure bride (; , ), in contrast to Babylon the prostitute (). firstfruits. The first of the harvest was dedicated to the Lord (; ; ; ); God had consecrated Israel this way (). Greek business documents speak specifically of people as “firstfruits” when they were offered to a deity, for instance as temple servants; these spiritual warriors, however, are devoted to the Lamb, who is genuinely divine.

No lie . . . in their mouths. Recalls the promise that among the remnant of Israel there would be no lie (); contrast .

the eternal gospel to proclaim to those who live on the earth. In the Prophets, the gospel, meaning “good news,” is not just the announcement that God is restoring his people (; ; ; ) but also the announcement of judgment on their enemies (). Judgment is coming on Babylon (vv. ).

Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great. The emphatic double “Fallen” (also in ) alludes to idolatrous Babylon’s prophesied fall in . The Romans sometimes poetically called their archenemy, Parthia, (which ruled old Babylonia), “Babylon.” Jewish thinkers, however (many of whom lived in Parthia), often called Rome “Babylon”; as Israel once experienced exile under the evil empire Babylon, now they experienced the captivity of a new evil empire in Rome. They normally considered Rome the fourth of Daniel’s four kingdoms, and thus Babylon’s ultimate evil successor. For churches in Asia Minor, Rome embodied the spirit of Babylon. drink the maddening wine of her adulteries. In , Babylon was a cup in God’s hand making the nations of the earth mad with drunkenness from her wine. In context, God warns of Babylon’s fall (); God’s people must flee from Babylon, lest they partake of its judgment (, ; see ).

poured full strength. On average, ancients diluted wine with two parts water to every part wine, except when they were trying to get drunk. But God has poured his fury in undiluted strength. the cup of his wrath. Scripture regularly uses “the cup” as a symbol for God’s anger, both temporarily against his people (, ; ) and against the wicked nations (; , ; ; ; ; ). burning sulfur. Although sulfur here refers to the lake of fire (; ; ), it also fits the inhabitants of spiritual Sodom (cf. ; ). in the presence of the holy angels and of the Lamb. The tormented will be unable to evade the reality of the holy angels and the Lamb whom they once ignored. Nevertheless, Revelation omits a different apocalyptic motif: for some Jewish visionaries, the vindication of God’s people included their witnessing the torment of the damned.

the smoke . . . will rise for ever and ever. Also in ; taken from , which first-century Jewish hearers would have naturally linked with .

they will rest from their labor. Most significant is the standard Jewish tradition that also stands behind our traditional “Rest in Peace” (RIP): Jewish sources regularly promised rest for the righteous after death. (One early apocalypse even promises a voice from heaven announcing end-time rest from suffering.)

In , God calls for the sickle to gather the ripe harvest, and calls for the grapes of the nations’ wickedness to be trampled to fill his winepress (against Babylon, cf. ; Jerusalem in ). The harvest and grape vintage both represent judgment in Joel; scholars debate whether the same is true for the harvest here in vv. (cf. v. ), but the vintage in vv. is certainly judgment.

angel, who had charge of the fire. Although this could refer to an angel of nature (see note on ), here it likely means the angel at the incense altar ().

gathered its grapes and threw them into the great winepress of God’s wrath. They were trampled. Around August or September workers collected ripe grapes in baskets and deposited them in long wooden or stone troughs. There, often to the rhythm of a flutist, workers trampled the grapes into juice with their feet. God had warned that he would go out and trample the blood of the wicked like wine in a winepress, till his garments were stained with their blood (; cf. Jesus in , ).

blood flowed out of the press. Wine was sometimes called the “blood of grapes” (; ); here red wine evokes the gruesome image of human blood crushed out of maimed flesh. rising as high as the horses’ bridles. Ancient descriptions of wars spoke of blood flowing in streams or of rivers flowing with blood when people were slain in them. In poetic depictions the blood obstructed ships, or trees dripped with gore dropped on them when satiated birds grew weary of feasting on corpses. Apocalypses amplified further: in the pre-Christian work 1 Enoch, sinners’ blood covers chariots; horses walk up to their chests in the blood. Some later rabbis lament horses drowning in blood and blood rolling huge boulders some 40 miles (65 kilometers) out to the sea. Sometimes the more extreme descriptions were merely figurative ways of expressing the horrific bloodshed (e.g., ). 1,600 stadia. Revelation again rounds to a square number: 1,600 is 40 x 40 (see ). The figure especially underlines the awful grotesqueness of the image: none of the beast’s army will survive. Whereas the river of paradise flows from God’s throne () to a significant height (), the wicked would drown in a river of their own blood.

seven angels . . . seven last plagues . . . completed. Ancient writers sometimes bracketed units by beginning and ending on the same point. The repetition in v. might bracket vv. as a unit, elaborating the origin of the plagues in heaven.

sea of glass. Recalls the heavenly temple (see note on ). It might also suggest their new exodus: following the Lamb, they were delivered from the sea monster as Israel was at the exodus (; ). glowing with fire. Possibly the fire alludes to the fiery hail (); more likely, it indicates that the victorious ones have overcome the “lake of fire” (; cf. ; ; ).

The victorious (v. ) sing. In Jewish sources, victors celebrated after holy war; here, however, the saints praise God for his deeds of judgment (cf. “great and marvelous” in vv. , ), as the Israelites praised God when he overthrew their enemies in the sea (). The “song of . . . Moses and of the Lamb” (v. ) recalls the exodus and the blood of the Passover lamb delivering Israel from the plague of death (). For Moses’ songs, see ( evokes some of the same exodus themes found in ; cf. : “holiness . . . glory . . . working wonders”) and . Cf. ; ; ; .

The words here, however, come especially from (which evokes ), including “great and . . . marvelous deeds” (), and that the “nations . . . will come and worship before you” () and “bring glory to your name” (); and secondarily from : “Who should not fear you, King of the nations?” (Cf. . The variant reading to which the NIV text note refers in , “king of the ages,” i.e., “eternal king,” would be another way to translate “king of the world,” a familiar expression in Hebrew prayers.)

As in apocalyptic thought, heavenly experiences sometimes stand behind earthly ones (cf. ); scenes in heaven introduce each of the three major cycles of judgment in Revelation (; ; here).

I saw in heaven the temple. See the article “Heaven as a Temple in Revelation.”

dressed in clean, shining linen and . . . golden sashes. Angels in Jewish tradition normally wore white or linen, but together with golden sashes (cf. ) this apparel suggests that they fulfill priestly acts in the heavenly temple. In some strands of Jewish tradition, destroying angels acted without interest in serving God (though God remained sovereign); here the angels of judgment are God’s willing servants.

bowls. The Greek term here often designates bowls used in offerings; they represent urns in the heavenly temple, perhaps for incense ().

temple was filled with smoke from the glory of God. Contrast ; alludes to God’s glory filling his house in some Biblical theophanies (; ). Under these circumstances the priests could not minister in the temple (; ) nor could even Moses enter the tabernacle ().

Most of the bowls, like the trumpets before them, recall the plagues of the exodus: sores (v. ); water into blood (vv. ); darkness (v. ; and in this case its antithesis, vv. ).

bowls. See note on .

angel in charge of the waters. This angel might be an angel with usual jurisdiction over the water (see note on ), though he might simply be the same angel as in v. . You are just in these judgments. For God’s just verdicts, cf. ; ; also the Jewish Apocryphal book of Tobit 3:2.

they have shed . . . and you have given them blood to drink. They “shed” (or “poured out”) blood, so God “poured out” judgments (vv. , , , , , , ), including blood (vv. ). The appropriateness of blood for those who shed blood fits the traditional (and likely) Jewish explanation that God turned the Nile bloody to avenge the earlier Egyptian murder of Israelite infants (Wisdom of Solomon 11:6–7). (This observation develops a genuine theme in Exodus: In response to Pharaoh drowning Israel’s babies in the Nile, God later turned the Nile to blood, struck Egypt’s firstborn, and drowned Pharaoh’s army.)

I heard the altar respond. The prayers of God’s people are associated with both the incense and sacrificial altars (; , ).

People gnawed their tongues in agony. That the darkness causes agony may evoke the darkness of Moses’ day, which could be “felt” ().

Euphrates. The Euphrates was especially known as the boundary between the Roman and Parthian Empires (see note on ). its water was dried up. Unlike some other rivers in the Near East, the massive Euphrates did not dry up during some seasons. But God could dry up waters in judgment (; ); parting the Jordan invited Israel’s conquest of Canaan (; ). Jewish traditions expected God to part the Euphrates to bring scattered Israelites back to the land (developing ), or to freeze a river to allow Asia Minor to be invaded.

impure spirits that looked like frogs. If the frogs here recall the OT plague of frogs (; ; ), they are transformed (as were the locusts; cf. ; ).

They are demonic spirits. Some Jewish people expected the release of more demons in the end time (cf. ). to gather them for the battle. The gathering of the wicked for their own destruction is a common Biblical image of the future (; ; ; ; ), sometimes recalled in other early Jewish works.

stays awake and remains clothed. Cf. Jesus’ words in ; ; see note on . Many people did not wear much to bed when it was warm. be shamefully exposed. Being stripped or otherwise publicly exposed was considered shameful (cf. ). In the OT God stripped his people (; ) and Babylon () for infidelity, following an ancient Near Eastern custom (see note on ).

Armageddon. Transliterates the Hebrew for “Mount Megiddo.” Although the judgment occurs in a valley in Joel (, ) and Megiddo lies on a plain (; ), apocalyptic geography is flexible. Significant battles were fought in the valley of Megiddo (; ). The mountain might contrast with Zion (; ; cf. the negative or neutral uses of mountains in v. ; ; ; ), or, less plausibly, the name (harmagedon) might pun on the Greek term for chariot (harma).

lightning . . . thunder . . . earthquake. See notes on ; .

Every island fled . . . mountains could not be found. As in , the image of moving islands and mountains communicates dramatic, cosmic judgment (; ; ; ), appropriate for the end time (; ).

huge hailstones, each weighing about a hundred pounds. The OT plague of hail was severe enough to kill those caught out in it (). The end-time hailstones here, however, can smash through structures; at about 100 pounds (45 kilograms) each, they are heavier than normal catapult stones.

Gentiles often personified their homeland as a woman. Coins and other artwork typically depicted a city as a wealthy goddess enthroned beside a river. Thus, e.g., a bronze coin from the current imperial dynasty included the goddess Roma (who personified Rome’s power) sitting on seven hills (cf. v. ).

Speakers often developed a point by contrasting characters; Revelation contrasts two cities, Jerusalem and Babylon, as a bride () and prostitute, respectively (). The prophets often portrayed God’s people as his faithful bride when pure (e.g., ; ; ), or a prostitute when unfaithful (e.g., ; ; ; ). In two OT instances, the prostitute is not Israel. Nineveh, the capital of the evil Assyrian empire, seduced the nations with her prostitution and witchcraft (; see note on ). The economic power Tyre acted as a prostitute with all peoples (). Some Jewish apocalyptic writers contrasted Zion and Babylon, lamenting Babylon’s present prosperity but anticipating its judgment.

the great prostitute, who sits by many waters. Babylon lived “by many waters” (), like most prosperous ancient cities. Rome had its Tiber, but the “waters” represent the nations (v. ), more like Rome’s international power on the seas (cf. note on ).

kings. Includes client-rulers who ruled local kingdoms under Roman authority, as well as allied kings beyond Roman rule. intoxicated with the wine of her adulteries. Some, probably pre-Christian, Jewish prophecies complain about Rome’s drunken weddings with her many suitors (e.g., Sibylline Oracles 3.356–359), apparently the kings of the East she was seducing.

the angel carried me away in the Spirit. See and note; cf. ; , . seven heads and ten horns. Links the beast with the dragon () and with Rome (see note on ), as well as with the final evil empire destined to be destroyed by God himself (, , ). The resemblance to the dragon is certainly deliberate; children were thought to bear the image of their fathers.

dressed in purple. Purple indicates wealth (see note on ). Purple dye was expensive, and among women entirely purple garments were associated with high-class prostitutes. scarlet . . . gold, precious stones and pearls. A personified prostitute might seek to allure lovers with scarlet and jewels (). Speakers often developed a point by contrasting characters; compare Babylon with the new Jerusalem in (cf. ; ).

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