Annotations for 1 Peter
Annotations for 1 Peter
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To God’s elect, exiles scattered. Jewish people spoke of Jews who lived outside of Judea and Galilee as the Diaspora, or those who were “scattered”; Peter transfers this term to his audience (cf. v. ; ). exiles. This Greek term can also refer to “resident aliens,” a status with which Jewish people in Diaspora cities were familiar (see note on v. ; cf. ). Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia. These five Roman provinces were geographically connected; Peter omits the southern coastal regions of Asia Minor, some of which (see note on ) could be grouped with Syria in this period instead of as a political part of Asia Minor. (Peter may start in his mind with the province farthest from him and work his way around.) Because this is a circular letter to various regions, it may be something of a general letter, influenced more by the situation in Rome than by the current situation in Asia Minor.
who have been chosen. In Scripture and Jewish tradition, God made promises to the patriarchs and chose their descendants corporately; Peter applies the same language to believers in Jesus. sprinkled with his blood. God had set Israel apart and the sprinkling of blood also established the first covenant (); for the greater lamb, see v. . Grace and peace. See note on .
These verses constitute one long sentence in Greek; such long sentences could be viewed as skillful in antiquity, when hearers of lengthy speeches were accustomed to following an extended train of thought.
Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! Peter adopts the form of a berakah, the Jewish form of blessing that regularly began “Praise be to God.” new birth. Through which one receives a new nature and identity (see notes on , ). Scripture and other early Jewish sources speak of receiving a new heart () or becoming like a new person (). Believers were reborn to a living hope by Jesus’ resurrection (here), an inheritance (v. ) and future salvation (v. )—three ideas also naturally connected in Jewish views of the end of the age.
inheritance that can never perish. Jewish people already expected an inheritance in the coming world; some also spoke of a treasure stored up in heaven for the righteous.
greatly rejoice . . . in all kinds of trials. Both Scripture and Jewish tradition recognized that God sovereignly used trials to strengthen his people’s commitment or purify their devotion (see note on ). God’s servants could therefore even rejoice in such sufferings, trusting the greater outcome that was God’s gift. In many Jewish traditions the end would be preceded by times of great testing. The testing in this case is especially persecution ().
gold . . . refined by fire. Both Scripture and subsequent Jewish tradition sometimes depicted the righteous as being tested like precious metals purified in the furnace (; ; ; ; ; perhaps ). Ores of precious metals (the most precious of which was gold) would be melted in a furnace to separate out the impurities and produce purer metal.
trying to find out the time and circumstances. Jewish teachers divided over whether God had irrevocably set the time of the end and over whether people could figure out when that would be; Peter recognizes that even the prophets (v. ) did not know the times, though they predicted the Messiah’s suffering and subsequent glory (cf. e.g., ). For the prophets’ interest, see also ; . Spirit of Christ in them. Although the OT usually prefers the Hebrew idiom of the Spirit coming “on” people (as in ), the Spirit was also “in” the prophets ().
they were not serving themselves but you. Some Jewish interpreters, such as those who composed the Dead Sea Scrolls, believed that the Biblical prophets had told especially about the interpreters’ own time, and that their end-time meaning had thus remained secret until this new time. By contrast, Peter affirms that the prophets recognized that some of their prophecies applied to the Messiah who would suffer and be exalted (v. ), and that they knew that many details would make sense to people only once the details happened. angels long to look into these things. According to some Jewish traditions, some secrets were so important that God kept them even from angels until the end time (cf. ); in some other traditions, angels envied Israel, who received God’s law.
with minds that are alert. Interprets a Greek phrase that means “with the waist of your mind being girded.” The meaning of the image—being prepared—would have been obvious to ancient audiences. Especially in much of the east, men wore long robes. Thus they would tuck them into their belt, girding up their waist, so they could move more freely and quickly.
obedient children. All ancient cultures expected minor children to obey their parents; Scripture also required this (), with the obvious exception of sinful commands (e.g., ; ).
Be holy, because I am holy. Children imitated parents. God summoned Israel to be holy as he was, living differently from the nations (; ; , ).
Father. Like prayers to God in synagogues, Christians addressed God as “Father.” impartially. Jewish people emphasized God’s impartiality (). foreigners. The Greek term often means “resident aliens”; cities did not treat them as well as they did local citizens, but they were legal residents with greater rights than newcomers. Jewish communities throughout the empire normally held this resident alien status; although some Jews could achieve citizen status, in some places local citizens met their attempts to do so with hostility.
a lamb without blemish or defect. Lambs were sacrificed regularly, including as sin offerings (e.g., ; ). Lambs were especially prominent in large numbers at Passover, which celebrated Israel’s redemption from slavery in Egypt. Acceptable sacrifices were to be without blemish or defect (; ).
revealed in these last times. Jewish people normally thought of the last times as the period after or immediately preceding the end (cf. v. ); it coincided closely with the coming of the Messiah.
born again. Some thinkers apparently used this image before Christians (see notes on , ), but it became a much more common image among Christians, for whom conversion entailed transformation. seed. Each seed was expected to bring forth according to its own kind (cf. ; note on ).
Peter cites the Greek version of , which contrasts the perishability of people with the imperishability of God’s word. In Isaiah, this unchangeable “word” is the good news of coming restoration and salvation in the time when God would redeem his people (e.g., ; ).
rid yourselves of. “Ridding” oneself of, or “putting aside,” the old ways also follows rebirth or new creation in James, Ephesians and Colossians, suggesting a shared early Christian source, perhaps even a teaching by Jesus no longer available to us. See note on .
crave pure spiritual milk. For often two or sometimes even three years after birth (cf. ), infants depended on mothers or nurses to provide breast milk. Business documents used “pure” in connection with food to mean “unadulterated,” not mixed with anything else. “Spiritual” is one way to translate the Greek term so rendered (logikos); it might thus mean “figurative.” The Greek term, however, also often means “rational,” and might possibly connect by means of wordplay with the “word” (logos) of .
tasted that the Lord is good. Continuing the image of milk from v. , Peter evokes : “Taste and see that the LORD is good.”
the living Stone. Peter soon reveals his sources for speaking of this stone (see vv. and note). rejected. See v. . chosen . . . precious. See v. .
a spiritual house . . . offering spiritual sacrifices. Peter’s audience should have understood his image. Both philosophers and Jewish thinkers spoke of spiritual sacrifices, and the Judean group that composed many of the Dead Sea Scrolls saw itself as a spiritual temple. house. Could refer to a building, such as the temple, or to a household (cf. ), such as the “house of Israel”; Peter may play on both senses here (as does, e.g., , ). holy priesthood. As becomes clear in v. , Peter evokes (cf. ). As priests (as well as stones) in this new temple, believers offer sacrifices. spiritual sacrifices. See notes on ; ).
Authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls applied (cited here) to their own leadership; early Christians applied it to Jesus ().
Jewish interpreters often linked texts based on shared key terms (Judean teachers called this method gezerah shevah); Peter thus adds to (cited in v. ) two other stone texts: and (as Paul blended and in ; cf. , ; ). Jesus taught his followers that the psalm’s “cornerstone” image applied especially to himself ().
Jewish people sang (cited here) during Passover season (see the possible Passover allusion mentioned in note on v. ).
chosen people. Reflects a wider theme (e.g., ; ; ; the wording is closer to ). a royal priesthood, a holy nation. Reflects the Greek version of . special possession. Reflects . out of darkness into his wonderful light. If the tradition is this early, during the Passover celebration some Jewish people described their deliverance from Egypt as a call “from darkness into great light.”
now you are the people of God . . . now you have received mercy. Peter cites ; , which reverse God’s earlier verdict against Israel (, ), promising the ultimate restoration of God’s people. Like Paul, Peter believes that Gentile followers of Israel’s true king become part of this restored people of God (); cf. ; .
foreigners. Often means “resident aliens” (see note on ). The image here is of God’s people (vv. ) dispersed among the nations; God’s people in the OT were sometimes portrayed in such terms (), because of their mortality (; ), because of zeal for God () or because of their wanderings (; ). wage war against your soul. Philosophers spoke of heavenly souls as being “strangers” in their bodies, and of fleshly passions as “waging war” against the soul. Whereas philosophers sought to free the soul from earthly distractions, Peter’s invitation is to right living (v. ).
pagans. They often regarded as suspect Jews and their Gentile converts, and would mistrust still more fully Christians, whom they viewed as a smaller Jewish sect. The behavior advocated in the following household codes () would undermine one of the most traditional slanders against such faiths—that they subverted the public order and traditional family values (see note on ). the day he visits us. Probably evokes the Greek version of , referring to judgment. Many texts reported that the Gentiles would recognize God’s glory in the end time (e.g., ).
Writers often treated household codes (such as in ) when also providing instructions toward the state (as here) or other social obligations.
Submit . . . to every human authority. God ultimately directed rulers for his purposes (; ).
governors. Includes both legates and proconsuls. The former governed imperial provinces as representatives of the emperor (as here, v. ); the latter governed senatorial provinces.
by doing good you . . . silence the ignorant talk of foolish people. Minority groups sometimes used sets of behavioral instructions concerning relationships in the household or society to respond to public suspicions that they would undermine order (see note on ).
Live as free people. Philosophers often treated freedom as freedom to pursue virtue, freedom from desire and freedom to do without, and condemned those who thought that enslavement to passions was freedom. Unlike more radical Cynics, most philosophers who regarded the wise man as the ideal ruler nevertheless urged obedience to the state. For Christians, freedom meant freedom to be God’s slaves rather than slaves of sin; it included freedom to honor the state voluntarily (cf. vv. ; ; ).
Other writers also included such brief lists of public duties. Scripture required honoring both God and human rulers (; ).
On slaves and slavery, see the articles “
bears up under the pain of unjust suffering. Philosophers—even those who had once been slaves, such as Epictetus—generally counseled that slaves should do their best in the situation in which they found themselves. Achieving freedom was a preferable option, but one over which slaves’ own control was extremely limited (see notes on ).
receive a beating for doing wrong. Philosophers sometimes contrasted suffering justly with suffering unjustly. Some writers said that when a friend protested that Socrates suffered unjustly, Socrates replied, “So you would rather that I suffer justly?”
Christ suffered . . . leaving you an example. Moral teachers often offered examples of people to imitate. Although ancient society valued status and associated power with greatness, Peter identifies Christ with unjustly treated slaves.
Here Peter quotes , the first of several allusions to in vv. . describes “the suffering servant,” a role fulfilled by Jesus (cf. note on ).
he did not retaliate. Honor was a central virtue in ancient Mediterranean society, and people guarded their honor by insulting in return those who insulted them. Slaves (v. ), however, lacked this option. Many philosophers also advocated enduring insults without responding in kind. For the idea here, cf. , although the wording differs. to him who judges justly. Cf., e.g., ; ; .
Peter paraphrases lines from . by his wounds you have been healed. The healing here, as sometimes in other Jewish sources, is probably especially from sin (cf. v. ; ).
like sheep going astray. Follows ; for God’s people as scattered sheep, cf., e.g., ; . Shepherd and Overseer of your souls. God was Israel’s leading shepherd (); Diaspora Jews also called him “Overseer,” the one who watches over and guards. Peter may intend these titles for Jesus ().
Although Peter upholds societal norms for the purpose of the church’s witness in society (see note on ), his sympathy here is with the Christian woman, as it was with the slaves in . He continues to advocate submission to authority, explicitly for the sake of witness (v. ); husbands were always in the position of authority in that culture. Peter addresses wives at much greater length than husbands. Women converts to Judaism heavily outnumbered male converts; although Christians did not require circumcision, they may have also had more women than men. (Women sympathizers with Judaism also heavily outnumbered male sympathizers who were not full converts.) Husbands had more to lose socially from conversion to an unpopular minority religion than women did.
in the same way. Connects these instructions with those to slaves (see note on ). submit yourselves to your own husbands. Society expected wives to obey their husbands, including by showing loyalty to their husbands’ religions. Romans despised cults that prohibited participation in Roman religious rites, including worship of a family’s household gods. won over without words. Greek and Roman men valued women’s quietness and meekness.
purity and reverence. Ancient culture expected women (but not always men) to remain respectful and sexually pure.
outward adornment. Ancient moral writers regularly condemned such forms of ostentation. (The reference does not necessarily condemn all ornaments any more than it condemns all clothes. It challenges attention-getting, costly excess.) elaborate hairstyles. Women of means braided their hair elaborately, following costly fashions. Women of lesser means sometimes tried to imitate them. See note on ; see also the article “
beauty of a gentle and quiet spirit. Ancient moral writers praised women who were gentle and quiet, and often contrasted this virtue with dressing fashionably or in other ways seeking to attract men’s attention.
holy women of the past. Even Gentile writers often used as examples matrons of the distant past, who were both idealized as and respected for behaving better than current women. Sarah was the ultimate matriarch of Jewish tradition.
Sarah, who obeyed Abraham. Peter does not mention that Abraham also heeded Sarah in Genesis (the Hebrew term translated “agreed” in and “listen” in can even mean “obeyed”); it is not relevant to his immediate point (v. ). At least ideally, Greeks and Romans expected wives to obey their husbands. called him her lord. Sarah calls Abraham “my lord” in , fitting expectations for husbands (cf. ; cf. also the Hebrew of ), fathers (), honored brothers (; ), and others addressing someone respectfully (e.g., ; , ). You are her daughters. Jewish people regarded themselves as “children” of Abraham and Sarah; for Christians’ fulfilling such a role, cf. . do not give way to fear. Peter disagrees with moral writers who sometimes urged wives also to fear their husbands (cf. ). Husbands displeased with their wives’ faith could make life miserable for them. Records of husbands physically abusing their wives in this region and period are rare (in contrast to when Augustine later grew up in North Africa). Nevertheless, husbands could resort to prostitutes, discard newborn infants or simply divorce wives and take the children. In one mid-second-century account, a Christian divorced her husband for his repeated infidelity, so he betrayed her to the authorities as a Christian. Christian wives were limited in their options, but Peter wants them to pursue peace without being intimidated.
the weaker partner. Many writers complained about women’s moral, intellectual and sometimes physical weakness. (Peter might apply it mainly to their social position, since he deems women fellow heirs spiritually.) Aristotle earlier argued that women were by nature inferior to men in every way except sexually. Men regarded women’s delicacy as an object of both desire and mistrust; even the traditional Roman legal system simply assumed their weakness and inability to make sound decisions on their own. Many, however, cited this weakness as a reason to show them more consideration, which is Peter’s reasoning here. so that nothing will hinder your prayers. See v. .
be like-minded. Ancient moral writers often urged harmony, including between spouses.
Do not repay evil with evil or insult with insult. Jesus’ example () and even teaching (cf. ) might inform Peter’s counsel here (though it was held more widely, see note on ). inherit a blessing. Those who “inherit a blessing” are those God hears in v. .
Peter used in ; now he quotes from to confirm his teaching in .
Do not fear their threats. See . The Lord warned Isaiah not to fear what the people feared (, the Greek form of which is quoted here) but to only fear the Lord ().
revere Christ as Lord. The Greek form of begins the same way as the Greek text here: “Revere the Lord as holy”—except that Peter expressly applies this divine role to Christ. answer. The Greek term normally means a “defense”—something they may eventually need even in court (, ).
Ancient writers sometimes used inverted parallelism, called a chiasm. One such chiasm might occur here, if one may identify the “spirits” of with the angels of , as many scholars do:
A Your slanderers will be ashamed ()
B Suffer though innocent, in God’s will ()
C For Christ suffered for the unjust ()
D He triumphed over hostile spirits ()
E Noah was saved through water ()
E’ You are saved through water ()
D’ Christ triumphed over hostile spirits ()
C’ For Christ suffered ()
B’ Suffer in God’s will ()
A’ Your slanderers will be ashamed ()
Cf. note on .
he went and made proclamation to the imprisoned spirits. The three most common views on this passage are: (1) Between Jesus’ death and resurrection, he preached to the dead in Hades, the realm of the dead (the view of many church fathers, citing ). Greeks had myths about heroes such as Heracles or Orpheus descending temporarily to Hades. (2) Christ preached through Noah to people in Noah’s day (the view of many Reformers). (3) Before or (more likely) after his resurrection, Jesus proclaimed triumph over the fallen angels (the view of most scholars today, citing v. )
Early Christians nearly always used “spirits” for angelic or demonic spirits rather than human ones, except when explicitly stating the latter. The Spirit raised Jesus; by the Spirit (and thus, in this context, presumably after his resurrection) Jesus “made proclamation”; in v. , his exaltation declared his triumph over fallen angels. Most ancient Jewish readers believed that refers to angels who fell in Noah’s day (v. ); after the flood, they were said to be imprisoned (so also ; ), either below the earth or in the atmosphere (cf. v. ; note on ). Then, according to a well-known Jewish tradition, Enoch was sent to proclaim God’s judgment to them; here Christ is the one who proclaims their demise.
Jewish sources sometimes viewed the flood as a prototype of future judgment, as also in . God waited patiently. Recalls (120 years) and is mentioned in connection with the final judgment in . only a few people . . . were saved through water. The salvation of “only a few” could encourage early Christians, who were a persecuted minority.
not the removal of dirt from the body. Baptism mattered as an act of faith, not simply as washing away physical dirt. Jewish teachers used baptism as an act of conversion, but treated it as efficacious only if the repentance it claimed was sincere.
angels, authorities and powers in submission to him. Jewish texts often speak of angelic rulers over the nations (see note on ). Thus even the evil powers behind the rulers who persecuted Christians had been subdued, and no question remained about history’s final outcome.
Banquets often lasted far into the night, with heavy drinking and men often pursuing slave women or boys. Although wine was watered down for ordinary meals, banqueters often sought to become drunk. The worship of false deities pervaded social clubs, household cults and virtually all aspects of Greco-Roman life; hosts poured libations to gods at the beginning of banquets. Although this behavior was not immoral from the general Greco-Roman perspective, Jews and Christians condemned it as immoral. Romans suspected some subversive religious cults of such disorderly behavior.
they heap abuse on you. Although Jewish people did not participate in the lifestyle characterized in v. , their pagan neighbors often portrayed them as lawless and subversive because of their alleged antisocial behavior. Many leveled the same charges against Christians, although even interrogation by torture did not produce any supporting evidence. Nero’s accusation against the Christians he butchered was that they were “haters of humanity,” i.e., antisocial. But rumors of Nero’s own base immorality offended even the Roman aristocracy.
they will have to give account. Ultimately it was Christians’ accusers who would stand trial; Scripture sometimes depicts God’s day of judgment as a trial (cf. ; ).
those who are now dead. Although some commentators regard these dead as souls already dead when the message came (based on their understanding of ), from the context more commentators suggest that these were Christians who embraced the gospel before death. Although judged by earthly courts and executed, they would be raised by the Spirit, as in .
be alert. In many Jewish traditions (including ), the end of the age would be preceded by a period of great suffering.
love covers over a multitude of sins. insists on forgiveness rather than gossip (cf. ; ). Some commentators apply this to believers forgiving one another; other commentators apply this to the principle of those who forgive being forgiven.
hospitality. Included providing lodging and provisions, often for trustworthy travelers; ideally hosts counted this a privilege.
the very words of God. This Greek expression applied to prophecies; early Christians had an emphasis on prophecy that exceeded other Jewish groups’ expectations (see the article “
fiery ordeal. Soon after this letter, Nero had Christians burned alive to light his gardens at night (AD 64). The image of fiery testing, of course, is wider than that (e.g., ; ). to test you. Peter probably alludes to the image of gold being tried by fire (see note on ). Jewish people expected a period of intense suffering just before the end of the age (cf. also ).
the Spirit of glory and of God rests on you. Jewish sources, following Scripture, sometimes spoke of the Spirit being “on” God’s servants (e.g., ; ); the Spirit “resting on” comes from the Greek version of , about the Messiah, but Jesus has also empowered his followers with his Spirit.
Second-century defenders of Christianity argued that the only charge on which true Christians were ever convicted was the charge of being a Christian.
Christian. Probably used here as a legal charge (it was not originally the name believers used for themselves, see note on ). do not be ashamed. Greek and Roman male society craved honor, but, as here, many Greek sages noted that it was genuinely honorable to suffer scorn for doing what was right.
it is time for judgment to begin with God’s household. Biblical prophets also spoke of judgment beginning with God’s household (; cf. ; ); cf. also the ominous expression “the time has come!” (, ). Jewish teachers sometimes viewed even the unjust judgment of earthly courts (v. ) as God’s discipline to refine his people.
Peter cites the Greek version of . Some Jewish teachers argued that the righteous suffered in this life, but the wicked in the world to come.
commit themselves to their faithful Creator. Peter probably echoes the familiar language of Jewish prayers developed from (cf. ). The final benediction of one regularly uttered Jewish prayer, e.g., included “Our lives are committed to your hand, and our souls are in your care.”
elders. Ruled OT villages and continued to fill a respected leadership role in this period (see note on ).
Be shepherds of God’s flock. The ancient world had long used shepherds as an image of leaders; in Scripture, Israel was God’s flock and its leaders its shepherds, responsible for serving the flock (; ). not pursuing dishonest gain. Because people often accused teachers of seeking dishonest gain, many of them insisted on being beyond reproach in their behavior. Cf. .
being examples to the flock. Students often imitated teachers. Society valued honor, but Jesus’ followers must serve (v. ; ). Israel’s shepherds had often abused the flock (e.g., ; ; ; ), but God had promised better shepherds who would care for his flock (; ).
Chief Shepherd. Although God had raised up Moses, David, and others as shepherds for Israel, he was the chief shepherd (; ; ), a role here filled by Christ. the crown of glory that will never fade away. A winner in an athletic competition would receive a crown, which was a garland that would eventually fade away (see the article “
Similarities with suggests a common source, but the passages apply the principles to different kinds of tests. In James, the primary test is poverty and oppression, tempting people to retaliate. Here, it appears to be especially persecution, tempting believers to fall away.
submit . . . to your elders. All ancient cultures recognized the importance of honoring elders. Such respect normally included deferring to the wisdom of older men and allowing them to speak first. Peter advocates submission to the ruling elders (v. ), but he also urges—against Greco-Roman society’s ideals—mutual humility, citing (cf. ).
Humble yourselves . . . under God’s mighty hand. Peter applies (cited in v. ) to exhort believers. This behavior includes embracing and accepting the suffering until God provides the way out (cf. ); God promised to humble the proud in his day of judgment (, ). The cries of God’s people during unjust sufferings had always moved him to act on their behalf (; ; ; ).
because he cares for you. Jewish teachers came to see God’s disciplining love in Israel’s sufferings, but it made little sense to most Gentiles, who bartered sacrifices to seek benefactions from the gods. The language of God’s care might possibly echo Wisdom of Solomon 12:13, but the idea of God’s care for his people pervades the OT (e.g., ; ; ).
Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion. Satan prowled as he traveled around the earth seeking harm in . In Job’s Hebrew text, “
the family of believers throughout the world is undergoing the same kind of sufferings. Christians in Asia () could take courage from the sufferings of Christians in Rome (see 
With the help of Silas. Rich people dictated to scribes because they could afford to do so; poor people normally dictated to them because they could not write themselves. Early tradition reports that Mark wrote down Peter’s recollections about Jesus’ ministry; Peter probably depended on help in composing more than did Paul (though Paul also used scribes; cf. ). Silas. A Jewish Roman citizen () who probably had a strong education; he could thus help Peter compose the letter in the most effective way. I have written to you briefly. Speeches and letters often closed politely by noting that they had been brief (cf. ), although 1 Peter is much longer than the average ancient letter.
She who is in Babylon. Jewish people by this period viewed Rome as the fourth of the four kingdoms in that would oppress Israel, a successor to Babylon. “Babylon” thus became a fairly common cryptogram for Rome, and even more so after the temple’s destruction in AD 70. my son Mark. Very early tradition claims that Mark wrote down his Gospel based on anecdotes Peter remembered about Jesus (Papias fragment 3.15).
kiss of love. People often greeted relatives or other people close to them with a light kiss on the lips. See note on .