Annotations for 2 Corinthians
Annotations for 2 Corinthians
The ancient city of Corinth lay on an isthmus connecting northern Greece, including Athens, and the Peloponnese, the southern part of Greece. The isthmus was about 6,562 yards (6,000 meters) wide at its narrowest point, which led many to consider digging a canal there (a dream not realized until modern times). Two harbors were nearby: Lechaeum to the north, on the Gulf of Corinth, and Cenchrea to the south, on the Saronic Gulf. Corinth’s location made the city a site of great strategic and economic importance. Ships often preferred to sail into Corinth and transport their goods overland across the isthmus on the portage track (the diolkos) rather than risk the wild seas around the Peloponnese. This brought lively trade to the city—along with the vices often associated with bustling commercial centers. It is not surprising, therefore, that ancient Corinth became a byword for sexual immorality.
Corinth’s history may be divided into two distinct periods: its long duration as one of the major cities of classical Greek civilization and its subsequent years after the Roman conquest as a cosmopolitan crossroads. The classical city was at one time a major player in the politics of Greece and was particularly important in the long history of competition between Athens and Sparta (Corinth was usually on the side of Sparta). Later, as head of the Achaean League (a coalition of Greek cities), it led resistance to Roman aggression. Its role as host of the Isthmian games (second only to the Olympic Games in prestige) greatly enhanced Corinth’s ancient status. This city, however, was destroyed in 146 BC by the Roman general Lucius Mummius. While some inhabitants stayed in the vicinity of Corinth, the city did not rise to prominence again until 44 BC, when Julius Caesar refounded it as a Roman colony.
The new city was Roman in its administration and architecture, with the majority of its original settlers being freedmen. The natural advantages of the site, coupled with the entrepreneurial vigor of the freedmen, soon led to renewed prosperity. The Corinth of the New Testament era was reputed to be one of the most beautiful cities of the Greco-Roman world. Its importance in trade and its status as a Roman administrative center made Corinth a significant city in Paul’s day.
Corinth had a mixed, cosmopolitan populace, as reflected in its many religious shrines:
• Visitors to Corinth can still find archaeological evidence of votive offerings made to Asclepius, the god of medicine, in gratitude for healings. These offerings were clay models of body parts (often arms, legs or sexual organs) the god had supposedly healed, hung around the temple as tributes to Asclepius.
• Old Corinth was home to a famous temple to Aphrodite that supposedly employed 1,000 temple prostitutes. While this number may be an exaggeration, scholars can hardly doubt that this port city supported a thriving prostitution industry.
• There were also temples to other Greek gods, such as to Poseidon, god of the sea (appropriate for a port city), and to Demeter and Kore, goddesses of an ancient Greek fertility cult.
• The cosmopolitan nature of Corinth is reflected in the fact that it also had numerous places of worship for foreign deities, such as a shrine to the Egyptian goddess Isis—as well as a Jewish synagogue.
With its cultural diversity, wealth, paganism and infamous debauchery, Corinth was perhaps not the place onlookers would have expected the church to flourish. Yet it was precisely here that Paul enjoyed one of his most successful ministries—and also here that he experienced some of his greatest challenges with early converts to Christianity. ◆
Artist’s recreation of Corinth, looking south toward Acrocorinth, AD 200.
© Balage Baloge, www.archaeologyillustrated.com
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Paul . . . To the church of God in Corinth . . . Grace and peace to you. Letters opened with the name of the sender, the recipient, and greetings (see notes on , ).
throughout Achaia. Corinth was the capital of Achaia, and was surrounded by about 40 settlements (such as Cenchreae).
Praise be to the God. Ancient letters often included a prayer for the recipients. Many Jewish benedictions began with praise for God. Father of compassion. Idiomatic for “compassionate Father,” a title of God in a frequent Jewish prayer.
For how God comforted Paul most recently, see , , .
share . . . in the sufferings of Christ. Some commentators stress a connection with the Jewish expectation of end-time suffering as the birth pangs of the Messiah (suffering that would bring deliverance). Others emphasize Paul’s theme of unity with Christ (cf. vv. ), rooted in the OT perspective of corporate identity (especially the group personified in its leading representative; cf. ) and believers’ experience of the Spirit. Introductions of speeches and written works sometimes introduced important themes; Paul soon revisits this theme of suffering with Christ (e.g., ; ; ; ; ).
After an introduction, many speeches and some other kinds of works recounted a narrative, tracing the events leading up to the need for the speech or other work.
troubles . . . in the province of Asia. Ephesus, where Paul had been ministering (see and note), was the most prominent city in the wealthy Roman province of Asia in western Asia Minor. Paul faced conflicts in Ephesus (see and note), and would soon face the events recounted in .
God, who raises the dead . . . has delivered us from such a deadly peril. Scripture could graphically portray divine deliverance from danger (e.g., ; ). Regular Jewish prayers emphasized that God was the powerful one “who raises the dead.” Paul also thinks in terms of unity with Christ (v. ).
gracious favor. Ancient inscriptions show that the expected response for generous benefaction (such as the “gracious favor” here) was public gratitude. Most ancient cultures also sought to earn deities’ favor with sacrifices, but Paul instead simply speaks of God’s generosity in answering prayers.
Letter writers often affectionately chided their recipients for not visiting or maintaining better contact, but the offense here goes beyond affectionate chiding. Some Corinthian believers feel that Paul has proved unreliable after breaking his word to visit, something he must explain (v. ; ). They may also feel as if Paul, who has already refused their support (; ), has now insulted their hospitality. Showing hospitality was a key virtue in the ancient Mediterranean world, and hosting a respected individual was a great honor. Paul had avoided visiting Corinth only to spare them from needed and direct discipline (v. ); instead, he sent Titus with a warning (; ). When Titus did not return to the appointed meeting place in Troas, however, Paul feared for him (given the dangers of traveling in antiquity) and for how the church had responded to his reproof. Paul thus went on into Macedonia (). There Paul found Titus again, who reported mostly good news about the church (). But Paul’s unfulfilled warnings about discipline (), because of his gentleness and his wish to spare them, left some doubting whether he could truly act firmly (, , ). If they forced him, he would need to act firmly now (, ).
this is our boast. Ancient urban audiences accepted self-praise in a justifiable situation, such as defending oneself against criticism, as here. Because charlatans were widespread (), teachers often defended themselves in advance even if no opposition existed (cf. ); but some in Corinth were criticizing Paul (e.g., ; ; ).
that you might benefit twice. When the Corinthians hear the Greek term here translated “benefit” (also meaning “grace”), they may think of the gifts benefactors bestowed on communities or persons of somewhat lower status. Paul is their benefactor, not their client (dependent); nevertheless, unlike normal ancient benefactors, he does not seek honor for himself, but only for God (vv. , ).
on my way to Macedonia. One could sail directly between Asia and Achaia (cf. ) or travel overland via Macedonia (; ; ). send me on my way. Paul would allow them to provide for his voyage; they would consider this part of the privilege of hospitality.
Was I fickle . . . ? Ancient sources frequently praised people who kept their word despite hardship; these sources also frequently condemn fickleness, especially in leaders. When someone had to change already noted plans, they had to (and sometimes did) supply good reasons and show that they were not fickle. Paul’s flexibility may have drawn criticism earlier (cf. ), but now he had been unable to fulfill his stated intention.
Ancient writers often used digressions; in these verses Paul emphasizes that even if they want to question his integrity regarding his travel plans, his gospel message is reliable.
For “Yes” being “Yes,” see .
Amen. Concluded and affirmed a prayer; here the risen Christ is the guarantee of all God’s promises.
stand firm in Christ. Paul usually uses “stand firm” generically, but it might be relevant that business documents sometimes used this expression for confirming a sale (see note on “deposit” in v. ). He anointed us. In the OT, anointing with olive oil symbolically consecrated persons or things for special service.
seal of ownership. Documents would be sealed with witnesses’ identity markers, and containers of merchandise with those of owners, certifying that no one had tampered with their contents. The stamp of the owner or the person or people witnessing a document would be pressed into hot wax, which then dried over the string tied around the rolled-up document. (Important documents often had about six seals; to open the document one had to break the seals, so a sealed document was one that had not been tampered with.) God himself attested the apostolic message (cf. ). his Spirit. Judaism especially associated the Spirit with the end of the age (e.g., ; ). deposit. The Greek term here referred in business documents to the down payment; the Spirit is here the first taste of the life of the coming era when God will reign unchallenged.
I call God as my witness. Since some did not accept Paul’s own word, he invokes the most certain witness. Invoking a deity as witness was essentially an oath, which invited the deity’s judgment if the person invoked the deity falsely (cf. ). For the way that Paul sought to “spare” them, see .
we work with you for your joy. Patrons and other authorities normally expected praise or even groveling, but like some other more pastorally minded sages in antiquity, Paul offers a different model (cf. especially ).
painful visit. Friendly letters very often protested a friend’s failure to visit (or even write frequently); in most cases such protests simply expressed affection, but sometimes they could be serious, as in the case of Corinthian complaints about Paul’s failure to visit. Sometimes a letter writer would explain that the only reason for not visiting was out of concern for what was best for the recipient.
In ancient letters between close friends, a writer would sometimes emphasize that he shared the other’s grief or other feelings.
I wrote you. The letter to which Paul refers (now lost) admonished the church to discipline a member (vv. ). Paul wrote this letter after 1 Corinthians, although some believe, along with many early church fathers, that the member is also the one addressed in . depth of my love for you. Many ancient letters to friends stressed the depth of the writer’s love for the reader. Even orators often showed affection with tears during speeches.
The punishment . . . is sufficient. Now . . . forgive and . . . reaffirm your love for him. Most ancient legal settings, including discipline for members in synagogues and in the Qumran community, specified a time of punishment (e.g., for exile or exclusion from the community). Because the man has now genuinely repented, however, he is to be welcomed back fully.
Satan . . . his schemes. Jewish tradition already recognized Satan as a deceiver (see note on ) as well as tempter and accuser (cf. ; ).
Speakers and writers often narrated events leading up to their writing (here; ). In antiquity, communication was no faster than travel, so Paul could not be sure how the Corinthian believers had received Titus or Paul’s letter (vv. ) via Titus. Paul could sail from Troas to enter Macedonia (v. ; ) to take the main land route to Corinth, presumably stopping in churches along the way, where Titus would also need to stop. Finally meeting Titus in Macedonia, he receives good news that the Corinthian believers had welcomed him and also obeyed Paul’s letter about disciplining the wrongdoer ().
Troas. See note on ; it was a strategic place for ministry. opened a door. See note on .
Ancient writers often used digressions (cf. ; ) that were sometimes quite long. In , Paul digresses from his narrative to defend his ministry, as other sages in the Greco-Roman world often did. Some scholars argued instead that is a separate letter accidentally inserted between and . Scrolls, however, did not permit such insertions, and even later codices (paged books) would not be expected to break evenly with sentences closing at the end of pages; therefore, it is far more likely that is a digression.
triumphal procession. Traditionally, Roman generals led their prisoners of war in triumphal procession; by the first century, only the emperor, who did not want competition, could celebrate triumphs. Here Christ as the true ruler leads his captives (Christ’s “servants,” ); cf. . Paul would know that most captives were executed afterward; thus Paul, a captive, identifies with Christ’s death in ; . The Roman senate normally decreed public thanksgivings before the triumphal processions, so they were great celebrations for the victors and great humiliations for the defeated. Here, by contrast, the dying prisoner of war himself offers the thanksgiving!
pleasing aroma. People offered incense during sacrifices, including at triumphs (v. ); the image of incense could be used figuratively (; cf. the note on the fragrant offering in ).
aroma that brings death . . . aroma that brings life. Those with faith could see life in both Jesus’ cross and apostolic sufferings; those without faith could see only death there. who is equal to such a task? This rhetorical question is answered in .
Unlike so many. Paul may think of his antagonists in , , ; sometimes people avoided naming the targets of their criticism explicitly, humiliating them with anonymity. peddle the word of God for profit. Greedy false teachers were a problem both in ancient Israel (; ; , ) and in the Greco–Roman world. Philosophers and others criticized orators, and many people also criticized philosophers and other sages, for pursuing their work only for the sake of money. Thus many needed to differentiate themselves from charlatans.
commend ourselves. Honorable people in antiquity were not supposed to commend themselves unless they could give good reason for it, such as defending themselves, critiquing others’ misplaced arrogance, or setting a positive example (cf. ; , ; ). letters of recommendation. People often wrote letters to their peers or others recommending persons of social status lower than their own, usually carried by the recommended person (cf. and note). Philosophers, by contrast, often rejected concern about others’ opinions, arguing that their character was already clear.
See note on v. . God once wrote his commandments on “tablets of stone” (v. ; see ; ; ), but he later announced a new law-giving (), and a covenant that would be inscribed on hearts (), as it was always meant to be (, ). Paul also evokes Ezekiel here: God would replace his people’s hearts of stone with hearts of flesh, putting his Spirit in them so they would keep his laws ().
competence comes from God. God more than compensated for human inadequacy (, ).
new covenant. Paul makes explicit what he implied in vv. . (Many Jewish people in this era also expected this new or renewed covenant; the sectarians who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls believed that it applied to their own group, as in the Damascus Document 6.19; 8.21; 19.33; 20.12.) the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life. The Law of Moses pronounced death on transgressors; Paul may also think of . By contrast, the Spirit enables God’s people to keep the moral heart of the law (), and brings resurrection life ().
Orators and interpreters often elaborated comparisons, sometimes between something good and something even better. Paul here elaborates how the new covenant (v. ) experience is greater than that of the old, and thus apostolic ministry is greater than that of Moses. Some may have exalted Moses and the law over apostolic ministry because God confirmed the old covenant with judgments on Egypt and theophanies on Mount Sinai; the new covenant, while attested with signs and wonders, transforms from within. God’s law, always meant to be in the heart (; ), would finally be there fully (). The new covenant thus offered greater glory than what Moses beheld on Mount Sinai.
came with glory. After Moses received the tablets of stone and beheld God’s glory, reflective glory shone from his face (, ). The glory was impermanent and faded over time (cf. v. ), however. Moreover, the people could not withstand such glory (), which brought death (; ; cf. ), unlike the life-giving Spirit (). The new covenant with the Spirit would produce greater obedience than the first covenant (; ).
how much more glorious. Jewish teachers and others often used “How much more?” reasoning in comparisons.
much greater. Based on ; , the new covenant and its glory must be greater than the old. In vv. , Paul elaborates in what sense this is true.
very bold. Ancient thinkers often used this particular Greek term for being bold (parrêsia, “boldness”) to emphasize that, unlike flatterers exploiting their hearers, they spoke truth for their hearers’ good. Cf. v. ; , .
prevent . . . seeing the end of what was passing away. Moses had to veil his face because the people could not withstand the glory, which could harm them (, ; cf. ). Moses’ glory also faded over time. By contrast, Paul and other believers in Jesus experience the Spirit, who dwells in them continually. Far from fading, God’s glory in the servants of the new covenant continues to be revealed even in death (cf. ; ).
Israelites could not witness the full glory revealed with the law (see v. and note); this comes only in the new covenant of the Spirit in the promised Christ. It is only in the new covenant that the Spirit produces full obedience from the heart (; ). Only one intimate with the Lord could experience much of the glory without a veil (; ), though even Moses could not see all the glory (, ).
Jewish interpreters could explain a text by comparing it with a later text that was analogous. the Lord. The one who revealed himself to Moses in the Biblical text (, , ; , ) corresponds to the new covenant experience of the Spirit (cf. v. ).
with unveiled faces . . . are being transformed. Although Moses reflected the Lord’s glory at the time of the giving of the older covenant (v. ), the new covenant Spirit provides a fuller experience of the Lord’s glory (see vv. ). The transformation now, however, is especially within. Many philosophers thought that meditating on divine and heavenly things would transform them toward divinity; yet they deemed their deity emotionless and abstract. By contrast, the God whom Moses saw was full of compassion for his people (). contemplate. Or “reflect” (see ; see also ; and notes).
we do not use deception. See note on . we commend ourselves. See note on .
veiled. See notes on .
god of this age. Jewish sources do not call Satan “the god of this age” (cf. ) but did speak of Satan or hostile angels ruling the Gentiles (cf. ). glory of Christ . . . the image of God. Wisdom, which was sometimes personified, provided the best available analogy for Jewish people to understand something divine yet distinct from God the Father. Greek-speaking Jews sometimes described preexistent Wisdom as a mirror reflecting God’s image and glory (Wisdom of Solomon 7:26); sometimes they also opined that God stamped his image on people by Wisdom or his logos, typically translated as his “word.” For Paul the divine image and glory obscured in Adam is restored in Christ.
not ourselves. Some in antiquity complained about teachers who drew attention to themselves rather than to helpful teachings. servants for Jesus’ sake. See note on ; but slaveholders sometimes had their slaves work for others.
Although ancient writers often paired contrasts in quick succession (as in ; ), they also could do so over a slightly larger span. Contrast believers here with unbelievers in v. . Let light shine out of darkness. God spoke the light out of darkness in , but Paul adapts wording from , a Messianic context (). light. Jewish people associated light with God; for various symbolic uses, cf. note on . God’s glory displayed in . . . Christ. The Spirit would make God’s glory in Christ, his image (v. ), shine greatly through the people of the new covenant ().
treasure in jars of clay. Unlike bronze or other more expensive vessels, jars of clay were inexpensive and thus disposable if they were broken or incurred ceremonial impurity. Corinth produced some of this fragile clay pottery, notably ceramic lamps. Greek sources sometimes depict the body as a vessel containing the soul; Paul instead contrasts humanity’s frailty with divine glory. For human vessels, cf. ; ; ; . For divine treasure, cf., e.g., , ; . power . . . not from us. Gentile sages often emphasized their strength of character in the face of hardship, but Paul depends on God’s power.
Orators often offered a series of contrasts, as here, both elaborating and emotionally hammering home a point. Some ancient sages catalogued their sufferings (see and note) to demonstrate their integrity in following their teachings about endurance.
On unity with Christ, see note on .
Paul uses the most common Greek rendering of , cited here. In its context in the psalm, the line shows that even a cry of affliction can be spoken in faith concerning God’s deliverance, which does come in the end (cf. here vv. , ).
raise us. Greeks and Romans did not conceive of a future resurrection, an issue that some Corinthian believers had struggled with (see ). See the article “
grace . . . may cause thanksgiving to overflow to the glory of God. Greeks and Romans praised benefactors; the response deemed appropriate to their generosity (often described as grace) was thanksgiving and the offering of honor (also called, as here, “glory”). Paul is ready to suffer for the sake of enlarging God’s people, bringing God honor (cf. ).
outwardly we are wasting away. Many intellectuals had long believed that the soul was what mattered, so that people should learn to regard the natural decay of the body as a matter of indifference. Paul adapts this concept in light of God’s promises: Christ’s resurrection glory is already present (“inwardly”) even in those suffering for him (vv. ; cf. ; see note on ).
light and momentary troubles . . . eternal glory that far outweighs them. Considering Biblical promises, many Jewish people expected future blessing far outweighing present troubles. For them, the eternal future certainly outweighed the present age. Gentile philosophers also recognized that what was eternal mattered more than anything temporary; many believed that the unseen realm of ideas was more real than physical things, which decay. Paul has already contrasted visible stone tablets and the visible but transitory glory of Moses with the unseen yet unfading glory of the Spirit (). Yet Paul also believes in a future for the body (v. ; ). eternal glory that far outweighs them all. Many believed that the heavens were eternal and that what was earthly and physical distracted one from the eternal realm of ideas. Many (including some Hellenistic Jews) had also come to believe that the soul was much lighter than the body, so when the body that weighted it down died, the soul would rise again to the pure heavens from which it came. Paul speaks instead of glory that “outweighs” (lit. is a “weight”). This association is natural; Paul would know that in Hebrew the same term could mean either “heaviness” or “glory.”
earthly tent . . . eternal house. Greek and some Diaspora Jewish writers described the body as a vessel, a house, or a tent. Whereas some Greek thinkers also envisioned the body as a tomb to be escaped by death, Paul’s hope is not for death but for the resurrection body, a thought unintelligible to Greeks. we have a building from God. Paul says that a better body awaits (he can use the present tense because of the secure deposit; see v. ). For the body as a house, see and note.
longing to be clothed . . . clothed . . . found naked . . . unclothed . . . clothed. Ancient writers sometimes portrayed the present or resurrected body as clothing and death as disrobing. Judeans and other eastern peoples loathed nudity; while Greeks and Romans disliked it in particular situations, both bathed naked in the baths and Greeks exercised naked. For Paul, the image is undesirable—the body’s death is not in itself desirable, in contrast to the view of some philosophers (especially Platonists) who viewed positively the soul’s release from the body. For the body as clothing, see .
groan. Evokes anguish and perhaps birth pangs (Jewish tradition expected these preceding the new age; see note on ) and/or groaning for deliverance in (the Greek version uses a related noun).
what is mortal may be swallowed up by life. See note on .
Scripture and some Jewish tradition associated the Spirit with the time of the kingdom restoration, which Jewish tradition identified with the world to come (e.g., ; ). deposit. The Greek term used here referred in business documents to the first payment; the Spirit is here the first taste of the life of the coming era.
away from the body and at home with the Lord. Pharisees accepted both the immortality of the soul and the future resurrection of the body, and many Jewish writers depicted the experience of heaven after death as a proleptic experience to be completed in paradise after the resurrection. Paul apparently likewise accepted both the soul’s continuance after death and bodily resurrection (cf., e.g., with ).
judgment seat. In Corinth, the place of judgment was massive. Governors issued decrees and decisions from this raised platform, and Corinthian believers would know of Paul’s experience there (). Nevertheless, Paul particularly recalls the Biblical day of judgment, depicted in early Jewish sources as God judging from his throne (Paul thus depicts Jesus as divine here; cf. ). while in the body. See notes on , .
fear the Lord. Because God is judge (v. ), fearing him offers moral incentive (e.g., ).
not trying to commend ourselves. Honorable people in antiquity were not supposed to commend themselves unless they could give good reason for it, such as defending themselves (v. ; ) or replying to charges (), for the welfare of one’s hearers (v. ; ), critiquing others’ misplaced arrogance (, ), or because of necessity (, ). what is seen . . . what is in the heart. Applying the inward-outward contrast of (cf. also , ) against his arrogant critics, Paul uses some language from the Greek version of .
“out of our mind,” . . . right mind. Many people considered philosophers out of their minds (philosophers held the same opinion of the masses); more relevantly here, those who were inspired were also deemed out of their mind (in a more positive way). The opposite state was being in one’s right mind. Cf. the contrast between Moses when with God and Moses in public in ; cf. also .
regard no one from a worldly point of view. Greek thinkers often challenged outward ways of viewing matters (see notes on , ). Paul’s perspective is informed by the promised new age established in Christ (vv. , ).
the new creation has come. Although later teachers sometimes applied it to proselytes, the most common use of new creation language in Jewish sources from this period addresses the age to come. This also fits earlier Biblical usage (; ). Paul recognizes that the promised resurrection has begun in Jesus, so that believers have already begun to experience some of the life of the promised age (cf. vv. , ; ).
reconciled . . . reconciliation . . . reconciling. Harmony and thus reconciliation were frequent topics of public discussion.
Christ’s ambassadors. An “ambassador” was a representative of one state to another, usually applied in this period to the emperor’s legates in the East. How one treated heralds, ambassadors or other representatives, who were supposed to have diplomatic immunity, also honored or shamed the sender (; ). Like Biblical prophets (; ), apostles were agents authorized as representatives of God—the greatest king. We implore you on Christ’s behalf: Be reconciled to God. Orators sometimes held attention with startling images—here summoning the Corinthian believers to be reconciled to God (also ). They are alienated from God, it appears, by their alienation from Paul and his coworkers (; ; see note on ).
made him who had no sin to be sin for us. Paul might blend the idea of unblemished sacrifices with that of the scapegoat that embodied the sin of God’s people (; ). Christ’s representatives (v. ) would represent Christ’s righteousness, as Christ represented sin for us.
See note on .
The context of , cited here, is the promised restoration (), depicted in cosmic terms (, ); believers already experience a foretaste of this promise (see and note).
For sages listing sufferings to verify their character, in contrast with charlatans, see note on . Even in court, arguments about one’s character affected assessments of guilt or innocence. Orators valued repetition to drive home points, and vv. would be worthy of any orator: Paul lists nine hardships (vv. ) and eight virtues, all prefaced by the Greek en (“in”; vv. ); then three contrasts regarding weakness prefaced by dia (the NIV translates some as “with” and some as “through”; vv. ) followed by seven more contrasts divided by “yet” (vv. ). One can also read this as three sets of nine elements (cf. nine in ; ; two sets in , ).
in the right hand and in the left. Soldiers normally carried a spear, lance or, after these were discharged, a sword in their right hands and carried a shield in their left.
Orators employed antithesis (contrast); orators and sages both liked paradox. The sorts of criticisms noted here were often leveled against sages. Some philosophers ignored criticism, dismissing the value of mortals’ opinions; for the sake of the message, others tried to deflect criticism where possible. Society placed considerable pressure on people to seek honor and avoid shame.
dying, and yet we live on. See and the language of (from a group of psalms sung at Jewish festivals and thus particularly familiar; cf. in and possibly in ).
Intellectuals could respect some of Paul’s claims here. having nothing, and yet possessing everything. Cynic philosophers gave up all possessions to pursue their lifestyle but considered themselves spiritually rich. Cynic and Stoic philosophers claimed that, although they owned little or nothing, all the world belonged to them, because they were friends of the gods.
Orators often climaxed arguments with an intense emotional appeal, as in and in (letters, which were less formal than speeches, could give even freer play to emotion). Writers often digressed, and often clearly framed the digression by returning to the same point. The appeal to welcome Paul frames his demand to reject some who are evil (), perhaps implying Paul’s opponents. In ancient Mediterranean life (and especially in Roman party politics, well known in Corinth), one should be friends with one’s friends and enemies to their enemies. By welcoming Paul’s opponents, the church was rejecting Paul, and thus the one who sent him (see note on ).
We are not withholding our affection . . . but you are. Orators and especially letter writers often expressed deep affection; sometimes they also affectionately protested that the other should reciprocate this love.
Hearers accustomed to ancient oratory would have appreciated Paul’s emotional climax here: a series of antitheses (contrasts) framed in five rhetorical questions. Jewish sources contrasted the righteous and wicked, the wise and foolish. They also contrasted good and evil as light and darkness; the Dead Sea Scrolls contrasted the people of light and the people of darkness (e.g., War Scroll 1.1, 11).
yoked together. Borrows an image from the Greek text of (cf. ). This image would reinforce Biblical prohibitions of intermarriage or close alliances with nonbelievers (e.g., ; ).
Belial. Jewish sources often called Satan “Belial” or “Beliar” (e.g., Qumran’s Manual of Discipline 1.24; 2.5; 10.21). The name derives from a frequent OT Hebrew term meaning “worthlessness” or “wickedness,” though by this period it was so commonly used for the devil, especially in Judea (e.g., pervasively in the Dead Sea Scrolls) that hearers may not have thought as directly about the term’s original sense.
Jewish interpreters sometimes linked or blended Biblical texts, as here (see ).
idols. Against Paul’s teaching, some may still advocate idol food (see ; , ). we are the temple of the living God. See note on .
God had consecrated his people to himself (); the context of , cited here, is God bringing his people from captivity in Babylon and restoring them (). I will receive you. These words follow a Greek translation of God’s promise to gather his people in a number of texts, perhaps especially , .
my sons and daughters. God’s people were his sons and daughters (e.g., ; ), who would be restored to their special relationship with him in the time of the end (). Paul blends the language of several texts (probably including , in the immediate context of building a temple, ), as Jewish writers sometimes did; here he may also blend his own prophetic insight (cf. ).
we have these promises. The promises of are applicable in Christ ().
Make room for us in your hearts. Writers ending a digression (such as ) often picked up where they left off (see and note on ). After arresting hearers’ attention with harsh or startling images (as again in ), speakers also often softened the tone with gentleness. We have . . . we have . . . we have. Orators drove home points with repetition.
such a place in our hearts. Even more than most speakers, friends could show affection in letters. A friend could emphasize that he wrote not to discourage or harm but to demonstrate his love (cf. ; ). we would live or die with you. Greeks considered willingness to die for a friend the greatest expression of friendship (cf. ).
with great frankness. Ancient thinkers often used this Greek term for being frank to emphasize that, unlike flatterers exploiting their hearers, they were true friends, speaking the truth for the hearers’ good.
Finishing his long digression in , Paul picks up where he left off. On narratives, see note on ; although usually at the beginning, they could be provided where needed. Paul crossed over from Troas to Macedonia to find Titus, whom he had sent to the Corinthians with a harsh letter ().
God, who comforts the downcast. See, e.g., ; ; ; . comforted . . . by the coming of Titus. Paul was comforted not only by Titus’s safety but by the Corinthians’ response.
your longing for me, your deep sorrow, your ardent concern for me. Writers of letters were sometimes anxious about how their words would be received. Orators drove home points with repetition, here three affectionate attitudes of the Corinthian believers toward Paul.
my letter hurt you . . . led you to repentance. A letter writer would sometimes apologize if a recipient felt hurt. Nevertheless, when hearers did not respond to gentleness, moral teachers were ready to speak more harshly, like a doctor inflicting pain to help a patient. Such teachers might not regret frank speech (v. ) or even rebuke if they proved truly necessary to secure repentance.
Orators drove home points with repetition; note the multiple repetitions of “what . . .” (the Greek term alla, which often means “but,” separates seven nouns depicting dramatic emotion). Affectionate letters sometimes invited the reader to prove his or her love (cf. ).
his spirit has been refreshed by all of you. Antiquity stressed the virtue of hospitality; e.g., local synagogue communities often accommodated Jewish travelers. How people received one’s agent also displayed respect or disdain for the sender.
our boasting about you. People looked down on unjustified boasting in oneself, but boasting about friends was considered honorable.
receiving him. See note on v. .
I can have complete confidence in you. Writers sometimes expressed confidence in their audience during or (as here, in chs. ) just before a request.
After dealing with minor issues, Paul turns to questions of support (chs. ) before finally addressing the most serious breach (chs. ). Higher-status members of the church felt offended that Paul refused their patronal support (; ), and now some criticize his inconsistency. Unwilling to accept support for himself, he asks it on behalf of the poor in Jerusalem, whom the sponsors have never met. Paul uses a range of terms frequent in ancient business documents for funds and benefactors’ generosity (such as “sharing” in , “this matter” in , an untranslated term for an undertaking in , and “gift” in ). The Corinthian believers did ultimately provide their contribution (; cf. ).
A minority of scholars have proposed that because chs. address a distinct issue, they must form a separate letter. Although administrative letters were common, business sections within letters that also addressed other topics were no less appropriate. Several scholars want both ch. and ch. to be separate letters, but the dividing chapter break interrupts a continued flow of thought.
grace. When it appears in business documents, the Greek term used here and often in this section, though translated various ways (vv. , [“privilege”], , [no single translated term]; ; cf. v. ; [“bless”], [“thanks”]) can mean various things. In addition to divine “grace,” it can refer to benefactors’ generosity, to the gift or to gratitude (cf. v. [“thanks”]; [“thanks”]); God’s generosity invites believers’ generosity and thanksgiving to God. the Macedonian churches. Speakers and writers often appealed to positive models for imitation. They also used comparison with others (v. ), using rivalry to provoke excellence. Cities competed for honor, and speakers invoked traditional rivalries to spur their hearers on to greater zeal. Corinth, the capital of Achaia, and the province of Macedonia, which included the cities Philippi and Thessalonica, were traditional rivals.
extreme poverty. Although Philippi (where one of Paul’s most supportive churches in Macedonia was located, ) was prosperous, its prosperity had not filtered down to the poor, who often were unemployed. Despite some exceptions (; ), the poor may have comprised many of the believers there and in Thessalonica (cf. ; ). Further, prejudice against Jesus’ followers may have increased their economic disadvantages there (; ; ).
as much as they were able . . . beyond their ability. Greek and Roman inscriptions often described generous benefaction with expressions such as these. The Macedonian churches gave even beyond the Biblical and early Jewish principle of generosity for the poor in accordance with the giver’s resources (; ).
sharing. Business documents often used the underlying Greek term for economic partnerships. service. Jewish sources sometimes used this Greek term for providing for the needy. The Macedonian believers count this activity a privilege.
we urged Titus . . . to bring also to completion. Titus had raised this issue of support as well as the issue of the harsh letter when he was among them; because Titus has now reported back to him, Paul’s concern as to whether the Corinthians’ offering would be ready () probably indicates that they were not. completion. Inscriptions often praise benefactors for completing a project to which they had pledged.
since you excel in everything. Orators often accumulated examples in quick succession to drive home a point; Paul here piles up examples of how they excel (faith, speech, etc.; cf. ). Speakers often praised hearers’ strengths in order to move them to act beneficially; a letter writer also could appeal to the recipient’s affection for the writer to urge some action for the reader’s good. in the love we have kindled in you. See . If Paul refers instead to his love for the Corinthians, superlative claims of love expressed affection.
I am not commanding you. Municipalities sometimes forced wealthy donors to support public works; others thus stressed when donations were voluntary. test the sincerity of your love. Sometimes one writing to a friend affectionately explained that he was testing the reader’s love by requesting some action (see notes on vv. , ).
our Lord Jesus Christ . . . became poor. Persuasive speakers often cited examples of figures whose behavior modeled their point; Paul cites the ultimate example. Corinth was a wealthy city, though this wealth was not evenly distributed (see 
what is best. Persuaders often appealed to “what is best” (for reasons for the advantage, see vv. ). Last year. Could designate any period from 9 to 15 months before; this earlier commitment is evident in .
eager willingness. Cities dedicated inscriptions to honor benefactors who displayed “eager willingness” to help.
the gift is acceptable according to what one has. By Biblical standards, only one’s best gift was acceptable to God (see, e.g., ; ), but what one could give varied according to one’s means (see, e.g., ; ; ).
equality. Corinth was a particularly prosperous city and the church included some members with significant means (cf. ). Central to the Greek conception of friendship were equality and the notion that friends share all things in common. Benefactors who helped sponsor less affluent clients used this language of friendship, but more intimate traditional friendship required fuller sharing. Believers should share so that all their fellow believers have enough.
the present time. The urgent crisis was a famine (cf. ). their plenty will supply what you need. In ancient ethics, recipients of benefaction were to pay back the benefactors, though with honor, not money. Food shortages, however, sometimes affected even prosperous Corinth, which depended on trade to pay for sufficient food imports; other believers might someday help them. equality. See v. and note.
The supernatural provision of just the right amount of manna for each household in , cited here, offered a model for what Paul meant by equality (vv. ). Other Diaspora Jewish writers appealed to the same passage to urge equality.
Thanks be to God. Writers sometimes bracketed a section by beginning and ending with the same wording; this is at least possibly the case with this verse and . Paul, of course, often does stop to praise God (e.g., ; ; ; ).
Throughout the empire, social superiors provided letters of introduction to their peers or inferiors on behalf of those they recommended (see note on ).
chosen. The Greek term can include voting, common in Greek culture; in any case, Paul respects the democratic ideal for local choices valued in Greek culture. the offering. Paul and his churches would not have to look far for a model of respectable behavior for a Jerusalem collection. Jewish adult males throughout the world paid a half-shekel tax each year to support the temple; local Diaspora Jewish communities sent respected individuals to carry their local collections to Jerusalem. to honor the Lord. Ancients expected generosity to be repaid with honor—here (and in vv. , ) to the chief benefactor, God.
avoid any criticism. Mediterranean culture heavily emphasized honor, so qualifications for leaders included that they be respectable and above reproach.
taking pains. Honorary inscriptions used “taking pains” for benefactors’ foresight, which sometimes included sending honorable representatives. do what is right. Other Jewish teachers also emphasized doing what is right before both God and people. in the eyes of the Lord. Paul uses wording from the Greek translation of .
our brother. If the audience already knew someone, a writer could describe instead of name him. often proved to us in many ways. Although class provided ready access to high-status offices, the ancient ideal for leadership was that persons be “proved” before promotion to higher offices. Both Jewish and Greco-Roman moralists recommended that potential leaders be tested in lower positions before achieving public office.
representatives of the churches and an honor to Christ. See note on v. .
show these men the proof of your love. Displaying affection, one could ask for proofs of love. Sometimes an influential person writing a letter of recommendation could invite a benefactor to demonstrate to the recommended how effective the recommender’s recommendation was. Asking a reader to prove their affection for the writer by granting the latter’s request revealed confidence in the friendship.
Digressions were common in ancient sources; vv. might be a digression from discussing the delegation (vv. ; ).
Speakers sometimes used civic pride and rivalry to spur communities to action (see note on ).
our boasting about you. Paul may have boasted about their enthusiasm (v. ) before the troubles recently aroused by outside critics (). In boasting, however, he has laid his own honor on the line (see v. and note).
having been so confident. A writer could declare confidence in his readers (e.g., v. ) even though he has genuine reason for concern (cf. v. ; ); he might then urge the readers not to fail his confidence.
finish the . . . generous gift you had promised. In antiquity, communities publicly held benefactors to their promises. People often justified by their actions by citing what could be deemed necessary.
Whoever sows . . . will also reap. Jewish teachers emphasized God’s blessings toward the generous (earlier, see ; ; ). Sowing as one reaped was a common saying, applied also to stinginess. Appealing to ancient literary and rhetorical tastes, Paul frames his use of the saying with repetition.
decided in your heart to give. Voluntary giving may recall ; , . not reluctantly. Recalls the Greek translation of . God loves a cheerful giver. A line added by the Greek translation to , adapted here, reads: “God blesses a man who is cheerful and a giver.”
abundantly . . . abound. In ancient business documents the Greek terms related to “abundantly” and “abound” (also in v. [“overflowing”]; [“overflowing”]; [“excel”]; [“plenty”]) could apply to profit margins. all. In Greek, Paul uses “all” terms five times, three of them one after the other; such repetition underlined a point as well as verbal skills that Greek hearers honored. all that you need. The Greek term meant having enough but also often applied to the virtue of contentment. Some sages insisted that one need have nothing to be content, but most recognized that having enough required meeting at least the fundamental needs of life.
In context, , cited here, promises blessings to the righteous.
seed to the sower and bread for food. Closely follows the Greek translation of , which speaks about God’s power and generosity. harvest of your righteousness. Evokes the promise just cited in v. . Thus God will continue to supply for them to be able to supply others (v. ; see v. ). God supplies the corporate need of his people sufficiently so they can share with the needy among them ().
thanksgiving . . . thanks . . . praise. God is the ultimate supplier (v. ), and the expected ancient response to benefactors was thanksgiving (here thanks to God).
their prayers for you. Just as God heeded the cries of the needy against their oppressors (), he also would hear the prayers of the needy for their benefactors to be blessed.
Thanks be to God. See note on vv. .
As Paul’s topic shifts from funds for the poor to responding to his enemies, his tone shifts from gentle to combative (especially toward the enemies). Nevertheless, he offered harsh statements earlier (e.g., , ; ) and offers endearing statements now (, ; , ). Writers sometimes added material after receiving new information, sometimes composed their work over a span of time, or sometimes included a second letter that would have functioned as an addendum had the first not been sealed. Nevertheless, Paul may have also envisioned this section from the start: speakers and writers often addressed less controversial issues first, building rapport before turning to harsher matters. Likewise, Paul has defended himself earlier in the letter, and after initial considerations defense arguments normally went on the offensive against opponents.
humility and gentleness. Some may have viewed Paul’s mercy as weakness (vv. ); high-status culture looked down on humility, except where it meant a leader showing compassion toward the weak—exactly what Paul had done in this case. of Christ. Christ’s humility and gentleness likely evokes Jesus’ claim later recorded in . I, Paul, who am “timid.” One sometimes opened a section with the opponent’s charge—here that “timid” Paul inconsistently wrote “forceful” letters (v. ). Letters were supposed to communicate the same persona as one’s presence would, but Paul’s letter had been harsh (; ). Yet Paul sent this letter rather than coming in person because he wanted to spare them his discipline ().
do not wage war as the world does. Paul does not show harshness needlessly (vv. ). Speakers often claimed that they were battling false ideas.
divine power to demolish strongholds. In ancient warfare, invaders besieged and sought to demolish strongholds where enemies sought to resist conquest; after succeeding, they took captive and enslaved those who were not killed. Rome had earlier destroyed Corinth in 146 BC; it was rebuilt as a Roman colony in 44 BC.
punish every act of disobedience. When peoples rebelled, ruling powers (most relevant for Paul’s audience, Roman armies) wreaked vengeance against them. Paul speaks here figuratively (vv. ).
judging by appearances. Philosophers warned against the common error of judging by mere appearance (cf. also ; ).
building you up rather than tearing you down. Although God called some prophets both to build up and to tear down (e.g., ), Paul is called only to build up the Corinthians (; ).
trying to frighten you with my letters. As noted above (see note on v. ), letters were supposed to communicate the same persona as one’s presence would, but Paul’s letter had been harsh (; ).
his speaking amounts to nothing. Although both speaking and writing could reveal one’s intellect, some were dissatisfied with Paul’s speaking skills in person (). Greeks required respectable speakers to be not only strong in content, but also forceful in tone, having also the appropriate accent, gestures, and even style of clothing and personal grooming.
what we are in our letters . . . we will be in our actions. People in antiquity often emphasized that “actions” mattered more than “words” (a meaning of one of the Greek terms behind “letters” in this verse).
compare ourselves with some who commend themselves. Paul employs satire, refusing to rank himself in the same category as his opponents, whom he further demeans with anonymity. Ancient reasoning often compared persons, but comparing oneself with someone who outclassed one was presumptuous; comparing oneself with oneself, however, was simply stupid. People despised self-commendation unless it was properly justified as necessary or for others’ good (as in ). Paul’s rivals may have been comparing themselves favorably with him ()—by their own standards (cf. ).
not boast beyond proper limits. Ancients despised boasting beyond one’s appropriate class, but Paul plainly outclasses his critics (cf. ). In antiquity, failure to recognize one’s proper place was deemed presumptuous. See the article “Ancient Boasting and 2 Corinthians 11.”
See , which also quotes this line from . Jeremiah’s context undercuts typical grounds for human boasting ().
For public disdain for self-commendation, see note on v. .
a little foolishness. Before launching into something shocking, speakers sometimes offered warnings. Speakers were supposed to be able to vary their styles and sometimes adopt the persona of someone else for rhetorical purposes. Paul here assumes the role of a fool, but only to show that this folly in reality characterizes his rivals, who advance themselves by boasting.
godly jealousy. God was jealous for his people’s faithfulness (; ; ; ) and for his honor (), and it was honorable to share his zeal (cf. , ). I might present you as a pure virgin. Fathers were responsible to protect their daughters’ virginity () and arrange their marriages (cf Biblical depictions of God marrying Israel or Israel beingcorrupted, e.g., ; ; ; ; ; ; ). For Paul as the Corinthian believers’ father, cf. (see note on ).
Eve was deceived by the serpent’s cunning. Fathers were responsible to protect their daughters’ chastity (cf. v. and note). Jewish traditions often identified the serpent of with Satan (e.g., Wisdom of Solomon 2:24; 3 Baruch 9:7). In one line of Jewish tradition of uncertain date, Satan, disguised as a good angel (cf. v. and note), deceived Eve sexually (cf. 2 Enoch 31:6; J Targum Pseudo Jonathan on ; the serpent in the Mishnah, see Shabbat 146a; Yebamot 103b). Given the image of the betrothed virgin (v. ; perhaps betrothed to Christ, the new Adam), Paul could have this tradition partly in view here. More certain is the Biblical allusion to , where the serpent deceived Eve. Paul depicts his rivals as adulterers who corrupt betrothed virgins—a crime punishable by banishment under Roman law and death under OT law ().
receive a different spirit. Many Jewish people understood that false prophets could be moved by a spirit other than God’s. you put up with it easily enough. Ancient writers often used satire (cf. also vv. ).
those “super-apostles.” Paul’s rivals were better speakers, clearly an advantage in Corinth (see notes on ; ; ); against some, the “super-apostles” here cannot mean the Jerusalem apostles, who would lack such training.
untrained as a speaker, but I do have knowledge. Paul’s letters reveal strong logic and mastery of ancient argumentation, but Greeks expected not only strong content, but also delivery, expressed in forceful tone, the appropriate accent, gestures and so forth. Even the most eloquent orators often demeaned their abilities before displaying them in their orations (see notes on , ), but Paul could not compete with his rivals on delivery. The philosophic tradition, however, emphasized that content (here, “knowledge”) mattered more than style.
free of charge. In Greco-Roman culture, a rejection of someone’s gift was also a rejection of friendship and a declaration of animosity; Paul’s rivals thus may have emphasized his refusal to depend on his Corinthian patrons’ support. Nevertheless, Paul uses sarcasm: Greco-Roman culture also honored benefactors who provided services freely.
Paul’s rivals may claim that they are professionals, in contrast to Paul, a mere amateur who knows that he does not deserve to be paid. Sages on the payroll of patrons, however, had less freedom to challenge the patrons’ values, a role Paul rejects. Against normal expectations, especially of the elite, Paul preferred manual labor (; ) to the usual dependence of teachers on patrons, tuition, or even begging (see notes on , ). Paul might also use this practice to distinguish himself clearly from sophists (cf. v. ), who were accused of speaking and teaching only for money.
I was not a burden to anyone. Patrons sometimes thought of their clients as a burden, and people sometimes expressed their unwillingness to be a burden on another’s resources. Philippian believers periodically sent support to Paul (; ), probably also sending Paul support in Corinth through his colleagues in .
nobody . . . will stop this boasting of mine. Although ancient etiquette prohibited public boasting generally, it was acceptable if one boasted in others or for their sake.
Because I do not love you? God knows I do! Those who wrote letters to friends sometimes emphasized the writers’ love.
to cut the ground from under. Boasting was considered appropriate to silence others’ inappropriate boasts.
masquerades as an angel of light. Jewish tradition highlighted Satan’s role as a deceiver and often depicted him coming in disguises; most interpreted the deceptive serpent in as Satan, and the lustful “sons of God” in as fallen angels. In one tradition, Satan even came disguised as a good angel to deceive Eve (see note on v. ).
Paul’s rivals have demeaned his skill (), so he rhetorically embraces the role of fool that they have assigned to him; speakers often spoke in the persona of someone else to make a point. Implicitly, however, he attacks his opponents’ boasting as foolish (returning charges against opponents was conventional rhetorical custom). He boasts in his weakness, not in his honor. Paul’s way of boasting parodies and thus mocks self-boasting, and therefore a central feature of the Greco-Roman valuing of masculine competition and self-promotion. He walks the tightrope of answering fools as their folly deserves without being truly like them ().
Ancient sources show that audiences often resented public boasting. They made exceptions, however, whenever it was done (or pretended to be done) for acceptable reasons—such as a speaker defending himself (as in ; ), replying to charges (), speaking for his hearers’ welfare (; ), critiquing others’ misplaced arrogance (, ), or because of necessity (, ).
Sages could boast in how their sufferings demonstrated their endurance (see note on ), but many in the Corinthian church probably looked instead to more familiar sources of pride in their culture. Monuments, civic buildings and other sites bore inscriptions praising wealthy donors; civic assemblies featured the voices of the powerful; public culture revolved around power. Boasting in weakness challenged the very values on which most boasts were founded—values antithetical to the good news of a crucified savior (; cf. ). ◆
Sixth-century Susiya synagogue inscription. The inscription honors the donor, Rabbi Isai, and the scribe, Rabbi Yohannan. Monuments, civic buildings, and other sites often bore inscriptions boasting of wealthy donors.
Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com
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self-confident boasting. For Paul’s warning of boasting, see note on v. . as the Lord would. See note on .
Affectionate letters could express the writer’s hurt feelings. Ancient writers and speakers commonly used sarcasm to argue a point. Although it was unusual in ordinary polite or friendly letters, it was common in teachers’ moral reasoning.
slaps you in the face. See note on .
Ancient speakers sometimes compared two figures, one point after another, as here. Are they . . . Are they? Orators liked to use repetition for emotional emphasis; here, to ask and answer four rhetorical questions in rapid succession helped drive home a point, even if the sense of the questions overlapped. Speakers could boast in their ancestry or home city.
Hebrews . . . Israelites . . . Abraham’s descendants. Not only Diaspora Jews but also Gentile Christians still recognized that the gospel originated in the Biblical Holy Land, and consequently respected voices from there (“Hebrews” might suggest that they were from there; cf. ). Like Paul, however, these rivals were educated and persuasive in a wider Greco-Roman context (cf. ).
out of my mind to talk like this. A writer parodying an argument to reduce it to absurdity would naturally be pleased for others to view it as appropriate only to someone out of their mind. I have worked much harder. Paul boasts in his weaknesses, beginning with the very low-status labor some of his audience found offensive (see note on v. ). been in prison. People were often embarrassed to be associated with someone imprisoned.
forty lashes minus one. The Jewish community expelled the most extreme offenders, but others could be beaten with up to 39 lashes from a leather whip (Jewish tradition following ). Someone could evade punishment by renouncing ties with their Jewish community, but Paul, like most other Jews, would not be willing to do so.
beaten with rods. Although the law prohibited beating Roman citizens with rods, provincial officials sometimes did it anyway (see note on ). pelted with stones. On Paul’s stoning see . three times I was shipwrecked. As all Corinthians knew, given their adjacent ports, shipwrecks were common. Farther away from port survivors were usually a minority; safety mechanisms such as life jackets were nonexistent. For the terror of death at sea, see note on .
Few roads were wider than 20 feet (6 meters), but Roman roads remained unmatched in Europe until about 1850. Nevertheless, travel was dangerous and travelers often sought divine protection beforehand. in danger. Paul reinforces his point with the familiar rhetorical device of opening repetition, eight times repeating “in danger.” rivers. Could be especially dangerous to cross, particularly during and soon after the rainy season. bandits. Travelers often journeyed together and stopped in towns at night because of robbers in the countryside. danger at sea. Rome had suppressed much piracy but sea travel remained dangerous (see v. ). false believers. This includes Paul’s rivals (vv. ).
labored. See note on v. . gone without sleep. Could refer to the demands of work and ministry together (), of ministry (, ), of caring for the churches (), or of travel. I have been cold. Paul’s travels, including in and near Phrygian hill country (, ; ), would expose him to cold (see also ), although travelers, including Paul, avoided winter journeys whenever possible (; ). naked. Writers used “naked” for being poorly clothed as well as fully naked (though cf. ).
boast of . . . my weakness. For the offensiveness of boasting in weakness in a status-conscious culture, see the article “Ancient Boasting and 2 Corinthians 11.”
Aretas. Aretas IV ruled Nabatea from 8 or 9 BC until about AD 40. (For his conflict with and defeat of Herod Antipas, see note on .) Because most of the caravan trade from the east passed through Nabatea, it was the strongest and wealthiest of the minor kingdoms of the Middle East. Some think that Aretas also ruled Damascus for several years, but “governor” here is the term ethnarch. An ethnarch might be simply the leader of the Nabatean trading community in and around Damascus. The Syrian city of Damascus (see notes on , , ) had a Nabatean quarter, and the Nabatean community in Damascus had its own rights.
window in the wall. Houses were often built along city walls, with windows too high for intruders to penetrate (see also ). Many areas outside city walls would also be inhabited, but because baskets could contain goods, a lowered basket need not appear suspicious. Scripture provided Paul’s escape method (; cf. ). Whereas Rome honored the first soldier to scale an enemy wall, Paul boasts in a humiliating night escape from hostile authorities.
I must go on boasting. One of the justifications for which boasting was considered acceptable was that one had been compelled to do so (“must”; cf. v. ). visions and revelations from the Lord. Although Paul rarely spoke about it (cf. ), he had many experiences analogous to Biblical prophets (cf. ; ); of the two he will specify in the coming verses (vv. , ), the second directly challenges Corinthian boasting (v. ).
Writers could speak of themselves as “a man” () in the third person, and context probably suggests that Paul, reluctant to boast, is recounting his own experience (, ). (Even apocalyptic writers adopted the persona of some ancient figure rather than describing their own experiences directly.)
Some Greek thinkers expected the pure and unencumbered soul at death to rise to heaven, and so sought to practice contemplation on the pure heavens beforehand. Some Jewish thinkers tried to mystically cultivate visions of God’s heavenly throne, e.g., by depriving themselves of food and sleep, by meditation, and so on. (Some scholars believe that some Jewish mystical experiences stand behind some ancient apocalyptic literature.) Paul here is apparently “caught up” (vv. , ) without cultivating it. Some Jewish sources depict the soul being caught up; others assert that the whole person is.
Jewish texts contrasted “paradise” (v. ), considered the restoration of Eden, with Gehinnom, i.e., hell. Although Jewish thought expected paradise to exist someday on the renewed earth, many also believed that it currently remained in heaven—but which one? Jewish sources diverge as to how many heavens there are (ancient estimates range from 3 to 365!). The most common views were three and seven heavens; the realm of air and the birds was a lower heaven. Paul apparently identified paradise as in the “third heaven” (v. ), probably meaning the highest heaven, where God is.
Ironically, this vision climaxes with an experience antithetical to boasting: it is too sacred to tell (v. ). Greek mystery cults had climactic revelations that the initiate was not permitted to tell; Greek-speaking Jewish writers applied the same principle to God’s sacred name or greatest wisdom. ◆
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Because pure boasting was offensive, respectable figures found other ways to do it (see the article “Ancient Boasting and 2 Corinthians 11”). One way was to say, “I will not elaborate, but you yourselves know,” forcing the hearers themselves to remember the speaker’s exploits.
thorn in my flesh. Scholars propose a variety of explanations for the “thorn,” both physical and psychological. Whatever the thorn is, one cannot infer from the language of “thorn in my flesh” that Paul specifically designates his body, since the wording alludes to how some enemies remained to test Israel (). As Israel’s thorn humbled them and kept them dependent on the Lord, so also Paul’s thorn kept him depending on the Lord. Among more specific proposed explanations of the thorn that fit the context, the preceding context could suggest that an evil spirit stirs persecution against him () or could even evoke the human messengers of Satan in . Following Scripture, early Judaism and Christianity recognized that God remained sovereign; Satan needed permission to strike God’s servants (cf. ).
Ancient readers appreciated lists; for Paul boasting in suffering rather than the usual topics of human honor, see the article “Ancient Boasting and 2 Corinthians 11.”
you drove me to it. Compulsion was considered an appropriate ground for boasting (see note on v. ).
signs, wonders and miracles. God performed signs and wonders in the plagues against Egypt (; ) and in subsequent acts (; ). Signs and wonders among Jesus and his followers were most commonly healings and exorcisms (e.g., ; ). Paul can avoid boasting here by simply reminding his audience of what they themselves witnessed.
Forgive me this wrong! Irony was common in ancient writing.
burden. See note on . More well-to-do members of the church may have been embarrassed by Paul’s manual labor and dependence on others rather than Paul’s depending on them; had Paul allowed them to support him, however, he would have risked assuming the cultural role of a client subordinate to patrons (see note on ). children . . . parents. By speaking of himself as a parent saving for his children, Paul reverses the question of dependence in terms of what matters most. Patrons viewed both their clients and their children as dependent members of their households.
will you love me less? Affectionate letters sometimes pleaded for the receiver to reciprocate the sender’s love.
For satire, see note on .
Those making a case for themselves sometimes demanded that their hearers show them what they had done wrong to merit such treatment or suspicion (e.g., ). A series of rhetorical questions (vv. ) would drive home a point, especially in judicial-type arguments. A writer sometimes reserved a primary point of contention for later in the argument. It is thus possible that Paul’s rivals not only heightened criticisms concerning his refusal to accept support, but questioned the integrity of his offering for Jerusalem’s poor (see chs. ).
dear friends. Letters between friends often expressed affection. for your strengthening. Although educated ancients often composed defense speeches, Paul explains that his ironic defense was motivated only by love for the Corinthian believers.
Lists of vices were common in antiquity. Even Greek and Roman moral writers challenged the vices Paul lists here.
sexual sin and debauchery. Sexual sins, more consistently highlighted as evil in Biblical and early Jewish sources than among Greeks, had been a longstanding problem among believers in Corinth (see , ; , ), reflecting values more widely dominant in Corinth (see
third visit to you. Those who complained that Paul was too meek because he sent them a corrective letter instead of confronting them personally (; , ) would now get what they demanded. testimony . . . witnesses. Paul cites legal procedure regarding witnesses (; cf. ): he will prosecute before God offenders who have not repented.
he was crucified in weakness. The cross of Christ was a challenge to Corinthian values (see note on ). by God’s power. Paul will act in the power that they have demanded (for Paul’s action, see note on v. ).
test yourselves. Corinthian culture evaluated speakers (cf. v. ); Paul turns the question of evaluation back to them.
Many other ancient thinkers also disdained mere human opinions about them, yet for the sake of their message sought to prevent misunderstanding.
I write . . . when I am absent. Letters were often considered a substitute (albeit an inferior one) for one’s presence. for building you up, not for tearing you down. Although God called some prophets both to build up and to tear down (e.g., ), Paul is called only to build up the Corinthians (; ).
Concluding exhortations were common, and often summarized some key themes. Gentiles in Paul’s audience could not object to the themes Paul articulates here; they were familiar from orators’ public speeches urging harmony and the common good.
holy kiss. See note on .
All God’s people here send their greetings. Means of communication were limited, so when someone was writing a letter and a traveler was available to carry it, others often conveyed their greetings.
Jesus Christ . . . God . . . the Holy Spirit. Most Jewish writers treated the Holy Spirit as an aspect of or force from God; Paul links the Spirit here as a divine person alongside Jesus and the Father (cf. ; ).