Chapter 260 of 379

Annotations for Romans

Paul, a servant of Christ Jesus. Ancient letters began by naming the sender, then named the intended recipients and offered a greeting (here in v. ). Sometimes the author could expand on a point (here, about his identity) where it was helpful; although many people in Rome knew Paul (e.g., ), he had not yet visited the believers there. Paul. Most people with the name Paul were Roman citizens. servant. Scripture had long called prophets God’s “servants” (e.g., ); in the Roman world, leading servants of high-status persons could wield more authority than many free persons.

gospel he promised beforehand. Gospel is “good news,” an expression used widely in antiquity. Most relevant is its use in the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT: the prophets promised good news of restoration (e.g., ; ), which included the reign of David’s descendant (; ); see v. .

regarding his Son. Gentiles often spoke of sons of the gods (including the emperor), but Scripture applied the title to David’s line (; ; ), and some Jewish people recognized that Son of God applied par excellence to the Davidic Messiah.

by his resurrection. Regular Jewish prayers celebrated God’s power expressed in raising the dead.

for his name’s sake. Often applied to God’s name (; ), here applied to Jesus (v. ).

Against some lower estimates, Rome’s population was probably close to a million people, by far the largest city of Mediterranean antiquity. This massive population was sustained by a regular grain dole and heavy imports that included more than 200,000 tons (180,000 metric tons) of grain each year. Nevertheless, most of the residents were poor, living in tenement apartments that grew cheaper but also smaller and less sturdy as the floors went higher.

An estimated 40,000–50,000 of Rome’s residents were Jewish. Some of these Jewish people were Roman citizens, most of them descended from slaves freed more than a century earlier. Greek was the primary language of Rome’s Jewish community, however, and also the language of Paul’s letter to the believers in Rome. The majority of Jews were poor, and many worked on the docks by the Tiber River. Sources from the period show that Romans ridiculed some Jewish customs, especially circumcision, the Sabbath and Jewish food laws. Many other Romans were attracted to Judaism, but the conversion of Roman women often provoked aristocratic men to criticize Judaism more harshly.

Because Rome mistrusted meetings that it could not control, the Jewish community in the capitol was not united. In contrast to Alexandria, where one leader spoke for the Jewish community, Rome had many synagogues with separate leaders. Such an environment apparently proved conducive for the spread of Jesus’ message in a number of the synagogues.

In the wake of one scandal reportedly involving a single Jewish swindler, the emperor Tiberius (42 BC–AD 37) expelled the Jewish community from Rome. Later, probably in AD 49, the emperor Claudius did the same, although it is not likely in either case that all Jews actually left. Because Claudius’s expulsion is believed to have been in response to Jewish divisions about the Messiah, it seems likely that Jewish followers of Jesus (cf. ) were involved. This may explain why Aquila and Priscilla were among those compelled to leave (). Many scholars believe that Gentile Christians went their separate way from the synagogues after this, accounting for the limited information about them held by members of the Jewish elite in .

Nevertheless, the Christian community in Rome grew exponentially. In AD 54, Claudius’s death in effect repealed his earlier expulsion order, so even ringleaders in the previous disputes could return. Paul thus knows personally many of the leaders mentioned in . As the heart of the empire, Rome always drew visitors and immigrants, and the visits of Paul and (according to very probable early tradition) Peter undoubtedly encouraged the church’s growth there. In AD 64, a fire destroyed much of Rome with its narrow alleys and many flimsy wooden structures. Rumor blamed the emperor, but Nero found a convenient scapegoat in the Christians. Though he burned large numbers of them alive as torches to light his imperial gardens at night and killed some Christians in other ways, the movement remained strong in Rome after Nero’s demise. This suggests that by this point, just three and a half decades after Jesus’ resurrection in Judea, Jesus had thousands of followers in Rome. ◆

Artist’s recreation of the first-century forum at Rome.

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called to be his holy people. “Holy people” had been applied to God’s people in earlier Scripture (e.g., , , ). Grace. The conventional greeting was chairein, “greetings,” which early Christians often changed to charis, “grace.” peace. The Jewish greeting (sometimes added to chairein) was “peace.” Letters frequently included prayers or blessings for their recipients; Jewish people used “peace” as a blessing, meaning that they implicitly asked God to give the recipient well-being. from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ. Because Paul invokes the Father as well as Jesus in this blessing, he takes for granted here Jesus’ deity.

I thank my God . . . for all of you. Ancient letters sometimes offered thanks for the recipient. your faith is being reported. News from Rome, the empire’s highest-status city, spread quickly throughout its empire.

I remember you in my prayers. Letters often included a prayer (or here, mention of it) for recipients.

God . . . is my witness. See note on .

I long to see you. Letters often included affectionate expressions (presumably usually sincere) of the writer’s desire to see the recipient.

Greeks and non-Greeks. Greeks divided the world into Greeks (themselves) and barbarians (non-Greeks).

Ancient works sometimes included a thesis statement, which is how a majority of scholars view these two verses.

first to the Jew, then to the Gentile. Jews divided the world into Jews (themselves) and Gentiles (here lit. “Greeks,” but used as a metonymy for Gentiles; Greeks were often particularly hostile to Jews).

the righteousness of God. Both Scripture and the Dead Sea Scrolls use this phrase in various ways; one of the ways they use this phrase is to describe God’s mercy and his righteous faithfulness to his covenant with his people. as it is written. Jewish idiom often introduced Scripture quotations this way (see, e.g., ; , ; cf., e.g., ; ). The righteous will live by faith. Paul quotes ; the Hebrew reads “The righteous one will live by his faith,” whereas the Greek translation better known to Paul’s audience reads “by my faith.” Paul, perhaps preferring not to take time to explain the Hebrew text’s divergence from the more familiar form, omits the pronoun. The Dead Sea Scrolls apply in a similar way. Commentators debate whether “faith” here refers to God’s/Christ’s faithfulness, the faith/faithfulness of the believer, or to both (cf. also and ). The majority of interpreters see here the faith/faithfulness of the believer (note “believes” also in ), although in any case faith in God ultimately entails dependence on his faithfulness (cf. ).

In these verses Paul, following an argument similar to the popular Wisdom of Solomon, sets up any Jewish critics to recognize their own need for forgiveness. Jewish people viewed idolatry (vv. ) and sexual sin (vv. ), especially in its homosexual form (vv. ), as reprehensible and almost uniquely characteristic of Gentiles. The vice list in vv. is more general, however, and in ch. (most clearly ) Paul denounces especially Jewish sin.

Both Jewish people and many Gentile philosophers affirmed that God revealed himself in creation. Stoics and many other thinkers saw traces of divine design in all of nature and especially in the human mind.

neither glorified . . . nor gave thanks. In a culture obsessed with honor, failure to honor or give thanks to benefactors was deemed reprehensible.

made to look like a mortal human being and birds and animals and reptiles. Greeks and Romans depicted their major deities in human form and ridiculed Egyptians for portraying many deities as animals or part-animals. For Jewish people, idolatry (worship of false images of deity) was one of the worst sins and one specifically characteristic (in this period) of Gentiles. Preparing for his later argument, however, Paul tellingly deploys here language that Scripture had applied to the idolatry of God’s own people (; especially ; ).

Especially among Greeks, adult male homosexual activity was most often, but never exclusively, devoted to boys just entering puberty, and to adolescents (who were deemed young adults). Fathers sometimes protested the courting of their sons, but at other times people viewed such sexual interests as amusing. Although men preferred sexual relationships with younger males, homosexual relationships were not limited to such partners. However, Greek males did not usually exhibit exclusive homosexual attraction; bisexual activity was more common.

Various factors accounted for the prevalence of this behavior among Greeks. One reason was likely the shortage of available wives; census documents of Greeks in Egypt show that they discarded girl babies more often than boy babies, creating a shortage of available wives. Because of this disparity Greek men usually married around age 30, after mortality had thinned out the pool of other men; they often married women about twelve years younger than they were. Until such late marriages, men often had intercourse with slaves, prostitutes and other males. Less frequent but also known were lesbian relationships, celebrated by the Greek poet Sappho.

Greek practice influenced Romans, and urban elite Romans by this period often engaged in homosexual intercourse. Male prostitutes were available in some parts of Rome. Although Nero reportedly married a male lover, he remained married to a woman, and ancient historians treat his reported same-sex marriage as an aberration. Perhaps because marriage was expected to produce heirs, few people in antiquity considered the possibility of same-sex marriage, except occasionally in ridicule.

Some Greek and especially Roman thinkers rejected homosexual intercourse as “against nature,” because, unlike heterosexual intercourse in general, it did not fit the design of sexual organs and could not lead to procreation. Greek-speaking Jews adopted the “against nature” charge against homosexual intercourse, blending it with a Biblical argument from God’s design in creation. Scripture already prohibited such behavior (; ), sometimes in lists of major sexual offenses such as incest, adultery, bestiality and child sacrifice (; ). Ancient Jewish sources disparage Jewish adulterers, prostitutes and many other offenders, but seem to regard homosexual intercourse as an exclusively Gentile sin.

Only after establishing common ground with Jewish critics by condemning the stereotypically Gentile sins of venerating deity-images and same-sex intercourse () does Paul turn to a list of sins that pervaded all of humanity (). Paul ultimately emphasizes that all of humanity has sinned and needs forgiveness in Christ (see ). ◆

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gave them over. God executed his wrath (v. ) by turning people over to their own sin (vv. , , ), as he had done with Israel (). degrading. See note on .

natural sexual relations for unnatural ones. Paul’s “unnatural” echoes the critique of homosexual behavior by philosophers and especially Diaspora Jews; he probably connects it to God’s design in creation (v. ). In vv. , Paul employs the same Greek terms for “male” and “female” that are used in the Greek version of —which states that God created “male and female” in his image—and thus probably alludes to the Biblical narrative of creation. After distorting God’s image through idolatry (), humanity distorted God’s male and female image in themselves through sexual misconduct.

men . . . were inflamed with lust for one another. Jewish people believed that most Gentile men were sexually immoral (cf. , ; ), and Jewish people considered homosexual intercourse an exclusively Gentile vice. Ancient writers frequently described the overpowering experience of lust or passion as being inflamed (cf. ).

A common literary form in the ancient world consisted of lists of vices, as in vv. . Ancient rhetoric valued repetition and variation. Paul thus condemns the world “filled with” four summary categories of sin and “full of” five specific sins; then he lists eight examples of sinners and concludes with four virtues they lack (each virtue in Greek prefaced with the Greek prefix a-, indicating lack). Paul gives examples, not a comprehensive list (compare some different examples in ); most of his four virtues, e.g., differ from the primary four virtues emphasized by Greek intellectuals. In contrast to the specifically Gentile vices noted in vv. , many of the vices here were also known to be practiced by Jewish people (see ch. ).

In this section and at some other points in Romans, Paul adopts a style that resembles diatribe, a vivid teaching style characterized by rhetorical questions and challenges to an imaginary critic’s objections.

God’s judgment . . . is based on truth. Moralists widely affirmed that people should live by what they taught, and Jewish people affirmed that God would judge sins.

you, a mere human being. To keep audience attention, a speaker would sometimes focus on a single hearer, as here.

storing up wrath. Whereas some Jewish sources urged people to lay up good treasure in heaven, the sinner here stores up wrath. day of God’s wrath. The prophets warned of the day of God’s wrath, sometimes foreshadowed by nearer judgments (, ; , ; ).

Paul appeals to the words of Scripture (; ).

Paul uses inverted parallelism (what came to be called a chiasm), starting and ending with the same subject: in v. and v. , those who do good will be rewarded; in vv. , those who do evil will be punished.

Jewish people emphasized God’s impartiality (). They did not, however, usually apply the principle to Israel and the Gentiles; they believed that God would ultimately reward Israel’s faithfulness and punish the Gentiles for their sin.

All who sin. Although Jewish people recognized that nearly all Gentiles worshiped many gods and most Gentile men were sexually immoral, many Jewish people believed that Gentiles who avoided such obvious sins would be saved. They recognized that God had a higher standard for Israel in the law. Nevertheless, most Jewish people believed that everyone sinned sometimes; Paul argues more strictly that any known sins bring condemnation.

those who obey. Some Jewish teachers debated whether knowing or practicing the law took precedence, but all agreed that it must be practiced.

the law . . . written on their hearts. Ancient thinkers often spoke of a universal, natural law that provided people with innate knowledge or decipherable evidence of what is right. Thinkers often connected this natural law with the idea of conscience. Jewish tradition declared that God had already given all humanity some basic commandments (e.g., ), which humanity had violated. The point was to emphasize that Gentiles were responsible for their ignorance of God. Many Diaspora Jewish thinkers also spoke of a universal moral law within people. For Paul, the law written on hearts could be obeyed only when it was written as part of the new covenant ().

Diatribe style (see note on vv. ) often lambasted an imaginary opponent; opponents were often caricatured and reduced to the absurd. (Familiar with such a style, neither Jewish nor knowledgeable Gentile readers would take this as typical Jewish behavior. This is a worst-case example.) In these verses, Paul uses an extreme example of hypocrisy to illustrate the evil of hypocrisy. In some respects, his portrait could remind Rome’s residents of an actual Jewish false teacher who brought reproach on the entire Jewish community in Rome a generation earlier.

Now you. Ancient speakers drove home points by repetition; Paul attributes to the imaginary critic eleven boasts (vv. ).

what is superior. Jewish people recognized that they alone had the true God and his law. Ancient sources often framed sections with related ideas; boasting in the law frames vv. , as the meaning of Jewishness frames vv. .

guide . . . light. Jewish people could view themselves as a light for the Gentiles and a guide for helping the blind ().

Paul here epitomizes an ideal hypocrite, with horrendous offenses (theft, adultery and temple robbery—on the last, see note on ) framed more generally with failure to keep God’s law. Both diatribe (see note on vv. ) and forensic rhetoric often drove home points with rhetorical questions. Ancient speakers also drove home points by repetition and sometimes by the technique of antithesis, which contrasted points. Paul deploys both antithesis and repetition (here, x . . . y / x . . . y) with five rhetorical questions.

God’s name is blasphemed. In context, (cited here) refers to nations blaspheming God through Israel experiencing the judgment of exile; here Gentiles blaspheme God through witnessing a Diaspora Jew’s hypocrisy (cf. ). If Josephus is correct, one Jewish charlatan, who defrauded people about four decades before Paul wrote the book of Romans, brought such dishonor on his people that the emperor Tiberius expelled the Jewish community from Rome and conscripted thousands of their young men for a deadly war. Jewish people in Rome continued to recall that terrible legacy.

Circumcision has value. Jewish males were circumcised as a sign of the covenant. Male Gentile converts who wished to enter the covenant were circumcised—a painful price for adults—and accepted Jewish laws.

regarded as though they were circumcised. In principle, Jewish teachers often accepted some Gentiles who refrained from idolatry and immorality as righteous even though they had not been circumcised.

circumcision of the heart, by the Spirit. Scripture already warned against God’s people being uncircumcised in heart (; ; ), urged them to circumcise their hearts (), and, most relevant here, promised that God would someday circumcise their hearts (). For Paul, experiencing the new heart promised in the new covenant, by the Spirit (; ), counted more than the mere external sign of the older covenant. praise . . . from God. Paul might play on the Hebrew term behind the name Judah, the ancestor for whom the Jewish people (lit. “Judahites”) were named; the name in Hebrew sounds like the Hebrew term for “praise.” (Although most of his audience would not know Hebrew, some would know ; see on .)

Diatribe (see note on ) included objections from imaginary opponents, which the speaker could then refute (as Paul does here in v. ). (Paul may continue the subject in .)

every human being a liar. Reflects , a familiar psalm for some ( were sung at Passover); it paves the way for Paul’s claims of universal sinfulness in vv. . More extensively, Paul quotes , which affirms that God rather than the psalmist is righteous.

Jewish people recognized that God would judge the world justly.

as some slanderously claim. Slander and misrepresentation of teachings were common; cf. .

Jewish teachers often linked together texts based on common key words or concepts. Here Paul strings together texts, the majority from Psalms (see ); after the opening quotation all mention body parts (feet, eyes and especially texts about the mouth); some also mention death. (Paul will address both the body and death later.) Although in their original context only his citation in vv. refers to all of Israel—most of the others involved the psalmist’s enemies—linking the texts in this accepted Jewish manner allows Paul to apply all the passages to the matter at hand.

Here Paul cites the Greek version of (cf. ).

no one righteous. The quoted psalm (see previous note) twice repeats “there is no one who does good” (, ), so Paul adjusts the first to “there is no one righteous.” He may do so by drawing on ; Jewish teachers often compared and blended texts.

Linking texts about the mouth, Paul quotes from the Greek version of , then , and then .

In context, , quoted here, indicted all of Israel for its sins.

Their feet. The mention of feet in brings it into connection with the other quotations mentioning parts of the body in vv. .

Continuing his connections based on body parts, Paul cites , which mentions eyes.

every mouth . . . whole world. , cited in vv. , did address all of Israel directly, but Paul invokes the principle that all the OT addressed Israel, who should learn from it. Paul’s point is that on the day of judgment (vv. , , ), no one, Jew or Gentile, would be able to voice objections to God’s justice (cf. ; ).

no one will be declared righteous in God’s sight. Paul’s language evokes : “no one living is righteous before you” (the wording of the Greek version is very similar to Paul’s statement). In the psalmist admits that he himself could not meet God’s holy standard without mercy. we become conscious. That greater knowledge yielded greater culpability was widely understood.

the righteousness of God. In Scripture, this idea includes God’s mercy and his righteous faithfulness to his covenant with his people. the Law and the Prophets. Jewish people often summarized the whole of what we now call the OT, or the Tanakh, in this way.

all have sinned. Whatever their different sins, Gentiles () and Jews () have all sinned. Jewish people understood sin as transgressing God’s law, but acknowledged (whether or not they would have agreed with Paul’s argument in vv. ) that all have sinned.

all are justified freely. Just as sin affects both Jew and Gentile (see v. and note), so here free justification affects both. through the redemption. In the OT, “redemption” (freeing a slave) often required a price to be paid. God “redeemed” Israel, making them his people by grace and liberating them (at the cost of the Passover lamb and the firstborn of Egypt). This was before he gave them his commandments for how to live (cf. ). Here their freedom has been secured from sin (v. ).

sacrifice of atonement, through the shedding of his blood. Paul speaks literally here of the mercy seat, the place of propitiation, annually consecrated to God by sacrificial blood. Both ancient Israel and its milieu understood principles of propitiating, or appeasing, a deity’s wrath (cf. ) as well as of cleansing impurity. To emphasize this, atonement through Jesus’ shed blood depicts Jesus as a sacrifice (cf. ; ). Some Jewish people already recognized that martyrdom could turn away God’s wrath from his people (4 Maccabees 17:22); early Christians regarded Jesus’ death as a special category. left the sins committed beforehand unpunished. God had graciously “passed over” (cf. ) sins before the time of the cross.

demonstrate his righteousness. Not only Greek but also Biblical conceptions of justice rejected acquitting the guilty (). Through atonement, however, the sins have been dealt with (v. ).

boasting. People ridiculed boasting unless it was properly justified as necessary; but of course, no one could boast before God’s holy standard (v. ; ). Paul contrasts two approaches to the law here (and in ; ): using it for boasting, or using it to point to the God who gave it (see ).

only one God. The oneness of God was the most fundamental affirmation of Judaism (); Jewish people recognized that he was the only God (, ). by faith . . . through that same faith. Likely rhetorical variation for the same point.

Like other transitions in ancient sources, this verse both concludes what precedes and foreshadows what follows, in this case Paul’s argument from the law that follows in ch. (Genesis, expounded in ch. , is part of the Torah; see note on ).

Because Genesis was considered part of the law, Paul is developing his claim in (see note there). As the ancestor of the Jewish people, Abraham was considered the model of righteousness and hospitality. Viewed as a Gentile before his calling, he was also seen as the model for all Gentiles converting to Judaism. In Jewish tradition, he destroyed idols.

What does Scripture say? To fail to take a reliable person (here God) at their word was a great insult. believed God . . . credited to him as righteousness. In context, (cited here) refers to dependence on God’s promise. Jewish teachers developed the implications of texts they expounded; here Paul highlights the Greek term “credited,” which he uses 11 times in ch. (“count” in v. ), to emphasize God’s generosity. Many other Jewish readers, by contrast, understood Abraham’s faith here as one of his virtuous works that accrued merit.

justifies the ungodly. Because God as a just judge would not acquit the guilty (), Paul’s dramatic language here would seize attention (see and note for the reasoning).

Jewish interpreters often linked texts based on a common key term; they also often expounded a reading in the Torah in connection with a reading elsewhere in Scripture. Paul here explains “credited” in (quoted in v. ) in light of (quoted in vv. ), which also speaks of what God credits to the righteous (cf. ).

before. Abraham’s faith came 13 or more years before his circumcision (; , ; ). Abraham’s faith grew over the years, climaxing in his offering of Isaac (), but God had already counted him righteous with this initial faith in God’s promise.

circumcision as a sign. Many Jewish thinkers allowed that exceptional Gentiles who rejected idolatry and immorality could be saved; to become part of God’s people, however, they required male Gentiles to be circumcised. Paul agreed that circumcision was a mark of the covenant with Israel, but he shows that the relationship with God it symbolized was a reality long before the mark (v. ). The inward reality counted more than the sign to which it pointed ().

heir of the world. God promised Abraham the “land” (; , ), a term that in Hebrew could also mean “earth.” Jewish interpreters by this period often spoke of God’s people inheriting the world to come (in many views, the wicked would be destroyed).

father of many nations. God announced Abraham as father of many nations () even before commanding him and his descendants to be circumcised (). Several peoples descended from him literally (; ; ), but Paul may read the promise together with all the earth’s peoples being blessed in Abraham (; ; ), Isaac (), and Jacob (). Spiritual descent mattered more than ethnic descent (, ). gives life to the dead. Jewish people accepted God’s power to create and also (celebrated in prayers) to someday raise the dead; this claim prepares for v. .

So shall your offspring be. Paul applies the promise of seed as many as the stars () not to Abraham’s genetic descendants but to his spiritual descendants, whom Paul expected to someday outnumber ethnic Israel.

body was as good as dead. For Abraham’s age, see . Believing that God could restore their “dead” reproductive functions was like believing that God can raise the dead ().

not for him alone, but also for us. Jewish people understood that the Scriptures did not merely describe the past for antiquarian interest, but that they provided models for the present. (Greek and Roman historians and biographers also applied history similarly, even if not always to the same degree.) In , Paul applies the principle of Abraham’s faith to those who believe as he did.

peace with God. Although ancients sometimes used “peace” to mean tranquility, more often it applies, as here, to a nonhostile relationship (e.g., through reconciliation ending enmity, as in vv. ). Such peace could be established in various ways, such as through treaties or by a conqueror imposing it (as in the Roman Empire), but the condition of peace was viewed positively.

boast in the hope of the glory of God. Ancient writers often repeated ideas for emphasis, here the Greek term translated as “boast” in vv. , and as “glory” in v. . Philosophers urged courage in the face of sufferings; the OT often illustrates godly persons’ weaknesses as well as endurance.

Ancient writers sometimes developed progressive chains of one item leading to another like the chain here. (Such a chain is called sorites, concatenation or climax.) For the value of suffering, see note on .

the Holy Spirit, who has been given to us. Many Jewish people believed that the Spirit would be available only in the future time, or that only the most holy people could merit the Spirit in the present. Here the Spirit is a gift, revealing God’s love in the cross (vv. ).

someone might possibly dare to die. Greeks valued heroic sacrifice of one’s life for a friend, but, apart from war settings, such sacrifice was rare.

justified by his blood. Death by crucifixion did not always entail blood; blood evokes Biblical sacrifices regarding sin (cf. ). Earlier Israelites, contemporary Jews, Greeks and other peoples understood the concept of atoning sacrifices propitiating a god’s anger (cf. ).

reconciled to him through the death of his Son. Greeks spoke about reconciliation between persons in conflict, but did not think of deities initiating reconciliation with mortals who had offended them. The idea that God would do so at the cost of his own Son would be shocking.

The OT rarely mentions Adam after Genesis (; probably ). Jewish tradition, however, quickly compensated for this seeming deficiency. Many believed that Adam lost his great glory when he sinned but that God’s servants would receive this glory again in the future time of restoration. Some later rabbis elaborated on Adam’s vast size and other greatness in order to highlight the terrible effects of his fall.

Jewish tradition did not normally speak as if people genetically inherited Adam’s sin or automatically inherited his guilt. Rather, the thought was normally that Adam introduced sin and death to humanity, and his descendants then sinned as he did. Jewish tradition usually agreed, however, that everyone had sinned.

Some Diaspora Jews may have thought in ways similar to the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria. Philo believed that the first man God created in his image in was a heavenly man, and contrasted this with the fallen, earthly man of . Paul reverses this sequence in . For Philo, the human of symbolized the pure mind engaging heavenly matters, whereas Adam symbolized a fleshly person whose interests were temporal.

In Scripture, God created humanity in his image (). If this image was lost or marred in Adam (in some sense it seems to remain in ), it seems to be restored in Jesus Christ (; ; cf. also ; ).

Adam forms a key role in Paul’s argument in . Because Jewish people could appeal to their descent from Abraham as a supposed basis for merit or (cf. ) election, Paul reminds his audience that everyone, Jew or Gentile, is descended from the sinner Adam. ◆

Fourth-century fresco of Adam and Eve, Rome.

Cimitero dei SS. Marcellino e Pietro, Rome, Italy/De Agostini Picture Library/Bridgeman Images

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sin entered the world through one man. Some Jewish traditions emphasized the Biblical idea that Adam’s disobedience introduced sin and therefore death to the human race (see the article “Adam in Jewish Tradition”).

Speakers in antiquity regularly compared characters, sometimes equals and sometimes very different. They also frequently used antithesis, contrasting claims or (as here) figures. This antithetical repetition here builds to a rousing climax that any ancient orator would have appreciated.

trespass. Paul repeats the Greek term translated “trespass” multiple times in vv. ; speakers used repetition to drive home their points. how much more. Jewish and other thinkers often reasoned with “how much more” (also v. ) arguments: if the lesser was true, how much more the greater?

through that one man . . . through the one man. Ancient Israelite thought could envision one person standing for or affecting many. Jewish people thought of corporate identity (e.g., some blessings as Abraham’s descendants, provided one walked in his ways); but whereas one is born an heir of Adam, only those who turn to Christ become co-heirs with Christ (). Adam’s authority () will be restored in Christ, most fully in the future age (v. ).

baptism. The act of conversion to Judaism normally included baptism, seen as washing away the impurities of one’s former Gentile life. Gentile converts to Judaism became part of the Jewish people, although their treatment varied in ancient Jewish sources.

old self was crucified. Here those “baptized into Christ” (v. ) lose their corporate solidarity with the “old self,” which could also be translated “old humanity” (in Adam), to find a new identity with Christ instead (see ).

set free. Ancient intellectuals combated slavery to wrong ideas, to passions, and sometimes to concerns or dependence on others. Slaveholders often freed slaves, though they retained responsibilities to each other (see notes on , ); death, however, ended all obligations (as in ).

with Christ. On corporate identity in Christ, see notes on vv. , ; .

died to sin once for all. Jewish people expected the eradication of sin in the time of the end (e.g., ; Jubilees 50:5; Dead Sea Scrolls, Community Rule 3.18–19, 23; 4.18–26; 5.5).

count yourselves . . . alive to God. Ancient philosophers often sought to persuade people to discard wrong beliefs and feelings and recognize the truth about reality. Often this reality included “truths” about the purity of the inner person. Paul believed that people in Adam were sinful (), but that the reality for those in Christ was a new identity (). Eleven times in ch. Paul used the term “credited,” emphasizing that God counts us as righteous in Christ; using the same Greek term here, Paul urges us to “count” ourselves the way God views us. We can live in a new way to the extent that we embrace by faith our new identity as those united with Christ.

Regarding slavery, see note on v. ; Jesus also employs the image (; ). Speakers who wanted to reinforce a point would dwell on it, repeating and developing it in various ways. Rhetorical questions (as in vv. , ) also reinforced points.

wages of sin . . . gift of God. In antiquity; even slaves could receive “wages”; any sort of wages, however, contrast with a free “gift.”

by law. In some Jewish traditions, God’s people were married to the law (though in those traditions, the law was the bride). married woman is bound to her husband. Possibly Paul also draws on the image of husband and wife becoming one flesh (), thus here implies marriage to Christ. Perhaps he also substitutes fruit for offspring (vv. ; cf. ), though his use of “fruit” is not unusual.

sinful passions aroused by the law. Philosophers and Diaspora Jewish thinkers often argued that knowledge of truth (for Jewish thinkers, especially knowledge of the law) would subdue the passions. Paul does not share this optimistic view of human ability (see vv. ).

new way of the Spirit. The prophets associated the Spirit especially with the future time of restoration; the Spirit would enable people to fulfill God’s commands from the heart (). This law in the heart () would characterize the new covenant, distinguished from the form of the old ().

Both in vv. and (even more) in vv. , scholars debate whether Paul speaks of himself or uses the literary figure prosopopoiia. In this figure, one could speak as someone else; suggestions for whom Paul speaks as include Adam, Israel (who was under the law), and more generally simply anyone under the law. (Paul sometimes uses “I” hypothetically for “someone”—e.g., ; ; “we” in ). Paul could draw on his own experience as one who had lived under the law. Although the matter is debated, because of tensions with the surrounding context (compare, e.g., v. with , , ; ) a majority of scholars believe that the passage cannot refer to Paul’s normal present experience. What Paul clearly shows is that the law is good, when used according to its purpose. Yet while it teaches righteousness, knowledge of it does not by itself provide power to change one’s thinking.

coveting. Whereas the rest of the Ten Commandments involved outward actions, the prohibition in the tenth commandment—“You shall not covet” (; )—involved the heart. It was the law that made clear that even actions of the heart counted as sin—and by drawing attention to these failures magnified the depth of their reach. For bad desire’s objects, see .

when the commandment came . . . I died. A Jewish boy was believed to become fully responsible morally at his coming-of-age (about age 13), but Paul probably refers to awareness of sin at an even younger age. Jewish children heard Scripture all their lives, and some began to learn to recite the Torah as early as age five.

intended to bring life. Scripture promised long life to those who obeyed the commandments (e.g., ; ; cf. ).

seizing the opportunity afforded by the commandment. Jewish teachers argued that knowing God’s law provided power to overcome sin. Some scholars find here an allusion to Eve in (cf. ; ), though the form of the verb in the Greek rendering of (translated “deceived”) is different and is not distinctive (it occurs some 36 times in the Greek translation of the OT).

Paul here shifts to the present tense, which ancient writers sometimes used to make their descriptions more vivid. spiritual. May mean Spirit-inspired, as Jewish people agreed Scripture was. unspiritual. Lit. “fleshly” (see the article “Flesh and Spirit”). sold as a slave. The opposite of being redeemed from slavery (cf. ).

Many philosophers, especially Stoics, believed that reason could help one overcome the passions; many believed these were rooted in the body. (Stoics thought that reason could help them eradicate even all negative emotion, which they viewed as unsound belief.) Even most Stoics admitted that they had not personally attained this goal, however. Diaspora Jewish thinkers often claimed that the law, providing moral truth, enabled them to control the passions. Rabbis believed that study of the law cultivated a good impulse that enabled them to overcome the evil impulse. By contrast, Paul’s depiction of moral inadequacy here sounds more like ancient portrayals of Medea or others whose passions tragically conquered their reason. For Paul, merely knowing what was right, God’s standard in the law, only solidified one’s defeat, so that the mind (v. ) was “governed by the flesh” (). Gentiles sinned because their minds became blind to the truth (); Jewish people’s minds had the truth in the law yet they sinned anyway ().

Philosophers and Diaspora Jewish intellectuals often advocated cultivating the mind, the inner person (“inner being,” v. ), as over against the passions of the body. Sometimes they used war imagery to depict this conflict (“waging war,” v. ). Paul depicts a mind here that has been taken prisoner of war by the members of his body (the NIV translates “my members” in v. simply as “me”).

What a wretched man I am! People often used exclamations such as this one; they appeared often in tragedies. rescue me from this body. Many Greek thinkers believed that when their perishable bodies died, their immortal souls would ascend freely to the realm of the divine. For Paul, however, who affirmed the resurrection of the body, salvation came not by rejecting the body but by sharing in Christ’s finished death (; ).

So then. Summary statements often concluded sections—here, the inability of mere reason to conquer bodily-based passions.

The OT describes people and other breathing animals as “flesh,” by which it meant bodily, finite, mortal creatures. On two occasions it contrasts “flesh” and “Spirit” (; ). The more relevant of these is , where God’s Spirit will not contend with flesh (NIV “humans”) forever.

The Dead Sea Scrolls, written close to the era of the NT, show that some Jewish people further developed the implications of “flesh” as the finite and mortal state of people in contrast to God. Sometimes in these documents “flesh” connotes not only mortality but moral weakness—susceptibility to sin. The thought was not that the body was an evil part of a person; rather, it was that humans as limited, physical beings were weak.

By contrast, Greek thinkers (especially in the Platonic tradition) often viewed the soul as pure, immortal, and heavenly, but tied down to a body whose interests were mortal. The body would die; philosophy needed to free the soul from dependence on it, often by subduing passions. For followers of Aristotle, this meant controlling passions and keeping them moderate; for Stoics, it meant destroying emotion, or at least negative emotion, altogether (though some excepted initial emotional reflexes as merely “pre-emotion,” before cognition could react). Diaspora Jews often embraced some of the intellectual ideas in their milieu, and believed that the mind, informed by the law, could subdue negative bodily passions.

Paul recognizes the mortality and weakness of the flesh; he also sees the connection between passions and bodily existence. But far from believing that the informed mind can necessarily subdue all passions, he recognizes that the mind too can be governed by the flesh (, ; ). For Paul the power to live a life that pleases God comes not from humans’ finite ability in isolation from God, but by the power of the Spirit. God had promised to provide the Spirit so that his people could fulfill the moral purpose of his law (; cf. ).

When Paul contrasts Spirit and flesh in , he is not contrasting two parts or aspects of the human personality; rather, he is contrasting dependence on God’s Spirit (and on Christ’s justification that provides the Spirit) with humanity left to its own devices. Nor does Paul assume that only those continuously submitted to the Spirit may belong to the “in the Spirit” category versus the “in the flesh” category. Ancient writers often contrasted groups with ideal types: thus, e.g., Stoics and the book of Proverbs contrasted the wise and the foolish, even though few would be considered infallibly wise. Likewise, Proverbs and the Dead Sea Scrolls contrast the righteous and the wicked, even though no one was assumed virtuous in every respect without exception. The point is that one either belongs to the people who have the Spirit, and therefore their hearts are being transformed by God, or to those who are left to merely the best (or worst) of human effort without dependence on God’s gift of the Spirit through faith in Christ. ◆

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law of the Spirit. In contrast to the old covenant, the new covenant would write God’s law on the hearts of his people () by the Spirit (). This had always been God’s ideal (; , ).

to be a sin offering. A phrase here (lit. “concerning sin”) appears in the OT especially for sin offerings; the NIV is thus probably correct to translate “sin offering” here, viewing Jesus’ death as a sacrifice (cf. ; ; ; ; cf. also atonement in ; ).

minds set on what the Spirit desires. The wording here probably designates a characteristic disposition of one’s mind. Many philosophers urged people to meditate on divine, eternal, heavenly matters instead of the temporal interests of passions generated by the body. For Paul, the mind that depends on God has peace (v. ).

Philosophers often associated tranquility with sound thinking, though Paul could think here of peace with God (cf. v. ; ) and/or might evoke .

Writers sometimes sustained a contrast between two opposites—here “realm of the flesh” (v. ) and “realm of the Spirit” (v. ), as also in vv. . See the article “Flesh and Spirit.” Apart from the Qumran community, few Jewish people seem to have spoken of the Spirit as a present reality available in their communities; this was a blessing the prophets had promised for the period of restoration that Paul’s contemporaries understood as the end time (e.g., ).

The image of God’s Spirit giving life by resurrecting the dead appears in .

Ancient sources often contrast a householder’s children, who are his heirs (v. ), with his slaves. The relationship between the two is obviously different. For people in Rome, “adoption” (v. ) meant a cancellation of old legal relationships, establishing a new relationship as an heir.

led by the Spirit of God. The psalmist could ask for God’s Spirit to lead him in God’s ways (). Most often Scripture spoke of God leading his people in the wilderness (e.g., ; ; ). This image fits other images in this context recalling how God saved his people in the exodus: God called Israel his children (), redeemed them when they were groaning because of their slavery (; cf. , ), and promised them an inheritance in the promised land (cf. “heirs” in ). The prophets had envisioned a new exodus (e.g., ; ; ; ; ; ). The exodus provides a useful image for believers’ already/not yet experience: like Israel in the wilderness, Christians have experienced initial redemption but await their full inheritance in the promised land.

slaves . . . adoption. See note on vv. . fear. Might allude both to the relationship slaves had to masters and to the experience of . Abba. A respectful but intimate way to address one’s father. Although a few parables in much later sources compare God with an Abba, it does not appear in Jewish prayers (unlike “Father”); it was apparently learned from Jesus ().

The Spirit himself testifies with our spirit. Witnesses had to attest to the agreement involved in Roman adoption; God’s own Spirit testifies to the believer that this is done. The OT often and subsequent Judaism even more frequently associated the Spirit with prophetic inspiration; God’s Spirit here (as in v. ; ) reminds believers of their relationship with God.

present sufferings . . . glory. Jewish thinkers recognized that in the future God would reward his servants for their sufferings in this age. They often contrasted the present age with the age to come, expecting a reversal of present conditions.

creation waits in eager expectation. Many Jewish thinkers agreed that the coming age would transform all creation ().

liberated from its bondage to decay. Many Gentiles, though affirming the eternal perfection of the heavens, lamented the continuing decay of the earthly world. Yet as God had liberated his children from slavery in the exodus, leading them by a cloud of glory (see note on v. ), so God would in the future liberate his children most fully and with them all creation.

whole creation has been groaning as in . . . childbirth. When God’s people were slaves in Egypt, they “groaned in their slavery” (), and God heard and delivered them (see note on ). Although possibly evoking such language from Exodus here, Paul further uses the groaning here (also vv. , ) another way. In a context emphasizing the bringing forth of God’s children (vv. , , ), birth pangs are significant. Many Jewish people expected a period of intense suffering just before the end of the age, and some spoke of this period as “birth pangs” or even the “birth pangs of the Messiah” or of the new, Messianic era (see note on ). Paul here portrays the present painful period between the Messiah’s comings in these terms: suffering to bring forth a new age.

firstfruits. These were not simply a promise of, but rather the actual beginning of, a harvest. Thus believers already have the initial experience of the Spirit, of redemption, and of being God’s children; the fullness awaits their resurrection bodies. The prophets had associated the Spirit with the promised future era of restoration (; ; ; ; ; ; perhaps ).

intercedes. See note on v. . groans. See note on v. .

he who searches our hearts. Jewish sources emphasize God’s omniscience; some later sources even title him as the one who “searches the hearts” (a description that fits, e.g., ; ).

all things God works for the good. Stoic philosophers urged the wise not to resist fate; Jewish people affirmed God’s sovereignty and his love for his people. Although God often works things for the greater good even in this age (; ), Paul’s primary emphasis here is the ultimate good to come (v. ), especially the purpose of conformity to Jesus’ image (v. ).

foreknew . . . predestined. Most Jewish people (including the populist Pharisees) believed that God foreknew the future and chose his people (cf. ); as in the OT, however, they also recognized that people disobeyed God. Thus the majority of Jewish thinkers affirmed both that God was sovereign and that humans had responsibility to choose rightly. Paul here encourages his audience, in the face of sufferings, that God is in control and that his promise of the future will succeed (see vv. ). conformed to the image of his Son. God formed humanity originally in his image (); even if sin has marred that image, it is fully restored in Christ. For Christ as God’s image, see note on ; many Jewish thinkers viewed God’s wisdom or his logos (see notes on , ) as his most perfect image.

If God is for us. Paul’s language here could echo many Biblical sources, but especially : “The LORD is with me . . . What can mere mortals do to me?”

Paul here echoes : “He who vindicates me is near. Who then will bring charges against me? . . . Who is my accuser?”

right hand of God. Jesus’ position at God’s right hand reflects ; cf. perhaps also , where the Lord is also a priest. interceding for us. Some Jewish sources depict angels or even (in later rabbis) God’s attribute of mercy interceding before him. Here the intercessor is God’s Son, based on his sacrificial death and his resurrection (cf. v. ); God will certainly grant his requests.

A writer would sometimes compose a chiasm, an inverted parallel structure: Paul returns to the thought of v. in slightly different terms at the end of v. , and the thought of v. in v. and the beginning of v. . Ancient speakers sometimes used lists to build to a rhetorical climax. Sages used lists of hardships to demonstrate that they had faced such hardships with integrity. nakedness. The Greek term can mean complete nakedness, but can also mean simply inadequate clothing. sword. Romans usually beheaded condemned Roman citizens with the sword; for war, see note on .

At least by the second century, rabbis applied (cited here) to martyrs. Some Roman Christians had recently returned after being expelled from Rome in AD 49; perhaps six years after Paul sent this letter, the emperor began killing hundreds of Christians there (starting in AD 64).

See note on v. . neither angels nor demons . . . nor any powers. Given the context, “demons” (lit. “rulers”) and “powers” likely refer to the spiritual rulers believed to be guardian angels of the nations, often viewed as hostile toward God’s people (attested as early as , ; also the Greek version of ).

neither height nor depth. Some scholars compare height and depth to astrological terms; many believed that arbitrary Fate ruled the nations through the stars. Paul believed that Christ rather than Fate ruled believers’ lives, but he may have simply included the terms as a merism to specify everything from heaven to Hades ().

I could wish that I myself were . . . cut off . . . for the sake of my people. Although nothing could separate Paul from Christ (), he, like Moses, would sacrifice himself for his people ().

Jewish people celebrated the gifts that Paul lists here. Paul lists these historical claims in a way that would also appeal to his audience rhetorically: in Greek, a series of feminine nouns ending as follows in -thesia, -a, -ai, -thesia, -a, -ai.

who is God over all. Jewish doxologies praised only the one true God. Although Paul usually reserves the divine title “God” for the Father and the divine title “Lord” for Jesus, many scholars argue that Paul praises Jesus as God here.

not all who are descended from Israel are Israel. This language would be shocking to a Jewish audience, but Paul uses the examples of Ishmael (vv. ) and Esau (vv. ) to illustrate that ethnic descent, apart from God’s promise, does not guarantee covenant relationship (cf. also ).

It is through Isaac. The context of , cited here, is that the promised line comes not through Ishmael but through Isaac (though God blessed both of them). Mere descent from Abraham, then, was not sufficient even in the OT.

For faith in God’s promise, see also .

before the twins were born or had done anything good or bad . . . not by works. As in vv. , mere physical descent is not sufficient; the promise specified the (slightly) younger twin, Jacob (). Offered before their birth, the promise depended solely on God’s grace, not on the brothers’ prior behavior. Most Jewish people recognized both God’s sovereignty and human responsibility without viewing them as contradictory (see note on ). They especially emphasized that God chose Israel as a people; Paul insists here in ch. that God’s choice is not limited to Abraham’s physical descendants, but more widely can include Gentiles (vv. ).

Jacob . . . Esau. In , God reminded Israel that he had chosen their ancestor Jacob rather than his brother Esau, and thus would bless them and not the Edomites.

Is God unjust? Israel’s sages had sometimes struggled to explain and defend God’s justice in a world of suffering and apparent inequity (see, e.g., the book of Job); later rabbis also engaged theodicy (God’s justice).

, cited here, emphasizes God’s mercy and compassion, including toward Moses.

I raised you up for this very purpose. In context, even God raising up this pharaoh involved some mercy: God could have completely destroyed him and his people earlier (), but God had established him so the world would see God’s greatness ().

he hardens whom he wants to harden. God showed mercy to Moses but hardened Pharaoh (; ; ). Paul and Exodus celebrate God’s sovereignty, but in other contexts they also recognize his justice (cf. v. ); though God hardened Pharaoh’s heart, Pharaoh also initially hardened his own heart (, ).

For who is able to resist his will? In OT theology, questioning who could resist God’s will was a way of praising God’s might (; ), but here the imaginary interlocutor instead questions God’s justice. (On imaginary critics, see note on .)

the potter. Paul evokes the potter image of ; (cf. also ; ), passages that emphasize God’s sovereignty in history and that what he does is just.

bore with great patience the objects of his wrath. For the sake of those who would be saved, God endured those destined for destruction—just as in this context God had endured Pharaoh to make known God’s name (v. , on ).

also from the Gentiles. God’s name would be made known in all the earth (see in v. ).

In support of God calling Gentiles, Paul cites and then . These passages refer to Israel’s restoration after a period of rejection for their sin (). If God could make them his people again from not being his people, he could do the same for Gentiles who also had not been his people.

Jewish teachers often linked texts by a common phrase; Paul undoubtedly knows that Israel in (a text just cited in v. ) is “like the sand on the seashore” (), facilitating his link here with , cited here in vv. . (Paul blends some wording of the two texts, a common practice in his day.) In , God punishes his own people, sparing only a remnant.

Like (cited in vv. ), (cited here in v. ) refers to only a minority of Israel surviving the judgment; compares Israel to Gentiles. These passages in vv. show that God does not spare people judgment based on their ancestry (vv. ).

pursued the law as the way of righteousness. On the different ways of approaching the law (also in ), see note on .

, stone. Again (see vv. and notes), Paul in v. shows from Scripture (using ; ) that judgment would come even to Israel; only those who depended on God—who had faith—would be saved. Following common practice, Paul links two texts based on a common word, here blending them into one: in , Israel would stumble over God as a stone, and in , whoever trusted in the stone he laid would not be disturbed (in the Greek version, would not be made ashamed). Because also depicts this stone as a cornerstone, Paul may have also thought of , applied by Jesus to himself (; cf. ). On the divine stone, see also note on .

Many commentators believe that in vv. Paul is contrasting two approaches to the law. The first, in v. , is to approach the law as a means of achieving righteousness before God (v. ; ); the second, in vv. , approaches it as a witness to God’s saving acts. Some ancient Jewish sources apparently allowed both approaches, but Paul contrasts them as incompatible.

righteousness that is by the law . . . live by them. God’s people would have long life in the Holy Land if they obeyed God’s commands (; often in Deuteronomy, e.g., , ). Jewish teachers came to apply this principle also to having eternal life by obeying the commandments. The issue here is not obedience as an expression of faith (which Paul affirms, ) but establishing their own righteousness rather than depending on God’s saving acts (, ).

In vv. , Paul explains as midrash—i.e., like a Jewish teacher expounding the text line by line.

ascend into heaven. In (cited here), one need not ascend to heaven to receive the law; God already provided it. Jewish tradition also elaborated Moses’ ascent on Mount Sinai as an ascent to heaven. Paul applies the principle to a new act of salvation, Christ’s coming.

descend into the deep. In (cited here), one need not cross the sea to get the law; God had in fact redeemed his people and brought them across the sea. God prefaced his most prominent commandments with this reminder of redemption (). Ancient expositors sometimes altered some wording to make a point; Paul changes “sea” to “the deep” here (usually the Greek version of the OT applies this Greek term to watery depths), since it bridges better to his analogy of raising Christ from among the dead. One did not need to strive to get God’s law, nor to bring about a new act of salvation in Christ’s rising.

word is near you. In (cited here), the law, God’s word, was not too difficult to obey (); it was in their grasp, insofar as it was in their mouth and their heart. mouth . . . heart. This presence of God’s word probably includes speaking of the law always (), so keeping it in their hearts () as an expression of loving God (; ). This ideal was apparently sometimes fulfilled by believers before the new covenant (), but the new covenant would establish it among all God’s people (). Paul applies the principle to the divine word spoken in his day as well: the message of faith was also in the heart and mouth (vv. ).

Anyone who believes. Paul revisits (see ) his quotation of , but underlines its point of “the one who relies” by more explicitly saying, “Anyone who believes.” Anyone. Translates the Greek term for “all,” also used in v. (“everyone”) and in the plural in v. (“all”).

Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord. Teachers often linked texts with a common key word; Paul links “everyone” in with his adapted wording of in v. (see previous note). In this way Paul can emphasize that the promise is for Jew and Gentile alike (v. ). By linking the texts, he shows that never being “put to shame” (v. ) means being saved (v. ).

Ancient speakers and writers appreciated connected chains of thought such as the one in vv. . believe. Taken from the citation in v. (recurs in v. ); hearing a message in vv. (with a supporting citation in v. ).

those who bring good news. Paul refers to , where heralds would announce the good news that God was demonstrating his reign by restoring his people.

who has believed our message? Following from the same context he has just cited, Paul refers to , where God’s message and his servant were rejected (). Although Paul’s quotation in v. omits the term, he probably knows that a common Greek version of included the term in translated “message” here in v. ; i.e., a specific term would point the reader of back to the message announced in the earlier verse.

The point of Paul’s appeal to (cited here) is debated. Since the psalm’s context refers to God’s universal witness in creation (; cf. ; ; ; though moves on to the law as special revelation in ), it may mean that everyone knows enough to be morally responsible (as in ). Alternatively, Paul may make an analogy for the gospel (cf. vv. ), which has spread widely at least in a proleptic way (cf. ). Or Paul may be saying that since even Gentiles had some revelation (as in ), how much more Israel, who has heard but (as in v. ) not believed. Or that the Gentile world, in contrast to Israel (cf. vv. ), received the message; or that shows that God wanted all peoples to have access to the message.

by those who are not a nation. In the context of (cited here), God punishes Israel as a perverse generation (; cf. ); they had unfaithfully made him jealous with false gods (, ), so he would make them jealous by blessing a non-people. The same context laments them abandoning God as their rock (, ), perhaps relevant to Paul’s recent citation of stone texts in (and the recent allusion to one in ).

In v. , Paul cited Moses () to show that God, judging his disobedient people, welcomed instead another people without understanding. Continuing the same theme, Paul cites here; although Paul does not complete that quotation, Isaiah goes on to speak of God revealing himself “to a nation that did not call on my name” (; cf. ). The sense in Isaiah is debated, although a few chapters earlier in Isaiah God openly welcomed obedient Gentiles (). Paul’s linkage of the verse with the previously cited passage from Deuteronomy suggests that Paul applies Isaiah’s words to Gentiles here.

Paul goes on to cite , which does apply to Israel in the context. held out my hands. Stretching out hands can communicate entreaty (; ).

Some early Jewish teachers criticized Elijah for accusing his people to God, but Paul’s point here is different. Paul shows that even in a period when Elijah had reason to believe in Israel’s wholesale apostasy, God had preserved a remnant faithful to himself (, , ).

remnant chosen by grace. Prophets recognized that after judgment God would deliver the remnant, the survivors (e.g., ; ; ; ; ); see . Paul speaks of those still faithful to divine truth (). God chose his people because of his love (); because Jewish people viewed themselves as the chosen people, Paul’s emphasis on the more narrowly chosen remnant challenges their assumptions (cf. ).

hardened. See note on .

Teachers sometimes blended passages (cf. also ; , , ; see applicable notes there), as Paul does here. He cites (what the NIV translates there as “deep sleep” is in the Greek translation of the OT the same wording as the “spirit of stupor” here) with (“not . . . ears that hear” there is roughly the same in Greek as “ears that could not hear” here). In both contexts, Israel had refused to heed God.

Teachers often linked texts with shared words or ideas; eyes that cannot see links the present quotation () with the composite quotation in v. . As a psalm about the mistreatment of a righteous sufferer, often lent itself to early Christian applications to Jesus’ suffering (e.g., in ).

envious. For Paul’s Biblical background for this term here and in v. , see note on .

how much greater riches. Jewish teachers often used “how much more” analogy arguments.

I take pride. In antiquity, public boasting was acceptable only under particular conditions, such as inviting others’ emulation to do good.

I may somehow arouse my own people . . . and save some of them. Paul cited in and now develops its implications. Some Jewish thinkers expected the conversion of Gentiles in the end time (cf., e.g., ; ); because this is being fulfilled in Christ, Paul wants his people to see that Jesus’ movement is an end-time agent for Israel’s God. envy. See note on v. .

life from the dead. The Jewish people’s end-time turning to God was associated with their restoration (cf. ; ), and their restoration with the resurrection of the dead ().

If . . . the dough offered as firstfruits is holy, then the whole batch is holy. In , the firstfruits of the dough offering consecrates the “whole batch”; since God had consecrated Israel at the beginning, it remained set aside for his purpose (cf. ). Speakers often used mixed metaphors; in vv. Paul will develop his other illustration, about root and branches.

Jewish sources often described Israel as a plant or a tree, whose roots were the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob). (Sometimes they even used the image of an olive tree; indeed, at some point a synagogue in Rome was apparently named the “olive tree.”) Contrary to standard Jewish teaching, Paul had argued that uncircumcised Gentiles could become part of that people of God through faith in the Jewish Messiah (ch. )—like proselytes, but without physical circumcision. Now he reminds Gentiles to respect the Jewish people, who had brought them their faith. It was easier for Jewish branches to be grafted back into the true form of their own faith than for polytheists who had worshiped idols before their conversion to understand the faith they were now accepting. Like other Jewish teachers of his day, Paul does not regard any particular person’s salvation as guaranteed from the human perspective till they have persevered to the end.

Ancient sources often report the grafting of trees—adding a shoot of one tree to another tree. Sometimes shoots from a wild olive tree would be grafted onto a domestic olive tree that was bearing little fruit in an attempt to strengthen or save the life of the tree. The unproductive original branches would be pruned off, and the new graft was considered “contrary to nature” (as in v. ).

Although some Gentiles joined God’s covenant in ancient Israel (e.g., Rahab, Ruth), Jesus’ message had now created a new situation: in some places Gentile followers of Israel’s God now outnumbered Jewish ones (Gentiles apparently predominated in the Roman church; cf. v. ; ). Paul warned grafted-in Gentiles not to reverse previous Jewish prejudice by despising the Jewish people—a warning soon neglected in the Roman church and elsewhere, as Gentile Christians in the following centuries boasted that they had replaced Israel.

mystery. Some Jewish writers used “mystery” with regard to a hidden truth, often about the future, now revealed by God (e.g., ; cf. ). hardening. See note on . until the full number of the Gentiles has come in. Because Israel’s repentance was expected to precipitate the end, God had allowed Israel’s resistance (, ) to provide time for the promised witness to Gentiles.

all Israel will be saved. Many Jewish people expected Israel’s repentance to precipitate the end (; ; ; ; ; Jubilees 23:26–27). A significant line of Jewish tradition emphasizes the future salvation of all Israel; while this meant Israel as a whole and not every individual Israelite, only the most notorious sinners were excluded (in the Mishnah see Sanhedrin 10:1). Paul supports his case with , a context also mentioning the gift of the Spirit. Ancient writers often paraphrased quotations, as Paul does here (though his quotation is close to the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, form); in the next verse () Paul might blend with (“from Zion”) and (“take away their sins”; only in the Greek version).

on account of the patriarchs. God chose Israel and loved them because of his promise to the patriarchs (; ).

Ancient writers or speakers often summarized some themes of a section at its close. Gentiles and Israel exchanging roles of disobedience may allude back to (cf. ); mercy to . On the common scholarly view today that the Roman church was ethnically divided, this was important news.

Sometimes a writer would conclude a section with rousing rhetoric; discussion of deity, in particular, sometimes invited exalted, almost poetic, rhetoric. Paul praises God for the lavish display of his sovereignty and wisdom in history.

Verse borrows the language of the Greek version of , and v. might evoke the idea of . For effects on renewed minds, see ; .

from . . . through . . . for. Philosophers distinguished various levels of causation with terms such as “from,” “through,” and “for”; all the levels are applicable here.

Some ancient works transitioned from general considerations to practical advice, as here. Nevertheless, the previous demonstration of God’s mercy in chs. offers the foundation for the present exhortation (v. ).

living sacrifice. Paul’s imagery would be intelligible; both the OT at times and some of his contemporaries could use “sacrifice” figuratively for other expressions of devotion to God (see, e.g., ; ). Because most animal sacrifices were slaughtered, “living” sacrifice might strike hearers as an oxymoron, while stretching the image to cover continued devotion (cf. ). holy and pleasing to God. Sacrifices could be holy (e.g., , ) or pleasing (e.g., ; ; ) to the Lord. true and proper. The Greek can denote what is rational, relevant for vv. .

transformed by the renewing of your mind. Philosophers wanted hearers to base all decisions on reason; Paul adds an eschatological (end-time) perspective. “This world” is lit. “this age”; the “renewing of your mind,” then, includes thinking as citizens of the coming new world. mind. See note on . good, pleasing and perfect will. This perspective helps believers to discern God’s will—whatever is good, pleasing (cf. v. ), and perfect in God’s sight.

Do not think of yourself more highly than you ought. Many philosophers urged a sound view of oneself based on one’s role in the larger universe; Paul urges believers to consider their roles in Christ’s body (vv. ).

many members . . . form one body. Earlier Greek and Roman thinkers had compared the state and even the universe to a body of interdependent members. Often ancient writers used the analogy to support hierarchy, but Paul here values the importance of the diverse functions represented.

prophesying. Speaking for God, inspired by God; the OT offers a range of examples, but many include speaking directly in God’s name with the prophets functioning as messengers. in accordance with your faith. Suggests the faith distributed to each by God (v. ). Although the OT records many prophecies and the NT records some, clearly most prophecies in those periods never became part of Scripture (cf. ), and this gift should not be viewed or treated as competing with Scripture or limited to one period.

Ancient writers on moral topics often offered lists of largely unconnected moral exhortations; scholars call such compilations parenesis. Paul here offers various exhortations around the theme of treating one another well (an important issue in the Roman church; see

). Most of Paul’s exhortations would be widely acceptable in the culture. Ancients sometimes framed a section with parallel ideas; Paul emphasizes good versus evil in vv. , .

Speakers often used repetition at the end of words to hold attention; here in Greek–oi concludes three clauses in vv. ;–ontes or–ountes conclude seven clauses in vv. .

Honor one another above yourselves. Competition for honor dominated ancient Mediterranean urban society, particularly Rome; Paul offers a contrary model (here; v. ).

Share with the Lord’s people who are in need. Jewish piety emphasized caring for the needy (following the OT, e.g., ). Practice hospitality. Ancient Mediterranean culture valued hospitality, which could include providing free lodging to travelers; Jewish travelers counted on hospitality from fellow Jews. Sometimes travelers would carry letters of recommendation attesting that they were trustworthy.

Bless those who persecute you. Although some other sages recommended nonretaliation, blessing those who persecute echoes Jesus’ teaching (; cf. ).

Rejoice . . . mourn. Ancient ethics expected people to rejoice and mourn with their friends. In Judean and Galilean communities, an entire village could express solidarity by joining in wedding and funeral processions.

Do not repay anyone evil for evil. Stoics and some other philosophers urged nonresistance because they emphasized that the only thing one truly controlled anyway was one’s own self; accepting rather than resisting Fate’s treatment revealed self-control. Some Jewish sages emphasized nonresistance (already in the OT, see ; ) because one should depend on God’s vindication alone (see already ).

live at peace with everyone. Many valued honoring custom; for the sake of society’s views of them, minorities, such as Diaspora Jews in the Gentile world, were often careful to honor society’s ethical ideals when these did not violate their own beliefs.

Paul cites , a context perhaps fresh on his mind, since he cites from in (see also ).

Scholars debate how Paul uses , but Paul may still speak of God avenging (v. ), and hence refer to judgment on an enemy who does not repent despite kindness. In any case, the preferred goal is instead to turn an enemy to a friend (v. ), a behavior valued both by some Greek and Jewish sages.

Ancient thinkers often treated relationship with the state alongside other relationships (cf. ). Many ancient writers (not least the Stoics) emphasized and even wrote essays on the importance of loyalty to the state. Such writers thought of a general principle, however, not of absolute submission in the case of evil. Thus such exhortations did not mean that one should do evil even at the bidding of the state; philosophers were supposed to maintain their beliefs, and Jews and Christians would not worship the emperor.

Minorities, such as the Jewish community in Rome, tried to avoid scandal and uphold public ideals. Christian witness would be important in Rome, the empire’s capital; many had apparently been expelled from Rome over debates about the Messiah less than a decade earlier. Paul’s concerns for avoiding scandal would remain important. Within eight years after he sent this letter, the current emperor, Nero, would begin hunting and killing Christians in Rome. Two years after that, Judea would erupt into full-fledged revolt, leading to Jerusalem’s destruction.

whoever rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted. Many Greeks and Jews liked Nero, who at this point had not yet been corrupted by the influence of a future mentor and boyfriend, Tigellinus; he had not yet persecuted Christians. Some Judeans urged revolt against Rome, but many Jews taught submission to civil authorities, arguing that God had established them. Nearly all Jews in Rome emphasized the latter view, which was important for their survival. For God’s sovereignty over rulers, see, e.g., ; ; .

Paul’s warning here reflects conventional moral exhortation. Injustice was rife in the empire, and social status influenced the outcome of trials. Nevertheless, the government was usually a force for order and justice. Rome obviously had interest in suppressing rebellions, such as sometimes erupted in Judea, but following Jesus was not yet deemed a crime at the time Paul wrote.

sword. Probably refers to the government’s ius gladii, “right of the sword,” meaning authority to execute; in this period, condemned Roman citizens who were beheaded were normally executed by sword.

The empire as a whole levied a property tax (often about 1 percent) and a head tax; local provinces or kingdoms added further taxes; merchants traveling with goods also paid customs duties. Paul does not ask Christians to pay only for what they approve of; Rome used taxes not only to build roads and support a slender government infrastructure in the provinces but also to finance their armies and build temples for worshiping emperors. Particular taxes became controversial in Rome perhaps just months before Paul wrote this letter; noncitizen Jews who returned to Rome in or after AD 54 may have also been subject to special taxes from which Roman citizens were exempt.

if honor, then honor. Both custom and prudence demanded honoring officials and others of higher social rank. Jews refused to sacrifice to the emperor, but the temple honored him with prayers and sacrifices to God on his behalf. Suspending such offerings in the temple roughly a decade later quickly led to war against Rome (Josephus, Wars 2.409).

If believers in Rome were divided over how to treat Biblical law (see

), Paul’s words here would urge them to surmount division. Although Paul refers especially to Biblical law, love would meet even most demands of Roman law (cf. vv. ). Some other Jewish teachers viewed love of neighbor as fulfilling the law, but Paul’s ultimate source was believers’ ultimate teacher, Jesus ().

Let no debt remain. Teachers of morals often warned against debt (already in the OT, cf. ) and unpaid social obligations. One repaid benefaction with honor, monetary loans with interest. Although Jews were not supposed to charge interest to fellow Jews, interest rates in the Gentile world could be exorbitant. Roman private loans usually involved 12 percent interest, but in one very rare and extreme case, a lender charged an entire city roughly 50 percent interest.

Paul selects four of the five humanward prohibitions () in the Ten Commandments; clearly love () prevents any of these offenses.

wake up from your slumber. Ancient writers sometimes spoke figuratively of spiritual or other sleep; Paul also thinks of spiritual readiness ().

the day is almost here. Jewish people anticipated a coming day of judgment. put on. Jewish writers could speak of being “clothed” with the Spirit or virtues (e.g., in the familiar Greek translation of ; ; ). armor. Many Jewish people expected an end-time battle; philosophers often spoke of figurative warfare against passions or false ideologies.

as in the daytime. Drunken parties were normally at night, as were deeds that their perpetrators did not wish to be known.

clothe yourselves. See note on v. .

Just before exhorting Jewish and Gentile believers to accept each other (), Paul addresses the question of “pure” and “unclean” foods (). Sometimes writers saved particularly controversial matters for the end of a speech or letter. After tracing theological (chs. ) and moral (parts of chs. ) grounds for unity between Jewish and non-Jewish believers, Paul comes to some practical issues that are apparently causing division between Roman Christians (see

). The three Jewish practices for which non-Jewish Romans especially mocked Jews were circumcision (already addressed in ; ), food practices and holy days (though some Gentiles in Rome emulated some Jewish dietary and Sabbath customs); the latter two are addressed in ch. .

Most peoples and even some philosophic sects had distinctive food customs. Jewish people, however, attributed their laws to God, and in the Maccabean period many had died as martyrs for refusing to eat pork. (Phoenicians, some Syrians and Egyptian priests also avoided pork; by contrast, Greeks insisted that pork was delicious.) Some educated Jews in Egypt viewed Biblical laws about foods (; ) as merely symbolic, but most Jews insisted on practicing them. Gentiles often mocked Jews for their dietary “separatism.”

Jewish people did not expect most Gentiles to observe Jewish food laws or holy days but did expect Gentile converts to Judaism to do so, perhaps including Gentile Christians. ( deals with holiness as separation and may suggest that God gave special food laws to Israel particularly to keep it separate from other nations, because most cultures had their own special dietary practices. For Jesus’ followers called to reach the world, however, its principle of moral separation could be retained without cultural separation.) ◆

Relief depicting a boar’s head at a banquet meal, first century BC. Jews considered pork to be “unclean.”

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eats only vegetables. Jews avoided only unclean meat, not meat altogether. When they lacked access to kosher-prepared meat, however, they might depend on vegetables (e.g., ; 2 Maccabees 5:27).

one day more sacred than another. Rome had numerous festivals, days of ill omen, and (every eight or nine days) regular market days. Romans knew that different peoples and cities in the empire had their own special festivals and holy days. Many Roman Gentiles, however, either specifically respected or detested the Jewish Sabbath; those who detested it considered Jews lazy for taking a day off from work every week. Some Jewish groups divided from other Jews over the precise days on which to celebrate festivals, but all Jews agreed on the weekly Sabbath. Although the Sabbath was ordained from creation (), before its incorporation in the Law of Moses, it was difficult to observe for slaves and those who worked for others. Jews could honor the day within their communities, but many Gentile believers did not have the same options. Fitting , some see fast days here.

judgment seat. A governor could make an official pronouncement from a bema, a rostrum, or elevated judgment seat (; ). Jewish depictions of the end often included God judging everyone.

In the context of , cited here, God finally vindicates Israel and summons the nations to acknowledge that he is God.

stumbling block. A frequent metaphor for what could cause a person spiritual harm; “stumble” sometimes meant “sin” or even “fall away from the faith” (e.g., ; ; Sirach 9:5; 23:8). brother or sister. Figurative family terminology was common. People often called members of their own ethnic group, association or other group “brother”; it could also apply, as here, to those who share a common faith.

nothing is unclean in itself. Jewish people separated “clean” and “unclean” foods, following the OT (; ). Although some elite Diaspora Jews believed that this division was primarily for symbolic purposes, most continued to practice the food laws literally. Although Paul does not discourage his own people from observing kosher rules (i.e., observing the food regulations of ), his language (here and in v. ) would shock many of them. He may have found precedent in Jesus’ teaching (see the interpretation of that teaching in ).

righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit. Many Judeans longed for the coming kingdom, when God would reign unchallenged. That would be the era of the outpoured Spirit (), an era characterized by justice, peace and rejoicing. Because believers already experience the Spirit in the present, we have a foretaste of that coming world. We should therefore live at peace with one another (v. ).

better not to eat meat or drink wine. Keeping kosher would not normally require abstinence from all meat, provided it was from a clean animal, not sacrificed to idols, and butchered in a kosher manner (i.e., the blood being drained). In Rome and other major urban centers with significant Jewish populations, kosher butchers and meat were available. Wine was likewise acceptable provided no libation had been poured to pagan deities. When under duress, however, Jews might endure a very limited diet (some even subsisting on figs and nuts; Josephus, Life 14) rather than eat nonkosher foods.

whoever has doubts. To avoid the possibility of accidentally transgressing the law, Pharisees established a “fence around the law,” rules stricter than the law required. Here love for others dictates Paul’s concern; he warns believers with sturdy consciences to take into account those whose consciences are more sensitive.

Ancient speakers and writers would sometimes summarize or provide a climactic exhortation for material that precedes, as these verses do for .

even Christ. Ancient argumentation often appealed to the example of a famous teacher. Paul applies to Jesus’ experience of being ridiculed (, ) the language of (cited here). emphasizes the anguish of a righteous sufferer, applied by early Christians to Jesus (; ). Paul looks for present application of both the psalm and Christ’s example (v. ).

everything . . . was written to teach us. Some ancient writers, especially some Qumran interpreters, envisioned Scripture as being written especially for their end-time instruction. More relevant here, Jewish people recognized that Scripture was meant to be understood and applied by all generations. God provided the law for his people’s instruction (); for comfort in Scripture, see , , , ; 2 Maccabees 15:9.

one mind and one voice. Harmony was a common emphasis in ancient exhortations because division was very common in society. Like unity of mind, “one voice” signifies unity (as in ); for Paul, unity of love and worship remain possible without unanimity on all details (cf. ch. ).

Ancient writers often offered moral examples; Paul offers Jesus as the greatest (cf. also v. ). He then demonstrates this mission of Jesus in light of Scripture (vv. ).

Speakers sometimes reserved their strongest argument for the end. Jewish expositors often linked texts based on a common key word. Linking together texts that specifically mention “Gentiles,” Paul shows from the Writings, the Law and the Prophets—the three main sections of Jewish Scripture—that God had always desired Gentiles’ worship. These cited OT passages are merely samples of a much wider theme in Scripture.

, cited here, was a psalm of David (, ) that mentioned the wide reign of David and his descendants (); Jesus was David’s descendant ().

, cited here, invites nations to join with God’s people, since God will punish those who oppose him. Paul has recently cited texts from this context— in and in .

Paul cites , inviting all peoples to praise God, from the familiar Hallel (), a section of psalms some lines from which were already applied to Jesus (see notes on ; ).

The context of , cited here, is clearly Messianic (cf. ) and was so understood by Paul’s contemporaries. Although the context indicates the restoration of exiled Israelites among the peoples (, ), its face value sense of nations joining with God’s people fits the larger context in Isaiah (; ; ). Paul’s wording follows the Greek version.

peace. See note on v. . that you may overflow with hope by the power of the Holy Spirit. Paul here applies Isaiah’s words about Gentiles hoping in the Davidic king (cited in v. ) to Paul’s audience in Rome. Letters often included prayers. This one is worded as a “wish-prayer” or blessing—grammatically addressed to the hearers but implicitly calling on God.

In a speech’s closing, the speaker would often repeat points first advanced in the opening; compare these verses with . The closing often used a personal and affectionate tone. Speakers often reserved the strongest pathos, or emotional appeal, for the closing of their speech.

you . . . are full of goodness, filled with knowledge and competent to instruct. Those offering letters of advice or speeches of exhortation frequently expressed their confidence in their addressees; this expression helped the readers to listen more favorably to the rest of the letter and sometimes served as a polite way to make a request. to instruct. The Greek term can also mean “to admonish”; this was considered gentler than rebuke, and by delegating the task to them Paul avoids appearing to reprove them.

I have written you quite boldly. Ancient thinkers appreciated speaking “boldly” if it was in the audience’s interests. to remind you. Those who exhorted their hearers often softened the admonition by noting that they were only “reminding” them of what they already knew.

priestly duty of proclaiming the gospel of God. Paul compares his ministry with that of priests offering sacrifice (cf. ; ). an offering acceptable to God. Many Jewish people expected Israel to someday rule over the Gentiles, so the Gentiles would carry tribute to Jerusalem (e.g., ). Here the Gentile believers themselves are an offering (cf. ), like the promised role of God’s own people to be offered by Gentiles in . Some Jerusalem Christians may have viewed Paul’s collection for the saints in Jerusalem (vv. ) as a fulfillment of this vindication of Israel’s faith.

I glory in Christ Jesus in my service . . . what Christ has accomplished through me. Although competition for honor characterized ancient urban Mediterranean society, boasting was despised unless properly justified, e.g., as for others’ good. Here Paul boasts not in himself but in Christ’s work through him.

by the power of signs and wonders. The OT stressed signs and wonders especially in connection with the exodus (; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Wisdom of Solomon 10:15–16; Baruch 2:11); early Christians recognized the spreading of the gospel between Jesus’ first and second comings as a similar pivotal experience also confirmed by signs and wonders. Acts reports examples of signs and wonders in the ministry of Paul (e.g., ; ; ) and others (e.g., ; ). Jerusalem. Although Paul’s ministry began before Jerusalem (; cf. ), Paul starts counting it there; Jewish people treated Jerusalem as the world’s center. Illyricum. North of Macedonia, across from Italy on the eastern Adriatic coast, on the west of the Yugoslav/Serbo-Croatian region. The Roman province was called Illyricum; Greeks included this region and some more territory farther south (including Dyrrhachium on the Via Egnatia in Macedonia) in what they called Illyria.

preach the gospel where Christ was not known. Thus Paul preached in Illyricum and wished to preach in Spain (vv. , ); because Rome was already being evangelized, Paul had not yet come to them (v. ).

Paul’s mission to those who have not yet heard the good news about Jesus is meant to carry out the mission in (cited here), which refers to Gentiles and their kings (in contrast to Israel in ). This is the mission of the suffering servant (); early Christians applied this especially to Jesus but also recognized that they shared the servant mission (cf. ; ).

hindered from coming to you. Ancient letters often expressed affection and apologized for not having been able to visit (for Paul’s reason, see vv. ).

longing . . . to visit you. Some ancient letters involved plans for visits.

Spain. In Spain, Paul could not likely start among synagogues (not attested until a later period there) or even among Greek-speakers. Paul or an interpreter could use Latin in the Roman colonies there. Just as ancient geography reckoned Ethiopia as the far south of the world and China as the farthest east, it often reckoned Spain as at the western ends of the earth (see note on ); Paul wishes to bring the gospel to the farthest ends of the world. to have you assist me on my journey. Direct requests could cause the requester to lose honor; Paul implies a request for help here. Believers in Rome would, however, count it an honor to show hospitality (which was highly valued in the ancient Mediterranean world) and to provide his expenses for his further voyage to Spain.

in the service of the Lord’s people. Ancient writers often cited examples (as in vv. , ), sometimes, as here, of themselves. Like Jesus, Paul is an agent of ethnic reconciliation.

Macedonia and Achaia. Adjoining provinces; since Paul writes this letter from Achaia (), Paul’s appeal to the Achaian churches () was apparently successful. make a contribution for the poor. Every year Jewish men throughout the world paid a half-shekel tax for the temple in Jerusalem; trusted messengers would carry it to Jerusalem. As that practice expressed the solidarity of the Jewish people, so this offering from Diaspora churches would demonstrate solidarity among Jewish and Gentile believers (for the importance of this issue for this letter, see

share with them their material blessings. Some believers in Jerusalem may have envisioned the gift as the firstfruits of the prophetic promise that the nations would bring tribute to Israel (; ; ); Paul may think more broadly of unity in Christ. For Gentiles sharing Jewish blessings, see, e.g., ; . Social responsibility was corporate as well as personal (e.g., ; ; ).

I will go to Spain and visit you on the way. Friends often announced travel plans in letters. Ships from the east would normally stop in Rome; voyagers to Spain would travel on from there to Tarraco, some 900 miles (nearly 1,500 kilometers). (By road one could also travel from Italy to southern Gaul then across the Pyrenees mountain range.) Travel to Cordoba would be even farther.

be kept safe from unbelievers in Judea. Paul would in fact face the hostility of unbelievers in Judea (). be favorably received. Not all believers in Judea were positive toward Paul (; cf. ), but the leaders probably did welcome his help (cf. ; ), since they had requested it (). To refuse a gift declared that one wished to be the other’s enemy, so such a refusal would be rare.

in your company be refreshed. Paul implicitly requests hospitality (in a modest, polite way acceptable in his culture). Hosts normally counted it an honor to lavish hospitality on guests, especially ones respected in their circle.

As in v. (see note), Paul includes here a “wish-prayer” or blessing—a prayer grammatically addressed to the hearers but implicitly calling on God. peace. A standard Jewish blessing, in this case also relevant to the congregation’s divisions (see

Erastus was a first-century Christian who worked with Paul. The earliest mention of him is in : Paul, at Ephesus on his third missionary journey in around AD 53–55, “sent two of his helpers, Timothy and Erastus, to Macedonia.” Then, in , Paul wrote (probably from Corinth around the year 57) that “Erastus, who is the city’s director of public works,” sent greetings. Finally, in , when Paul was writing from prison in Rome toward the end of his life (around the years 66–67), he gave a status report on his coworkers, including the statement that “Erastus stayed in Corinth.” It appears that Erastus was a resident of Corinth and, if so, most likely became a believer as a result of Paul’s 18-month ministry in that city on his second missionary journey, around AD 50–52 ().

In 1929 an inscription was discovered at Corinth mentioning an Erastus who may have been the same one referred to in the New Testament. Located in a paved area northeast of the theater and dated to the mid-first century AD, it reads, “Erastus in return for his aedileship laid [the pavement] at his own expense.” An aedile, an elected official, was a city business manager responsible for such property as streets, public buildings and markets, as well as for the revenue gleaned from them. He was also a judge who decided most of the city’s commercial and financial litigation. In addition, an aedile was responsible for the public games taking place within a city.

Thus, Paul’s term “director of public works” in probably describes Erastus’s position as an aedile. Some have argued that since the Greek word Paul used, oikonomos, may not have been the exact equivalent of the Latin aedile, Erastus may have held a lower position at the time of Paul’s writing. On the other hand, it is possible that Paul first encountered Erastus while he was discharging his fiscal responsibilities and thus perceived him primarily in this role. Also, Corinth was distinctive in that the games there were run not by the aedile but by a different set of officials. Thus, the aedile at Corinth basically functioned as a city treasurer (the rendering used in some translations, such as the NASB). ◆

The Erastus Inscription in Corinth.

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People of high status wrote letters of recommendation to peers on behalf of those of somewhat lower status. Often such a letter introduced the letter’s bearer, praising them and showing why they merited the help requested. The bearer of a document might also be called on to explain the sense of the document, making Phoebe’s qualifications important here.

Phoebe. Wealthy benefactors helped their cities or other people, who in turn owed them honor. Most benefactors were male, but a number (some estimate 10 percent) were women. Benefactors of religious associations often allowed the latter to meet in the benefactors’ homes. Letters were normally carried by travelers. Phoebe is probably a well-to-do businesswoman traveling on business; Corinth and Rome had close trade ties. deacon. If Paul uses the Greek term (diakonos) in the way that he most commonly uses it, for ministers of some sort (; ; ; ; ; ; , , ; ; ), he goes beyond the most common views in his culture (see notes on ). Cenchreae. Corinth had port towns on both sides of the Isthmus of Corinth; Cenchreae was the eastern port.

Letters often closed with greetings to the writer’s friends. Because of the close connection between Corinth and Rome, because many people migrated to the capital of the empire, and because any believers expelled from Rome could return there after Claudius’s death (compare v. with ), Paul knows many people in Rome. (If there is some truth in the hyperbolic claim that all roads led to Rome, it was because Rome built the roads.)

The church in Rome was large (cf. v. ; ); less than a decade later, the emperor slaughtered hundreds of Christians in the city, but many escaped. (The letter known as 1 Clement shows that the Roman church remained strong later in the first century.) Many thus suggest that most of those named here are leaders of house churches. Strikingly, of 28 named persons greeted, nearly 40 percent are women. He commends the ministry of more than half the women and roughly one third of the men. Men may have outnumbered women in Rome’s population. Women had more freedom in Rome in this period than in many parts of the empire (cf. also Philippi, ), but still may have needed special affirmation given their culture.

About half the Jews in Rome bore Latin names, though Greek was their dominant language. Of those with Latin names, many were descended from Jewish slaves of Roman citizens, who became Roman citizens themselves when freed (Philo, Embassy to Gaius 155); some argue that a strong majority of Rome’s residents were descended from freed slaves from the eastern Mediterranean world. Many names in Paul’s greetings, however, are more traditional Greek or Jewish names.

Priscilla and Aquila. Ancient sources normally name the husband before the wife except where the wife held higher status. Given Paul’s concerns about worldly status (), he may think of status in the church. Priscilla. The Latin name Prisca is the formal form of Priscilla.

at their house. Poorer synagogues and other associations often met in homes until they could afford buildings. For the first three centuries, churches met especially in homes, lavishing resources instead on activities such as caring for the poor and liberating slaves. Most homes in Rome were in apartments. In Rome, many mezzanine apartments existed above ground-floor shops in multistory tenement buildings; Aquila and Priscilla may have lived above their artisan shop. Upper-story apartments were cheaper, smaller and flimsier, with room only to sleep; tall buildings periodically collapsed. Apartment churches could have met in the long hallway connecting small apartments, or on the somewhat more spacious lower floors.

Whereas Jewish communities in Alexandria and other cities of the eastern empire had some overarching leadership, Rome did not allow its synagogues to form a central organization. This lack of organization initially may have allowed the gospel to spread more freely among various synagogues, but it also may have allowed more disunity among the various house churches (see

Churches may have followed models from local synagogues, but Rome in any case did not trust within its walls large gatherings or organizations without government supervision. The Roman house churches might especially be threatened with disunity among themselves, because Rome (unlike the cities of the East) did not allow Jews to assemble on any level larger than local synagogues, and Christians were regarded as Jews.

Mary. Lit. “Maria”; it could be either a Latin name or a Latinized form of the common NT Jewish name Miriam.

Andronicus and Junia. Spouses worked together in some professions, and if a man and woman traveled together without scandal they were presumably married (or siblings, though this is much less likely, given the prevalence of marriage). Junia. A feminine Latin name that normally belonged to Roman citizens. (Against some, it cannot be a contraction of the masculine “Junianus”; not only is this contraction not attested, but it does not work for Latin names. Thus ancient interpreters understood her as a woman.) Some Roman citizens were presumably converted before Paul, probably from the Synagogue of the Freedmen in Jerusalem ().

Ampliatus . . . Urbanus. Common names for slaves and freedmen in Rome.

household. Could include slaves and former slaves; elite slaves in wealthy households sometimes held considerable power, even among free persons. Aristobulus. Although a common Greek name, some think that the Aristobulus here might be the grandson of Herod the Great; this Aristobulus lived in Rome.

Herodion. May be so named because he was a slave or freed person from a Herodian family (see note on v. ). household of Narcissus. May mean the freed persons formerly belonging to Narcissus. If this refers to the well-known Narcissus, he was himself a freedman who was one of the empire’s most powerful men under Claudius.

Tryphena and Tryphosa. Greek names, sometimes used also by Jews; the matching names suggest to some scholars that they may have been twins. Persis. Free persons used the name Persis, but it was often used also as a name for slaves from Persia.

Rufus. Though some Jews used this Roman name, it was also a common name for slaves. Some suggest that this is the same Rufus as in , especially since Paul knew his mother. mother to me, too. One could affectionately greet older persons as mother or father, including in closing greetings.

Phlegon. A fairly common name among slaves. Hermes. Not only Greeks but even Diaspora Jews often adopted names originally belonging to Greek deities, such as Hermes (or Apollo; cf. NT Apollos).

Julia, Nereus. Often slaves and freed persons bore these names.

holy kiss. Occasionally letter writers asked a reader to pass on a kiss to someone else. People regularly showed affection by greeting family members, close friends or some others with a light kiss on the mouth. Although this kiss differed from a passionate lover’s kiss, in later centuries the church limited church kisses to one’s own gender because of abuses.

divisions. See

appetites. Ancient intellectuals commonly ridiculed those dominated by their “appetites” (lit. “bellies”). smooth talk and flattery. Ancient intellectuals emphasized appropriate reproof, condemning flattery as hurtful to the recipient.

Cf. ; in light of v. , cf. perhaps also ; .

crush Satan under your feet. The woman’s seed would crush the serpent’s head (). Jewish sources often understood the serpent as Satan or a tool of Satan; they sometimes viewed the woman’s seed as Israel or the Messiah. Paul applies it to believers (probably in addition to Jesus).

Letter writers sometimes included greetings from people in the senders’ location.

Lucius. This name was sometimes abbreviated in Greek as Lucas (Luke; yet the author of Acts, possibly a Gentile Luke [, ], was either not present or returned to Philippi before the others []). Sosipater. A different form of Sopater, so these may be Macedonian colleagues (see , ; ) who went with Paul to Corinth before traveling as local representatives to bring an offering to Jerusalem (; ; ).

Tertius. Often designated the third-born boy; some Jews used this name, but it would have been common in Corinth (where Paul wrote this letter), with its many Roman citizens. who wrote down this letter. Few people were literate enough to write letters; they had to dictate to scribes. Most people with resources also dictated to scribes (sometimes their slaves). A writer who drew attention to his or her signature (as in ; ; ; ) normally used a scribe for the rest of the letter. Scribes rarely added their own greetings, but Tertius is a fellow believer.

Gaius. Some think that Gaius could be the praenomen for Titius Justus; cf. . Gaius was an extremely common name. the whole church. If Gaius’s house accommodated “the whole church” in Corinth, it must have been larger than most of the house churches; but Paul could simply be emphasizing Gaius’s great hospitality or that his had been the initial house church. Erastus . . . director of public works. Occasionally such a title indicated a public slave (sometimes a wealthy person taking this role only for a year); often they were public benefactors. An inscription from this period notes a wealthy benefactor named Erastus, probably the one here (this Greek name is not common in Greece). This Erastus was elected aedile after promising a major donation to the city. Synagogues and other associations could have patrons who were not members; whether this is the Christian Erastus of is debated, but cf. .

Despite much variation in the way that letters concluded, they frequently concluded with a wish for the recipient’s health and then “Farewell.” Synagogues, however, closed prayers, readings and services with benedictions, and Paul anticipates that his letter will be read publicly in house churches’ worship services. Speakers often repeated earlier themes in their conclusions (cf. , especially ; cf. also , ; ; ; , , ).

mystery. In Jewish circles, the Greek term sometimes referred to secret information now revealed only by God (, ; Dead Sea Scrolls).

now revealed and made known through the prophetic writings. As Paul notes here, the Scriptures already included this truth (v. ; see ; cf. further ; ; ; ; ; ), but only now was it understood.

to . . . God be glory. Jewish works often closed with praise to God. Amen. Closed prayers and many Jewish works.

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