Chapter 12
William ofOckham Although no one is adequate to the care of all without any danger, ioss, and inconvenience to any subject, nevertheless many have a sufficiency for this [care] as much as the condition of fallen nature permits. For this reason it is more useful to the totality of mortals to be under one than under many. And thus, although no one is adequate to rule one kingdom, even a small one, without any shortcoming, it is more useful to a particular kingdom to be subject to one lord than to several. Thus, also, although he perceived that no one could judge the Israelite people worthily and without any shortcoming, deficient in nothing, Solomon nevertheless did not refuse government but asked for wisdom to rule more perfectly and more worthily.
Chapter 12 Student Answer the argument for the third opinion reported in chapter 3 above, namely that it would be beneficial to the world for one ruler to preside, namely an ecclesiastic, not a secular,
Master That argument is based on the premtise that wisdom, which is most of all necessary to a president, is found more in ecclesiastics, in both temporal and spiritual matters, than in seculars. To this you answered that in ecclesiastics greater wisdom is found concerning divine matters, not concerning human matters. Some try to disprove that answer by asserting that according to divine law a king should be more expert than others even in matters that relate to the divine law, on which he should continually meditate.
Others try to exclude this objection, asserting that, although by the commandment found in Deuteronomy 17[(:19], as quoted, the king should read God's law "ali the days of his life" - that is, at suitable times — yet priests are by God's commandment more obliged to such reading; and therefore, although the king should not have been completely ignorant of divine wisdom, he was not obliged to excel the priests in divine wisdom: especially since he should not teach divine wisdom publicly, because no king should take to himself the office of preaching; this office, however, does pertain to priests.
* See above, chapter 3 {p. 248).
Al Dialogue, Part int, Tract 0 Student It seems that that answer can still be blocked and that the main argument proves its point, For that person is more suitable to preside in temporal matters who should excel others not only in divine wisdom but also in human wisdom and skill in secular affairs, because to preside pertains especially to the wise, as Solomon testifies. In Proverbs 1[:5] he says, "He who understands will possess government." Also, in chapter 17[:2] he says, "A wise servant shall rule over foolish sons." But prelates of the Church should excel others not only in divine wisdom but also in human wisdom and skill in secular affairs, dist. 39, para.
There Gregory, speaking about appointing a bishop, says, "Ar this time there should be appointed in the stronghoid of government one who knows how to be solicitous, not oniy concerning the welfare of souls, but also concerning outward benefit and security."
1, c. Muli eptscoporam we read: "Concerning the bishop, since he is the best at taking care, let him take care in such a way that all of the sheep entrusted to him are nourished especially by him and helped in their necessities." We gather from these [passages] that prelates of the Church should excel others in skill in secular affairs. Therefore, not a secular ruler, but an ecclesiastic, should - not improperly, because of a greater skill even in temporal matters ~ preside over ail mortals.
Master You are answered that although it has often been approptiate, because of the wickedness or negligence of laymen, for prelates of the Church to undertake the management of certain temporal things, and they are therefore then obliged to have knowledge of secular affairs, yet they should not have the highest degree of skill in such affairs; middling skill is enough for them. For this reason, as the law testifies, and it is noted in the gloss to dist. 37, c.
1, "it is a reproach" to prelates of the Church "if they wish to be experts in the forensic disciplines", and thus they are forbidden to hear [lectures on] the civil laws, Extra, Ne clerict vel monachi seeularibus se negottis imomisceant, Super specufa. For since no one can acquire the most complete knowledge of the civil laws and secular affairs together with the most complete knowledge of sacred literature, and monks and clergy are forbidden to hear [lectures on] the laws so that they may apply themselves more fully to the sacred page, it follows that prelates of the Church should not surpass others in skill in secular affairs, since they should excel everyone
Wilktam of Ockham in knowledge of sacred writings. Therefore, as a rule, a prelate of the Church should not be set over all mortals in temporal matters,
"lest," as blessed Peter testifies (as we read in the Decreta, 11, q.
1, ¢. Te quidem), "being suffocated by the present cares of men," he be "not able to devote" himself "to the word of God." Therefore, although on occasion, when a suitable layman is not found, an ecclesiastic could for a time undertake the care of all in temporal matters, this should not be tolerated as a rule, since according to the apostolic doctrine ecclesiastics should not involve themselves in such care and solicitude concerning temporal matters, except for an unusual reason and as little as possible. Blessed Peter agrees with this; as we read in the Deereta, 11, g.
1, c. Te quidem, in appointing Clement he says:
"Indeed, you must live beyond reproach, and try your utmost to shun all the occupations of this life: do not be a guarantor, do not become an advocate in disputes, lest you be found in some occupation entangled by the circumstances of some worldly affair."
Chapter 13 Student Those who read the tract "Concerning the power of the pope and clergy" can find in it many things on this matter, so turn to the argument brought forward in chapter 4 above for the fourth opinion and relate how it is answered.
Master That argument, to prove that government of the world by many wise men together is the best, is based on the premise that when many rule together fewer errors and faults occur, To this it is answered that the argument might seem to have probability if errors and faults in ruling came about solely from lack of skill, or solely from lack of sound advice, and if the one secular ruler ought to govern his subjects without the advice of the wise. But because errors and faults in ruling come about not only from lack of skill but also from bad will and negligence, and a ruler ought to rule his subjects with the advice of the wise, and no one should be promoted to rulership unless he is better and more prudent than others and it is believed of him with probability that he will wish, when it is necessary and beneficial, to seek the advice of the wise, therefore, as a rule, government by one virtuous and prudent man is superior to government by many virtuous and wise men. For mortals are inclined to conflict and to seeking their own interests
A Dialogue, Part i, Tract ut and not what belongs to the common good, and hence come disturbance of tranquility and peace, corruption of justice, and an infinity of other evils, especially from those who have power over others; and when there were several rulers none of whom was superior to another, conflict would happen more easily than if one were superior to the others, since no one is in conflict with himself; also, many who could not be restrained by a superior would seek their own advantage more easily than if one were lord over the others. Therefore, if one were the ruler, there would be, as a rule, less reason to fear disturbance of peace and corruption of justice and other evils known to come from lack of good government than if several were rulers together and none of them was superior to another: especially since it is easier for the people to correct one ruler, if he goes astray in such a way that he should be corrected or even removed, than several. And it is no cbjection that the truth of justice that is sought by many is found more easily, and that "there is safety where there is much advice," because, as has been said, a virtuous and wise ruler, when ic is beneficial, seeks the advice of wise men and causes the truth to be sought by many; he can rule the advisers seeking the truth and impose on them the due manner (in respect of time and place) of seeking and disclosing it that for each seems best, much better than those advisers could themselves if none of them had power over another, especially since one ruler with power over all the advisers concerning the manner of ruling the advisers can inquire of each of them and accept whichever advice seems sounder. Therefore, however much it is beneficial in difficult cases for the truth to be sought by many, it is useful that one should have power over all the other advisers seeking the truth. Hence it is that, although, as was quoted above in chapter 4, the Romans made themselves a senate-house and 320 men used to deliberate every day giving advice about the multitude, as we read in 1 Machabees 8, yet, as we read in the same place, they entrusted their magistracy to one man, and as a rule all obeyed one man; it is therefore better that one virtuous and prudent man should have world empire than that many should.
Chapter 14 Student So far we have inqv'red whether it is beneficial for the whole human race for one emperor or secular ruler to be over the