Chapter 13
William of Ockham by greater learning and merits."** And Ambrose [says], "Deacons and priests should in behavior and speech lead all of the people living a wholly secular life'; therefore, also, he who should be over evervone should lead others, however holy, in fe and behavior.
Many other arguments and authorities could be brought forward which for the sake of brevity we must pass over.
Chapter 13 Student If any other arguments occur to you to prove that no one should be over all the faithful unless he surpasses all in wisdom and virtue, bring them forward.
Master This is again proved as follows. Ne less wisdom or virtue is needed in one who rules the whole congregation of the faithful in spiritual matters than in a king who presides over his subjects in temporal matters, as Aristotle seems to maintain in Politics, Book vi, chapter 13. According to him (in the same place) it is not just for some to rule always (as kings do, and also highest pontiffs) and the others always to be subject unless they differ from their subjects as much as gods and heroes differ from men. (Gods and heroes, according to him, simply excel all men.) He says this: "If, therefore, some men differed from others as much as we think gods and heroes differ from men, having simply great superiority, first of body and then of soul, so that the superiority of the rulers in respect of their subjects were undoubted and manifest, it is clear that it would be better for those to rule always for life," etc.>+ For what is more excellent and more perfect, while it remains such, is fit to rule whatever lacks such great excellence. When, however, men are not found who differ from others as gods and heroes differ from men, then it is not just that some of them should rule the others for the whole of their lives, but it is just that all should in some way share in the rulership, namely so that all of those who are equals in wisdom and virtue should rule by * The Latin is ambiguous. Pope Leo probably meant: "by those who are greater in zeal and merits."
3} Not found in Ambrose. Jerome: "Bishops, priests and deacons should earnestly ensure that in behavior and speech they lead the whole people over whom they preside"; 8, q. 1, ¢. Quadis.
A Dialogue, Part wi, Tract : turns, first some and then others, 25 Aristotle in the same place seems to maintain. He says, "But since this is not easily found, and there are no kings (as Scylax says there are in India) who differ so much from their subjects, it is manifest that for many reasons all must share, and must rule and be subject in turn" — namely, so that no one should rule through the whole period of his life, but instead they should sometimes cule and sometimes he subject. He gives a reason for this, saying, "For fairness is: the same for similars."°> From these words the following argument is drawn, [t is unjust that someone should always rule his equals and similars; therefore, when some are similar, it is unjust that some af them should always rule and others always be subject. Therefore it follows that, if among the faithful there are many who are like one another in wisdom and virtue, it is unjust that one of them should rule always, for the whole time of his life, and the others always be subject. Therefore, since the pope should be over all the faithful for the whole time of his life, it is unjust that someone should be made pope if others are found like him in wisdom and virtue. It is therefore unjust that someone should be made pope unless he surpasses all the faithful in wisdom and virtue.
Further, papal government is more perfect than royal government, as Gregory Nazienzen testifies. As we read in dist. 10, ¢. Suscipttis, he says, writing to the emperors of Constantinople, "He also gave power to us; he gave a rulership much more perfect than your rulerships." But no one is worthy of royal rulership unless he surpasses others in wisdom and virtue, in fact in all good things, as Aristotle seems to assert in Ethics, Book vu, quoted above in chapter 2 of this second book. This is also proved from the fact that "kingship is established in accordance with aristocracy," according to Aristotle, Politics, Book v, chapter 8.°° Buc in aristocracy those rule who are better than the rest, according to Aristotle, Politics, Book 1v, chapter 5.5' Therefore in a kingdom, also, no one should rule royally unless he surpasses the rest. And thus when
God first appointed a king over his people, he chose the best man of the whole people, as Samuel testifies. In 1 Kings 10j:24] he said of him, ite., of Saul, as he was at that time, "Surely you see
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Ce aman eT ST William of Ockhant him whom the Lord has chosen, that there is nune like him among all the people." Therefore, a fortiori, no ane is worthy of papal rulership unless he excels all in wisdom and virtue. Therefore when there is not found anyone whose excellence is without doubt and manifestly so great (since the excellence of rulers should be undoubted and manifest, according to Aristotle, as was said above in the first chapter™}, then no one should be chosen as highest pontiff, but instead several should be appointed who are more excellent than others, who should rule ail others aristocratically or "constitutionally."
Chapter 14 Student By those arguments you have given me occasion to think of a great many things both in favor of the conclusion for which they are brought forward and against it, and also concerning the whole matter we began to treat of at the beginning of this second book: namely, whether it is beneficial for the congregation of the faithful to be under one prelate. So I intend to probe that matter, and things already touched on, more thoroughly than I proposed and to investigate the force of the arguments brought forward for one side and for the other. In the first place bring forward some arguments to prove that even if no one among the whole Christian people surpassed all the others in virtue and wisdom, it would be better for the Christian peaple to be ruled by one than by many, as is held by the second mode of assertion related above in chapter
11 of the second book."
Master This seems provable as follows. The form of government most of ail beneficial to the whole congregation of the faithful is the same kind as the one that God in both the Old Testament and the New wanted his people to be governed by, since he is himself the best and wisest establisher of every virtuous and useful form of government. But in both Old and New Testaments God wanted his whole people to be governed by one man who would be the governor of all through the whole of his life, even if he
* Not in the first chapter, but in the beginning of this chapter.
* The case made in chapters 1, 9, and co is made again: even if the monarch is not outstandingly good, monarchy is better for the Church than aristocracy.