Chapter 6
A Dialogue, Part itt, Tract iv should be ruled sometimes by one secular ruler (for David and also Solomon ruled over the whole people of God), sometimes by one priest (for Hely the priest judged the whole Israelite peapie), sometimes by several kings none of whom was subject to another
(for Roboam and Jeroboam reigned over the Israelite people in different regions).
It is therefore beneficial that the totality of mortals be subject to one or to many rulers or rectors according to the diversity and necessity of the times.
[3] Again, the way of ruling the totality of mortals that was once just and permissible must be regarded as beneficial, for everything just and permissible should be judged beneficial. Bur sometimes the world was justly and permissibly subjected to government by one ruler and sometimes to government by many. Such a varied way of ruling the totality of mortals according to the diversity, quality, and necessity of the times must therefore still be reckoned beneficial.
Chapter 6 Seudent That epinion is uaderstoad te agree in some respects with the other contrary opinions, and it also seems to disagree with them in some things — or perhaps it does not disagree in any way with the first as interpreted by some, though verbally it seerns to conflict with it. Therefore, whether it is altogether the same as the first opinion as some understand it or is in conflict with it in some way, I wish to know how those who hold that last opinion try to answer the arguments brought forward for the other opinions insofar as they are, or seem to be, against that one. Let us therefore discuss thoroughly the first argument for the first opinion, which is based on the premise that if one secular ruler were lord over all the provinces of the world the bad would be restrained more severely and the good would live more quietly. Say, therefore, how it is answered.
Master The answer made to it is that although it is the rule, and happens more often, that when one secular ruler is lord over all mortals the bad are restrained more strictly and the good live mare quietly among the bad, yet this fails in particular cases.
Student Explain some cases (but only a few) in which they say this fails; for perhaps when a few have been explained I will be able to think of others by myself.
William of Ockham Master Gne case in which they say that under one ruler of the world the bad are not more strictly restrained and the good do not live more quietly among the bad is when some multitude of those who from wickedness refuse to obey the one is so great and so strong that they dare to stir up seditious and dangerous wars against the monarch of the world, with notable loss to the commonwealth and to good people, from which they would cease if different secular rulers with no superior governed the different provinces of the world.
Student' So that I may understand this case more explicitly and more manifestly | would like you to bring forward some examples of it.
Master Although a manifest matter needs no proof, to satisfy your wishes I will bring forward an example from Roman history conceming Julius Caesar, Because he wished to take sole possession of the Roman Empire, which was previously in the power of the senate and consuls, there resulted numberless seditions, factions, and massacres. The whole city of Rome was divided in intestine and civil war; so much slaughter therefore arose that there scarcely survived farmers to till the fields. And thus many of the very best citizens and defenders of the commonwealth were murdered by a cruel death, and the bad were carried to insolence and unbearable pride. Thus it was necessary that the Roman Empire, which by the advice and foresight of many, namely of the whole Senate, grew to an immense size, should little by little decrease, reduced to the lordship of one man. Also, in other factions and civil wars, both Roman and other, it is manifestly seen how when one man wishes to predominate over many powerful men he often stirs up the greatest disturbance of the commonwealth and the exile or killing of good men. In a case in which many would not be willing to endure the dominance of one man, therefore, it would be beneficial to the commonwealth for several to be over different
[subjects] in concord.
Student 1 believe I understand this case new, for I do not doubt that it has often happened and can happen every day. So in a few words relate to me one case more.
* The next four paragraphs are not found in the matuscript and may not be autheritic.
Al Dialogue, Part ut, Tract t Master Another case is when the ruler of the whole world has through temporal force raged with tyrannical cruelty against good men who are lovers of the commonwealth and has advanced the bad who support and help him in his tyranny, as we can read in the histories of many tyrants — for example, Nero, the cruelest of the Roman emperors, who committed many murders against wives, in-laws, and kin and did such great evils that he incited the other kingdoms to rebellion and at length, having been condemned as an enemy by the Senate, turned his hand against himself also and was his own executioner. Similarly, it is sufficiently manifest how pernicious ta good men was the emperor Domitian, who could not have inflicted such murder on good citizens and the best among the nobles if he had not held the empire alone. The same could
' be shown of many others. But let these suffice.
In these two cases, therefore, under one monarch of the world the bad would grow insolent and the good would be very greatly troubled, For this reason, if the world were neither in fact nor of right subject to one secular ruler, and it were feared with probability that if someone assumed the monarchy of the world the bad would grow insolent and the good would be troubled — whether because of the malice of the multitude refusing to obey one man or because of the malice of the one to be appointed - no one should for that time be appointed to the lordship of the whole world.
Student From the things you have just said I understand better the mode of asserting that opinion, and from those things I also conjecture that all cases in which they say that the bad can become insolent and the good be troubled under one monarch of the whole world can be reduced to the two foregoing cases; for, according to them, as I understand it, it never happens that the bad are less restrained and the good live less quietly under one ruler than under many except [1] because of a dangerous rebellion or the particular wickedness of some powerful and large multitude able to stir up dangerous wars, or else [2] because of the wickedness, ignorance, or negligence of the ruler: and in these cases, according to them, if there Aad never been by cight any ruler of the whole world, then no one should be appointed to lordship of the whole world. Do not, therefore, explain more cases in which according to them the bad are less restrained and the good live less quiedy under one lord of the whole world than under several. But [ wish
Wiliam of Ockham to know whether, according to them, affer someone had been of right lord of the whole world (whether by election or by succession), someone should be appointed to the imperial majesty, norwithstanding the wickedness of any multitude unwilling to obey one [ruler] and notwithstanding that it seemed probable that none of those who could be appointed to world empire would wish, and know how, to use such an office justly and lawfully.
Master You will have an opportunity to ask about this afterwards if you wish, when we investigate whether the Roman Empire can be destroyed or annulled or can cease.'
Student All the same, say briefly what answer they make to this.
Master Some of them say that in the above cases the appointment of anyone whatever to world empire should be deferred, because nothing detrimental to the commonwealth should be done, especially if it proceeded from human ordinance and not from divine law or the law of nature; and therefore, as long as the appointment of someone to world empire would be detrimental to the commonwealth, whether because of the wickedness of subjects or because of the inadequacy of the one to be appointed, such appointment should not be attempted, because "a provision made for concord" should not "tend to harm," dist. 45, Leet.
Chapter 7 Student I understand how they say that the bad can grow insolent and the good be troubled more under one ruler of all than under several. Therefore say how the proofs brought up on the opposite side are answered.
Master To the first — which is based on the premise that if one man were ruler and Jord of the totality of living persons, he would have the greatest power to restrain the bad and protect the good — it is answered that because sometimes someone is lord of the whole world by right and not in fact (because many rebel against him), it can therefore happen that the lord and ruler of the whole world has less power to restrain the bad and protect the good than many against whom none, or not as many, try to rebel.
* See a Dial, n, 1.31; also OG, m.17 (translated below). z+