Chapter 3
A Dialogue, Part mi, Tract u unbelievers, because the Apostle prohibits ic. In 2 Corinthians 6f:1
4), he says, "Bear not the yoke with unbelievers." Nor should they have community or peaceful society with them, by the testimony ofthe King ofKings and Lord ofLords himself, who says in Matthew ro[:3.4]: "Do not think that ] have come to bring peace to the earth; J came net to bring peace, but the sword. I have come co divide a man against his father," etc. In Deuteronomy 7[:2] believers are explicitly commanded to strike unbelievers even to death and not enter into any treaty with them, and not to have mercy on them. The Apostle also teaches this in 2 Corinthians 6[:1 4], saying: 'For what share has justice with injustice?
Or what fellowship has light with darkness? And what concord has Christ with Belial? Or what part has the believer with the unbeliever?"
; The wise man speaks in agreement with these: in Ecclesiasticus 13[:22] he says, "What fellowship has a holy man with a dog?" Nor, also, should believers have recourse to the court of unbelievers to undergo judgment, as the Apostle testifies. As we read in 1 Corinthians 6[:5], he sharply rebukes believers who were litigating before unbelievers, saying: "I speak thus to your shame: is there not among you any wise man who can judge between a brother and his brother? Bur brother contends with brother in court, and this before unbetievers." From these [texts} we gather that believers should be altogether separated from unbelievers both in respect oflitigation in court and in respect of all peaceful sharing. Therefore the totality of mortals should not be subject to one emperor or secular ruler.
{6} Moreover, no one who cannot take due care ofthem should preside over the totality of mortals; but no one man can take due care of the totality of mortals, since no one is adequate of himself to have the care of even one small kingdom (small in relation to the whole world), as Solomon testifies. As we read in z Paralipomenon 1[:1o], he says, speaking to God, "For who can judge worthily this people of yours, which is so great?" — as if to say, "No one." Therefore, ¢ fortiori, no one Will be able to judge worthily the totality of mortals.
Chapter 3 Student Report another opinion on this question.
Master Another opinion is that it would be beneficial for one ruler, not a secular but an ecclesiastic, to preside over the totality of mortals.
William of Ockham Student We can find many things in favor of this opinion in the tract concerning the power of the pope and clergy, so bring forward a few for its confirmation.
Master In favor of this opinion it can be argued thus. Wisdom seems to be chief among all the excellences by which a ruler should excel his subjects, even one who presides over subjects in temporal matters. And thus we read that Solomon, who asked for wisdom from God so that he could worthily rule God's people in temporal matters, was magnificently commended by God. The Lord said to him, as we read in 2 Paralipomenon 1:11]: "Because this has pleased your heart more, and you have not asked for riches and wealth and glory, nor for the lives of these who hate you, nor for many days of life, but for knowledge and wisdom to be able to judge my people over whom | have appointed you king, wisdom and knowledge have been granted to you; [ will give you morcover riches and wealth and giory." And the same Solomon says, Proverbs
1{:5], "He who understands will possess governments." By these [texts] we are given to understand that for a ruler wisdom is especially necessary. But greater wisdom is found in ecclesiastics than in seculars. Therefore not a secular ruler, but an ecclesiastic, is worthy to be over the whole world.
Student This argument does not seem to follow. He who is over others in temporal matters should excel others in worldly wisdom and skill in secular business, not in divine wisdom. But although ecclesiastics excel in divine wisdom, seculars excel in worldly wisdom. He who presides in temporal matters should therefore be a secular and not an ecclesisstic, a layman and not a cleric.
Master Some try to disprove this answer. As we gather from the divine Scriptures, he who is over others in temporal matters should be more expert not only in worldly wisdom but also in divine wisdom and in Ged's law, since 2 king who rules in temporal matters should meditate continually on the law of God, as God says. In Deuteronomy 17[:18], speaking of the king, He says, "And after he sits on the throne of his kingdom, he will write out for himself the Deuteronomy of this law in a volume, and, taking the exemplar from the priests of the levitical tribe, he will have it with him and will read it all the days of his life." And the Lord also instructed Joshua, who presided in temporal matters, saying, "Let not the volume of this law depart from your mouth, but you will
A Dialogue, Part 1, Tract ir meditate on it by day and by night, so that you may keep and do all the things written in ie? [Joshua 1:8}. We gather from these [passages] that a temporal president should surpass others not only in worldly wisdom and skill in secular business but also in divine wisdom.
Chapter 4 Student I would like to hear yet another opinion about my question.
Master There are some who say that it is not beneficial that one ruler, either a secular or an ecclesiastic, should preside over the ; totality of mortals, and it is also not beneficial that several seculars or ecclesiastics with no superior should be the lord of different mortals in different provinces or kingdoms; but the world would be ruled best if many held lordship of the world together, just as in many cities and communities, as we know, not one only but many rule.
Student Bring forward some argument for this opinion.
Master It seems possible to support this opinion as follows. That form of government or lordship is more useful to the whole world in which fewer errors and sins occur, because through such a lordship or government justice, peace, and the concord of all is better achieved and also preserved. But if many wise and virtuous persons were iords over the totality of mortals, fewer errors and sins in ruling would occur than if one person alone governed all; for just as the truth of justice that is soughe by many is found more easily,? so it is more difficult for many to err than one alone.
Thus Solomon in Proverbs 13 and 24f:6] asserts that "there will be safety where there is much advice." Thus also in 1 Machabees Bf:15] it is said in praise of the Romans that "they made themselves a senate-house, and three hundred and twenty men used to deliberate every day, giving advice about the multitude, that they might act worthily." It is more beneficial to che totality of mortals, there- * Fhe manuscripts do not give any source. See dist. 20, De guides (What is sought by many elders is found more easily"), and gloss to the decretals, Extra, 1.29.21, col. 344, ¥. Phurinonen (What is sought by many wise persons is found more easily"). The phrase "the truth of justice" comes from Deut. 17:9. dN OERCRA ERO CaM i TMA we POET ne TP A TN Milham of Ockham fore, that several together should preside over all, rather than one alone.
Chapter 5 Student Relate another opinion about my question, if there is one.
Master Another opinion is that it is beneficial that the governments and lordships of mortals should vary according to the diversity, quality, and necessity of the times, so that sometimes it is beneficial that one miler, a secular or an ecclesiastic, should be over all mortals, but sometimes it is beneficial that many together, seculars or ecclesiastics, should govern all others, and sometimes it is useful that several rulers without a superior should preside over different regions of the world.
Student Try to support this opinion with some arguments.
Master It seems possible to support this opinion in several ways.
[r] Just as laws should be established for the common advantage, dist. 4, Enit autem, so rulers, rectors and lords, both seculars and ecclesiastics, should be placed over others for the common advantage, which, also, they are obliged to take care of more than their own; for if they put their own ahead of the common advantage, they should be regarded not as rectors or princes or lords but as tyrants, But sometimes the common advantage would be taken care of better by one ruler, a secular or an ecclesiastic, ruling over all, than dy several with no superior, whether ruling together or presiding in different provinces, because sometimes the multitude of mortals would bear the lordship of one secular or ecclesiastical ruler conspicuous in wisdom, justice, and the other virtues required in a ruler with more equanimity than they would the lordship of many. Sometimes, however, the great multitude of mortals would not bear the lordship of one but would willingly subject themselves to the lordship of many (either ruling together or having care of different provinces), and consequently the common advantage would then be taken care of better by many than by one alone.
It is beneficial, therefore, for one or several to rule mortals, according to the diversity and necessity of the times.
(2] Further, the totality of mortals is best ruled in the way that is more like the way of ruling in which God ordained that the people should be ruled who were subject to himself by the true faith. But God ordained that the Israelite people subject to himself