Content
Revelation derives its title from Greek apokalypsis, "uncovering" This prophetic record foresees the final fulfillment of salvation history, initiated by God immediately after the fall of Adam and Eve, and so forms a fitting climax not just to the New Testament but to the entire Bible. Revelation also comprises the Bible's most fully developed form of "apocalyptic" literature, a genre that prophesies cataclysmic events that culminate in the eternally decisive triumph of good over evil (cf. Daniel 7-12; Matthew 24-25). Apocalyptic literature flourished in the ancient world from ca. 250 B.C. to A.D. 250, a period during the middle of which grew the widespread persecution of Christians throughout the Roman Empire. Revelation emerged primarily as an exhortation that Christians resist conformity to the pagan secularism of Rome. The impetus for the exhortation may draw on Emperor Nerds past persecution of Christians to prevent their giving in to worldliness when threatened by future tribulation and martyrdom. Revelation assures Christians that resisting conformity to the world ensures their inclusion in the eternal kingdom of Christ, who at his second coming will crush and confine for good the forces of evil, including unrepentant humanity.
Modern readers often find understanding Revelation a daunting task at best because of the book's pervasive symbolism, frequent flashbacks, flash forwards, and unannounced switches between heavenly and earthly scenes. These features, combined with the temptation to assign symbolic meaning where it does not belong, make the interpretation of Revelation a matter that requires close attention and careful study. Keeping in mind the style of the book, its original purpose, and a general outline of its contents facilitates an understanding of this eternally consequential and universally relevant message. See "The Use of Imagery in the Apocalypse" (733-34)•
Content
Chapter i explains the origin and nature of the book as a record of visionary messages imparted by Christ to the author, named John. Chapters 2-3 contain separate messages of exhortation and/or encouragement targeting each of seven churches, to which John addresses the entire book. Chapters 4-5 describe the visionary appearance of Christ in the heavenly court to claim his rightful inheritance of the world from God the Father. The cataclysmic events of the tribulation predominate in chapters 6-19; and the book culminates in chapters 20-22 with a description of the millennial (iooo-year) rule of Christ, the last judgment, and the new Jerusalem.
Authorship and Date
The author reports his name as John. Since the writing style differs significantly from those of the Gospel and Letters of John, some scholars doubt that the same man wrote Revelation. The book does show certain thematic similarities with the Gospel (emphasis on witness/testimony), and reasonable explanations for the stylistic differences include the book's unique subject matter and prophetic character, the "ecstatic" or visionary nature of its origin, and the author's probable lack of a secretary while writing from exile on the island of Patmos for preaching the gospel. Early tradition favored John the apostle as the author and during the latter part of his life locates him in Ephesus, where he would have gained firsthand knowledge of the Ephesian church and had opportunity to visit the other six churches addressed in Revelation (i:ll). Scholars generally agree that John wrote Revelation during the last third of the ist century, most likely during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian (81-96), as attested by the early church father Irenaeus. Some would date the book to the reign of Nero, who began wide-scale persecution of Christians after the burning of Rome in 64, or Titus, who succeeded Nero but ruled for only two years (79-81).
Apocalyptic Literature in Judaism and Christianity
The book of Revelation has many features of a kind of ancient Jewish and Jewish-Christian literature designated by modern scholars as apocalyptic literature, which flourished particularly between 250 B.c. and A.D. 250. "Apocalyptic" comes from Greek apokalypsis, which means "disclosure" or "revelation." The word is found in the opening words of Revelation: The revelation of Jesus Christ" (1:1). The transliterated form of the word has given us the English term apocalyptic.
An apocalypse is a literary work. It is typically a prose narrative written in the first person. As the meaning of apocalypse (disclosure, revelation) suggests, the work focuses on the disclosure of things that are currently unknown or hidden. In this work, the narrator records a series of revelations, reported to have been received either through visions, journeys to heaven, or both. The seer is guided by a heavenly escort, usually an angel, who serves as interpreter of these visions and experiences. These visions and journeys disclose transcendent realities to the "seer," who may then record them and their interpretation for others to read and ponder. The secrets that are made known typically take the form either of a historical narrative that leads to the present and foreshadows God's assured future salvation, or of heavenly myster
ies currently unavailable to human beings.
Apocalypses have a number of other features in common. They depend heavily on imagery and motifs from the Old Testament. They use symbolism of numbers, colors, and animals, particularly fantastic or mythical beasts, all of which must be interpreted for the seer. Apocalypses are generally written under a pseudonym of a worthy ancient figure, such as Adam, Abraham, Moses, Enoch, or Ezra. Christians also adopted the strategy of pseudonymous writing. Christian apocalypses appeared under the name of ancient prophets, such as Isaiah, and the apostles, including Peter, Thomas, and Paul. The notable exception is the book of Revelation, written by John, a wellknown figure in the 1st century. Pseudonymity allowed otherwise unknown authors to claim the authority of a revered religious figure for their work. It also allowed the actual author to write of contemporary events under the guise of predictive prophecy. Apocalypses tend to have in common a similar worldview, known as apocalypticism. Apocalypticism is typically sharply dualistic, describing what goes on in the world in terms of conflict and even combat between good and evil or, more specifically, between God and his angels on the one hand and the Devil and demons
on the other. In Jewish and Christian apocalypses, this conflict is not open-ended, but will end in God's decisive intervention to overthrow evil and vindicate righteousness. In spite, then, of the suffering and ills of the present life, a recurring theme of apocalyptic literature is the expectation that God will vindicate his faithful saints, punish the disobedient and apostate, and triumph over all powers of evil.
Although not all apocalypses have to do with the end times, many include or focus on speculation regarding the end of the present course of human history. Apocalyptic eschatology refers to the expectations surrounding the end as found in apocalyptic literature. These include beliefs that the end will be foreshadowed by various eschatological signs, particularly in the natural realm; that these will include or culminate in a cosmic catastrophe or series of cataclysms; that the end is near; and that a redeemer figure of some sort, such as the Son of Man in 1 Enoch or the mysterious "Melchizedek" in one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, will arise to bring God's deliverance.
Ancient Jewish apocalypses include 2 Baruch, 4 Ezra, and 1 Enoch. In addition to the New Testament book of Revelation, there are other Christian apocalypses from the 1st and 2nd centuries. These include The As- cension of Isaiah, The Shepherd of Hermas, and The Apocalypse of Peter. This last work, written in the 2nd century under
the name of Peter, describes a journey through hell and heaven and the torments and blessings to be experienced in each of these
realms. It subsequently influenced Dante's Divine Comedy.
MARIANNE MEYE THOMPSON
1:1-8 Introduction and Greetings
The first three verses characterize this mainly visionary record as a prophecy originating with God the Father, given to Christ for his "bondservants" (v. 5), and mediated through a heavenly messenger to John, an eyewitness to the earthly ministry of Jesus, the "Word" of God (cf. John 1:1). The nearness of the "time" (the return of Christ, v. 3; compare V. 7 with Dan. 7:13; Zech. 12:10) drives home the urgency for every generation of Christians to heed this message, for "nearness" calculated according to God's timetable could mean any time soon in human terms (cf. 3:3; 1 Thess. 5:2; Ps. 90:4-6).
John greets his audience in ancient epistolary form (vv. 4-7). He addresses seven churches in Asia (a Roman province covering western Asia Minor), including congregations in the provincial capital of Ephesus and the less prominent towns of Thyatira and Laodicea (v. 11). The salutation "Grace ... and peace" imitates the signature greeting of Paul (cf. Rom. 1:7), which pairs the usual Greek and Hebrew words of greeting and conveys the respective meanings of ill-deserved divine favor and abundant blessing. On the eternality of God heralded in verse 4 (see also v. 8, where "Alpha" and "Omega" name the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet); cf. John 1:1-2. "Seven spirits" before God's throne probably denotes the many aspects of the one Holy Spirit fully imparted to each of the seven churches (cf. 4:5; Isa. 11:2). Christ as the "firstborn of the dead" (v 5) celebrates the victory accomplished by his resurrection (cf. Col. 1:15-18).
1:9-20 John's Initial Vision
Verses 9-10 summarize the circumstances of John's initial vision, which spans 1:11-3:22. His preaching of the gospel has landed him in prison on Patmos, an Aegean island off southcentral Asia Minor. One Lord's day (Sunday), while in a state of prophetic ecstasy, he received a revelation from God. In highly symbolic language John describes his vision of Christ surrounded by seven churches, represented as golden lampstands. To John, Christ looks like a formidable human being ("Son of Man") clothed in priestly garments and displaying snow-white hair indicative of his eternality; fiery eyes that penetrate the darkest corner; hot and heavy bronze feet for stomping his foes in judgment; a voice as loud as whitewater rapids; razor-sharp words that cut both ways (for judgment and salvation); and a shining face, the intense brightness of which indicates his absolute righteousness. John faints at the awesome appearance of Christ (v. 17) but revives at his reassuring declaration of power over death and "Hades;" in Hellenistic thought the scene of eternal torment.
2-3 Seven Messages for Seven Churches
Seven individualized messages to the churches named in 1:11 follow the same overall pattern: an address to the church's "angel" (a heavenly representative or guardian of the church (cf. 1:16, 20); an identification of Christ the speaker in terms excerpted from John's vision of 1:19-20 as applicable to the specific situation of the church; a summary of the church's circumstances and spiritual health; an exhortation to perseverance and/or repentance; and a promise to "conquerors," Christians who by their conduct prove themselves as true disciples of the ultimate conqueror, Christ (cf. 5:5)•
The Goal of Faith
The belief that God is at work in human history and the hope that God's purposes ultimately will prevail are basic to Christianity, as they already were to Judaism. The origins of these ideas are complex but intelligible. Of particular importance are the covenantal traditions of Israel, which included promises for the future. In Genesis, Abraham and Sarah are pledged a multitude of descendants (Gen. 15:5), land (vv. 7, 18-21), prosperity, and blessing (22:18). Thus the expectation was fostered that God will act over time to fulfill God's promises. Similarly, the covenant at Sinai included pledges of deliverance, land, and divine revelation (Exod. 3:7-10; 6:28). The blessings of this covenant were conditional, to be bestowed or withdrawn based upon Israel's covenantal loyalty or infidelity. The coupling of faithfulness and fate led to the convictions that Israel's tragedies were divine punishments and that corporate repentance would lead to national restoration, both important ideas in later eschatological preaching.
The covenant with David (2 Samuel 7) also played a significant role in later eschatological expectation. God's promise to David of an everlasting throne contributed to the hope of Israel's renewal following the exile (Jer. 23:5-6; 33:14-26). Moreover, it became the basis for belief in a kingly Messiah who would rule eternally (Mark 11:10; Matt. 12:23).
Eschatology is a theologi
cal response to the existence of evil, a belief that, despite present appearances to the contrary, God will win. One might say that eschatology is theology projected forward: if God is such a God, then the future is such a future. For that reason, the experience of the exile was crucial to the development of biblical eschatology. Jerusalem lay in ruins. Had God abandoned Israel? Was there "a future with hope" (Jer. 29:11)? Yes, answered prophets such as Jeremiah and Ezekiel, both of whom had earlier warned of Israel's destruction. God has not abandoned the covenant. The people will return to the land, the temple will be restored, and the children of Israel equipped by the Spirit to obey the law "written on their hearts" (Jer. 31:33).
The expectation of a glorious future became increasingly pronounced in the writings of the exilic and then postexilic prophets (Ezek. 34:25-31; 36:8-12, 29-30). This trend is most evident in apocalyptic literature, which came into being at this time. Apocalyptic writings stress the imminent and direct intervention of God to destroy evil and establish everlasting peace. The apocalyptic chapters of Daniel (7-12) were especially influential, in particular, the vision of the coming heavenly Son of Man who would judge and rule eternally over the earth (Dan. 7:1314), a complex of ideas that were taken up both by Jesus and the early church.
By the 1st century A.D., there
existed in Judaism a diversely constructed but widely held belief that God would act decisively to fulfill Israel's expectations of restoration and glory. So when, according to Mark 1:15, Jesus began his ministry by preaching that The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God has come near," his words were certain to cause a stir. His actions, too, spoke powerfully of the approaching reign of God. In Luke's Gospel, Jesus explicitly identifies his work with the eschatological program of Isa. 61:1-2 (Luke 4:18-19).
It is evident from the Gospel record that Jesus disappointed the expectations of most of his fellow Jews. His was not the messiahship popularly anticipated. In particular, he did not seek to gather an army and lead them against the Romans. Instead, he appears to have thought that God would act directly to bring the "peaceable kingdom" to earth. Moreover, he accepted his impending death at the hands of the Romans, believing that both he and his message would be vindicated beyond the grave.
Despite differences with his contemporaries, Jesus' expectations for the future were thoroughly Jewish. God's reign would come to earth, inaugurated by the Son of Man (Mark 8:38; 13:26-27). The first petition of the Lord's Prayer asks, Your kingdom come, .. . on earth as it is in heaven." The earthliness of Jesus' hope is underscored by descriptions of God's dominion that include such mundane activities as eating and drinking (Matt. 8:11; Mark 14:25; Luke 22:28-29). Another link to Jewish expectation is to be found in the calling of the 12 disciples, which likely has in view the much anticipated restoration of the 12 tribes (cf. Matt. 19:28).
Jesus' teaching about God's reign emphasized reversal. The tables will be turned; those who are on the inside now will be on the outside then, and vice versa (Mark 10:31). This view is exemplified in the Beatitudes (Matt. 5:3-5)
Jesus not only anticipated this reversal; he enacted it. He was notorious for accepting the company of the unacceptable. He touched lepers and healed demoniacs, welcomed prostitutes and ate with tax collectors, approached women with respect and treated the poor with dignity.
In this as in many other cases, Jesus appears to have believed both that God's reign was still coming and that it was already demonstrated in his ministry. The distinction between what God has already done (or is now doing) and what God has yet to do is often characterized as the difference between "realized" and "future" eschatologies. The tension between these perspectives is especially pronounced in the case of the early Christians, who looked back on the work already completed by Jesus (such as his
victory over sin and death in his crucifixion and resurrection) and also looked forward to his coming in glory.
In many important ways, the New Testament church's expectations mirrored those of Jesus. Both looked forward to the coming of God's great final victory. Both anticipated the arrival of one who would fulfill the role of Daniel's Son of Man. The early church unambiguously identified Jesus with that figure, now vindicated and enthroned in power. So the prediction of the coming of the Son of Man in Matthew (24:30-31) becomes a promise of the Lord's return in Paul (1 Thess. 4:15-18).
That is not to say that there were no differences, developments, or disagreements in Christian eschatology. In particular, the passage of time encouraged new perspectives. Many of the later New Testament writings demonstrate a shift toward a more realized eschatology. Mark, probably the earliest Gospel, has a largely future eschatological orientation; John, the latest Gospel, has by a considerable margin the most realized eschatological perspective. (Only in John is "eternal life" a present possession of believers; cf. John 3:36; 524; 6:47.) Other changes included the tendency to exalt the church and depreciate Israel in Christian thinking. Doubtless, the rancorous divorce
between Judaism and Christianity stands behind this move toward the idea that the church had superseded or taken the place of Israel.
The move away from Israel, especially understandable in an increasingly Gentile church, fits hand in glove with a move toward a more heavenly and less earthly eschatological expectation. The "restoration of Israel" was less concrete expectation and more spiritual metaphor as time went by. The recovery of the 12 tribes became a nonissue, as did the repossession of the land. Altogether, there was more talk of heavenly and less talk of earthly paradise, although the latter did not disappear entirely (cf. Revelation 21).
Both biblical Testaments end on a note of hope (Malachi 4; Revelation 22), a fact which perfectly exemplifies the eschatological character of Judaism and Christianity. The expectation of God's final victory is not only at the conclusion of both Testaments; it is at the very heart of biblical faith.
For Further Reading
CRAIG C. HILL
2:1-7 To Ephesus The visionary Christ commends the Ephesian Christians for upholding high moral standards within their community. They share his abhorrence of the Nicolaitans, a Christian sect that permitted participation in the local pagan cults. But in the commendable effort to maintain religious purity, the Ephesians have forsaken acts of Christian love for one another (cf. 1 John 4:7-5:3). Only repentance - here, the resumption of loving acts - will avert God's punishment. The tree of life initially planted in the garden of Eden becomes for Christians a symbol of eternal life made available through the resurrected Christ, exalted to the heavenly "paradise of God" N. 7).
2:8-11 To Smyrna Christ reassures his spiritually rich followers in the coastal town of Smyrna by stating his awareness of their material poverty and religious persecution. By foretelling their intensified but temporally limited suffering, he prepares them to heed his exhortation that they cling to their faith even in the face of death. Such faithfulness will seal their receipt of the "crown" of eternal life and ensure their protection from the "second death" (v. 11) at the final judgment (cf. 20:14-15).
2:12-17 To Pergamum Pergamum served as the regional center of Roman emperor worship and maintained on its acropolis an enormous altar to Zeus ("Satan's throne," v. 13). Christ commends the church as a whole for faithfulness in this pagan, pluralistic, anti-Christian atmosphere. But the community's failure to correct those who abandon orthodox doctrine and practice (vv. 14-15) has invited his punishment, and he exhorts them to repent and to correct wayward members. The promised "hidden manna" (v. 17) symbolizes eternal life and recalls the food miraculously given to the Israelites of the wilderness wanderings. The inscribed white stone, representing a favorable vote in 1stcentury legal and business practices, constitutes a ticket to eternal life for the faithful.
2:18-29 To Thyatira In contrast to the situation at Ephesus, acts of Christian love have increased at Thyatira, but Christians there tolerate a false prophetess and teacher ("Jezebel"; cf.1 Kings 16-21) who has pursued and encouraged participation in immoral and idolatrous practices, perpetuated at pagan festivals sponsored by the city's numerous trade guilds. For refusing to mend her ways she incurs a curse from God - good reason for her wayward companions to repent and for others to persist in orthodox belief and practice. In verses 26-27, the promise given to the faithful recalls Ps. 2:8-9. Thyatira was the hometown of Lydia, Paul's first-recorded convert in Europe (Acts 16:14).
3:1-6 To Sardis The church in Sardis enjoyed a reputation for Christian vitality, but John's vision exposes the truth of its spiritual apathy. Unless Christians there soon demonstrate their faith with action, Christ's return will catch them off guard, and they will come up short on judgment day. The few who remain faithful receive Christ's assurance of eternal life and the promise of "white garments," symbolizing justification (consideration by God as righteous; cf. v. 18). The metaphor carried special significance in view of the city's wool-dyeing industry.
New Testament Attitudes toward the Roman State
New Testament views of Rome range from affirmation of its authority to guarded acknowledgment of its power to negative assessment of state power as demonic.
Several epistles urge a positive approach toward the Roman state. Titus 3:1 encourages peaceful behavior by reminding Christians to be subject to rulers and authorities, to be obedient." Similarly, 1 Tim. 2:1-2 urges the reader to pray for kings and all who are in high positions," again so Christians may live in peace under rulers who strive to secure peaceful conditions. Likewise, 1 Pet. 2:13-14 advocates obedience to state authority for the Lord's sake." The purpose here, however, is more directly to silence criticism of the church. Christians are to prove by their obedience to the state that they are good citizens and no threat.
In Rom. 13:1-7 Paul provides Christians in Rome with specific instructions on how to relate to the Roman state. They are to be subject to the governing authorities," recognizing that ultimately all authority comes from God, who uses even Roman officials as instruments of peace. Possibly writing with a view to the edict of Claudius in A.D. 49 that had expelled Jews from Rome for rioting and Nero's probable recent rescinding of that edict early in his reign, Paul urges the Roman Chris
tians, both Jew and Gentile, to live together in peace so no repetition of the earlier disorder might occur and adversely affect the church in Rome. In Rom. 13:6-7 Paul specifically urges Christians to pay their taxes. Josephus indicates that nonpayment of taxes was already advocated at that time by Zealots in Judea (J.W. 2.118), and Tacitus notes that Romans themselves were complaining about the practices of tax collectors (Ann. 13.50-51). Paul's strong affirmation of Roman authority is aimed at stemming unrest that could lead to disastrous consequences for Christians in Rome.
Bronze prutah of the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate, with inscriptions "of Tiberius Caesar" (left) and "year 18" (right); minted in Judea, A.U. 31. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)
Luke-Acts reflects a more guarded acceptance of Roman authority. Luke 2:1-5 depicts Jesus' parents complying with a state-ordered census. In Luke 20:25, Jesus allows paying taxes to Rome, but again ultimate loyalty must be to God. Throughout Acts Paul enjoys the privilege of Ro
man citizenship and appeals to Roman authority for protection. Paul and other Christians who are investigated by Roman officials are exonerated by them. The same respect does not hold for Jewish authorities ruling with Roman support. When ordered by the council convened by the high priest to stop their preaching, Peter and John assert that one must obey God rather than any human authority whenever their commands conflict with one another (Acts 5:29). In Acts 12, Herod is guilty of abusing his power by persecuting the church. Luke's apologetic concern allows him to portray Jewish authorities ruling under the Romans in a negative light, but he refrains from criticizing the Romans themselves.
Jesus' word about paying taxes (Luke 2o:25; cf. Matt. 22:21; Mark 12:17) reflects caution about complete acceptance of Roman authority. As long as the Roman state abides by its God-given mandate to maintain the peace, it should be supported. State authority, however, is limited to the political realm; the state has no jurisdiction in the things that are God's."
Revelation 12-13 and 17 express a negative rejection of state power when that power has overstepped the boundary between the political and the religious. Generally understood to refer symboli
cally to Rome and the cult of the emperor, to which residents of the empire were expected to show devotion, Revelation portrays the Roman state as demonic. In this, the book expresses an attitude toward Rome found in other early Christian writings of the period (cf. Epistle of Barnabas 2:1; 4:3-5; Sibylline Oracles 8:65-72). Possible persecution of the church by Roman officials has here altered the
relative tolerance toward the state implied in earlier New Testament books. As long as the state fulfills its role as peacekeeper, Christians are urged to recognize its authority and to support it with prayers and taxes. When it conflicts with the ideals of religion and punishes those who cannot compromise their loyalty to the higher authority of God, it is to be resisted.
R. SCOTT NASH
3:7-13 To Philadelphia Only encouragement and promise come to the relatively small but commendably steadfast church in Philadelphia, persecuted by Jewish rejecters of the gospel. Christ, who as the heir of David keeps the key to the messianic kingdom (cf. 2 Samuel 7; Matt. 1:1-17), reassures them of their salvation.
"Pretribulationist" interpreters take the promise in verse io to "keep you from the hour of trial" as an indication that God will remove true Christians in a "rapture" before the great tribulation. "Posttribulationists" believe the phrase promises Christ's faithful protection on earth during the final display of divine judgment (cf. John 17:15).
3:14-22 To Laodicea The relatively easy life enjoyed by Laodicean believers bred spiritual apathy. This self-sufficient city had grown so wealthy from banking and industry that it needed no aid from Rome for reconstruction after a destructive earthquake in 6o. Likening the temperature of the church to Laodicea's water supply, turned tepid while flowing by aqueduct from a nearby hot spring, Christ calls the congregation good for nothing and threatens metaphorically to spit the lukewarm Laodiceans out of his mouth.
Residents of this renowned center for medical studies used a Phrygian eye-powder acclaimed for its curative powers and wore distinctive garments made from the wool of the region's sheep, famous for their jet-black coats. But Christ exposes the physically healthy and well-clothed Laodicean Christians as spiritually blind and naked. He exhorts them to "buy" from him heavenly treasure (by putting their faith into action), don the "white" garments of righteousness (cf. W. 4-5), and gain spiritual eyesight from him. Note Christ's assurance that his continued love for the lackadaisical Laodiceans motivates his reproval (v. 19). His knocking on the door to the hearts of the spiritually calloused Laodiceans (v 20) invites them to join the messianic banquet and renew their covenant with him. Assuring to those who respond a royal seat with the resurrected, ascended, and exalted Christ promises them eternal life in the messianic kingdom (v 21).
4 John Visits Heaven
In a new vision, Christ invites John to enter heaven and learn of future events on earth. There he sees God the Father enthroned in splendor and surrounded by 24 similarly enthroned "elders;" clothed in white (symbolizing righteousness) and crowned with gold (their heavenly treasure). These elders may represent the true church, comprised of the new Israel (drawn from the 12 Hebrew tribes) and the apostolic church (born from the ministry of the 12 apostles; cf. 7:5-8; 21:12, 14). Others interpret the elders as individuals, namely, the 12 patriarchs and the 12 apostles. The attendant thunder and lightning evidence the presence of God (cf. 11:19; Exod. 19:16). In front of the throne appears the Holy Spirit, manifested as seven burning lamps corresponding to the seven churches (cf. 1:20). A crystalline sea and four creatures, representing all earthly beings, complete the scene. As the creatures continually confess the holiness of the almighty, eternal God, the elders prostrate themselves in worship before the Creator.
5 The Seven-Sealed Scroll
God holds a scroll inscribed on both sides but unreadable because seven seals secure its outer edge. The scroll represents the deed to the created world, the inheritance reserved for a worthy recipient (vv. 9-10). When no viable candidates emerge, John weeps. But a deserving heir does appear: the Lion of Judah, descended from David, who through resurrection overcame death as the ultimate sacrificial Lamb that now intercedes between his faithful followers and God his Father (cf. Heb. 4:14-5:10). In the Bible the number seven represents perfection or completion, and here the seven horns of the Lamb represent his supreme power, as the seven eyes stand for the Holy Spirit sent to all believers after Jesus' ascension to heaven (cf. John 14:16; 16:7-14). The Lamb's taking of the scroll prompts universal worship that acknowledges his worthiness to inherit the messianic kingdom.
6-16 The Seven Seals, Trumpets, and Bowls
John sees three groups of ultimate catastrophes, initiated by the breaking of seals. Tragedy intensifies as the tribulation wears on.
6:1-8:1 The Seven Seals The disasters represented by the seals focus on war and its fallout.
6 Militarism Spawns Martyrdom By breaking the seals on the scroll, the Lamb asserts his right to rule the world. But chaos abounds, and the world becomes temporarily worse before Christ makes it eternally better. Militarism tips the first domino in a series of disasters: war, famine (flour for a couple of loaves of bread costs an entire day's wage, v. 6), death, persecution and martyrdom, and worldwide fear inspired by natural disasters that presage the second coming of Christ (cf. Matt. 24:29-30; Mark 13:24-26; Luke 21:25-27).
But the destruction intensifies at the authoritative direction of the supreme God, who judges the world even as he goes about redeeming it. Christians who suffer increasing persecution undergo the testing of their faith, martyrs for which receive the heavenly rewards of rest and a "white robe" signifying justification (cf. 2:10 and God's hardening of Pharaoh's heart to the ultimate advantage of the chosen Hebrews; Exod. 4:21). Indeed, completion of God's plan requires filling up the ranks of predetermined martyrs, so that their deaths become not simply tragic consequences but redemptive triumphs paralleling the victory over death won by Christ (6:10-11; cf. Heb. 11:32-40).
7:1-8:1 Protecting the Elect Next John sees four angels restraining the "winds" of destruction on earth. The angels may represent the four horsemen given authority to wreak the havoc (v 2; cf. 6:2-8). Before the devastation starts, a fifth angel marks for protection from divine wrath 12 thousand saints from each of 12 Hebrew tribes, for a total of 144 thousand. The "seal" stamped on their foreheads indicates ownership and provides protection (cf. 14:1). The pervasive symbolism in Revelation supports interpreting the 144 thousand saints as representative of the last generation of the church, comprised of both Jews and Gentiles proven true by persecution in the great tribulation (v. 14). The number 144 thousand may derive from 12 (the patriarchs or tribes) x 12 (the apostles) x looo (perhaps representing the "great multitude;" v. 9; cf. the "thousands of thousands" of worshippers in 5:11). The posttribulational multitude "standing" before the throne of God answer the question in 6:17 of who will receive divine protection to withstand the final "wrath of the Lamb." The characterization of the group in purely Jewish terms (vv. 4-8) allows a parallel with the faithful remnant in Isaiah 24-27 (the "Isaiah Apocalypse"), a prophecy rooted in the promised restoration to Canaan of Jews exiled to Babylon (compare v. 17 and Isa. 25:8).
The scene in vv. 9-12 describing universal praise of God parallels that in 5:9-14. But the breaking of the final, seventh seal freezes even that awesome activity as complete silence permeates heaven in recognition that the end has come.
8:2-11:19 The Seven Trumpets Ancient Near Eastern armies began battles in response to the blast of a trumpet. In Revelation, seven trumpets sound to activate plagues and punishments that give humanity a warning taste of the nearing last judgment of God.
8:2-13 Natural Disaster Strikes Before the disasters fall, an angel reinforces the prayers of saints (5:8; cf. 6:10) "sealed" for protection in chapter 7. The natural disasters delayed in 7:3 and now launched by the first four trumpets recall several of the plagues inflicted on Egypt (compare V. 7 with Exod. 9:22-35; v. 9 with Exod. 7:20-21; V. 12 with Exod. 10:21-29). The growing intensity of the final catastrophes becomes evident in the increased percentage of people afflicted: from 25 percent by the seal-judgments (6:8) to 33 percent by the trumpet-disasters (vv. 7-12), with worse to come foredoomed in verse 13. Nevertheless, God remains in control of the world and continues to set limits on its devastation (cf. ch. 6).
9 Release the Demons! With the sounding of the fifth trumpet, Satan (the "fallen star") releases demons (represented as locusts) empowered to torment unbelievers who have not been sealed. This trumpet-disaster is the first to target human beings directly. The names of Satan in verse 11 mean "Destruction/Destroyer."
The "first woe" (v 12; cf. 8:13) refers to the events recorded in vv. 1-u. The second woe (vv 12-21) starts at the sounding of the sixth trumpet, when four angelic cavalry commanders are ordered to kill one-third of humankind. The deadly judgment seems intended by God to prompt repentance by the wicked survivors, though they ignore the warning (vv 20-21).
10 The Seven Thunders Sealed Up The merciful interlude between the sounding of the sixth and seventh trumpets parallels the delay before the breaking of the seventh seal. Here the sealing up or calling off of seven peals of thunder, which portend seven more disasters, spares the entire world (land and sea). Contrast in chapters 6-7 the launching of disasters by "unsealing" the scroll and the sparing of Christians by "sealing" (marking) them for protection.
The "little scroll" (cf ch. 5) held by the "mighty angel" (Christ? cf. 1:13-16; 7:2) and eaten by John tastes sweet because it represents sweet relief for believers (God's word). But once in his stomach the book nauseates John, for that message means divine judgment for the unrepentant.
11 The Two Witnesses This passage invokes a number of images from the Old Testament. Compare John's visionary measuring of the temple and altar with Ezekiel 40-42; the two olive trees and two lampstands with Zechariah 4 (esp. W. 11-14); and the calling of the "great city" "Sodom" and "Egypt," symbolizing depravity and oppression. The Law required "two witnesses" to confirm testimony (Deut. 19:15).
The measuring of the earthly temple appears to set the boundaries of protection for true believers during the tribulation. The 42 months given to the nations to trample the city made holy by the presence of the temple equal the 1260 days (42 months of 3o days each) during which the "two witnesses" (Moses and Elijah? the true, witnessing church of the tribulation?) prophesy doom, as indicated by their dress as mourners. Eventually slain by the "beast" of the abyss, the demon king of 9:11, their bodies lie unburied and exposed - the ultimate dishonor - while their human enemies celebrate. But three and one-half days later God rewards the martyred witnesses with resurrection and ascension to heaven in full view of their foes.
The "third woe" (vv. 15-19) comes with the seventh trumpet, heralding the inauguration of Christ's eternal rule over the messianic kingdom, and the 24 elders introduced in 4:4 summarize and praise his final victory. The awesome display of nature that attends the opening of the heavenly temple bespeaks the presence of God, for whom the long-lost ark of the covenant will again serve as throne (cf. Jer. 3:16).
12 Signs of the Times Chapters 12-14 portray the last ditch efforts of a desperate Satan to dominate the world. Ousted from heaven and aware that his days on earth are numbered, he tries to take the faithful down with him. But even the earth itself works against him (v. 16).
Here Satan is a great, red dragon, the "ancient serpent," deceiver of the whole world, and perpetual "accuser" of believers. By contrast Christ, the sacrificial "Lamb" (v. 11), is the advocate of his followers in the heavenly court (1 John 2:1). The archangel Michael N. 7), commander of the heavenly army that evicts the satanic forces from heaven, figures in Dan. 12:1 as guardian of the Hebrew people.
The identity of the woman who gives birth to a son remains less clear. Some interpreters see her as the Hebrew nation, which gave birth to the Messiah (v. 5) and ultimately to the church (her persecuted offspring, v. 17). Others interpret her as Jesus' first disciples, who "cried out" in grief at his death (the "birth" of salvation, v. 2; cf. John 16:20-22) and established the church after his ascension to heaven N. 5). The woman's finding refuge in the wilderness parallels the Hebrews' deliverance from Egyptian oppression (v. 14). The period of her temporary respite - a "time" (one year), "times" (two years), and "half a time" (half a year) - corresponds to the three and one-half years granted to the nations for trampling the holy city and to the two witnesses for prophesying (cf. 11:2-3; Dan. 7:25; 12:7).
13 The Beast and Its Brand A blasphemous beast emerges from the sea (symbol of uncontrollable chaos), derives power and authority from the dragon of chapter 12, inspires worldwide worship of itself by recovering from an apparently mortal wound to one of its heads, persecutes Christians, and acts in defiance of God for 42 months (cf. 11:2-3). Only true believers, whose names appear in Christ's book of eternal life, refuse to worship the beast. Another beast, in sheep's clothing, comes forth from the earth (v. 11) and executes the orders of the first beast by performing miraculous signs that trick people into worshipping it, slaying resisters, and branding compliers with a mark that licenses them alone to go about normal life. The mark, 666 - called a human number since repeated sixes never reach seven, the Bible's numeric symbol for perfection - represents the antithesis of the seal received by the 144 thousand saints of chapter 7. People branded with the mark of the beast enjoy immunity from its punishments but lie exposed to divine wrath, while true believers bearing God's seal stand protected from his wrath but invite persecution by the beast.
The beast may embody at once the four, successive world empires of Daniel 7, with the Roman Empire representing the beast. The revitalization of the slain head of the beast may reflect the suspicion that Nero did not die in 68, as reported, but would return and revive the empire (Nero redivivus [returned to life] myth). The second beast (the "false prophet" of 16:3; 19:20) would stand for imposed emperorworship. An alternative interpretation identifies the figures as the antichrist and his top aide, who as head of the state cult compels worship of the emperor (cf. 19:20, which portrays the beast and the false prophet as individuals, not institutions).
14 The Lamb and the Redeemed John now envisions a posttribulational celebration. Zion names the Temple Mount in Jerusalem (alternatively, the heavenly Zion), where Christ, the Lamb, appears accompanied by the 144 thousand saints. "Redeemed" through Jesus' death on the cross, they are a faithful ("not defiled") sacrifice ("firstfruits") consecrated to God and celebrate having survived the tribulation without bowing to the false prophet or the antichrist (13:14-15).
Verse 6 returns to the tribulation, when prophesying angels warn of God's impending eternal judgment against people who join the cult of the beast. John's audience would have understood "Babylon" (v. 8) to symbolize Rome. Both empirical capitals epitomized moral decadence. The fall of seemingly invincible Babylon makes certain the fall of the current (and future) political centers of godlessness; and so the prophecy of verse 8 is expressed as accomplished fact.
Verses 14-16 describe the "reaping" of the saints - the reward apparently celebrated in verses 1-5. That the crowned reaper sits on a cloud (an indicator of divinity), looks like the "Son of Man" (Jesus' favorite self-designation, meaning simply "human being"), and responds to orders originating in the temple (which houses the throne of God) paints a picture of Christ's second coming.
Verses 17-2o describe the outpouring of God's wrath on worshippers of the beast, as warned in verses 6-11. There the "cup of his anger" contains the "wine" of his wrath (v io). These final four verses describe the production of this wine as the trampling of human "grapes" ripened by godlessness for divine judgment. Dealing with sin "outside the city" keeps the city from defilement (cf. Lev. 4:21; 24:23). Verse 20 may foreshadow the battle of Armageddon (16:12-16) or symbolize the global nature of God's judgment against sinful humanity.
The Use of Imagery in the Apocalypse
Symbols convey meaning to people's rational, emotional, or perceptive dimension and include various numbers, colors, places, objects, and beings. Though scholars debate the interpretation of these elements, it is certain the original audiences understood the images they portrayed.
The woman and beast in the wilderness and the fall of Babylon; woodcut by Martin Graff, 1502.
Numbers were used to express quantities and/or symbolic meanings and were derived through a variety of means, including gematria, the application of the numerical value of alphabetical letters. The number three often symbolizes completeness. The Trinity is portrayed as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; likewise, the dragon, the beast from the sea, and the beast from the earth represent an unholy trinity (Rev. 12:9; 13:1-11). Four can indicate boundaries, as in the four living creatures surrounding God's throne (4:6-7;15:7;19:4) and the four horsemen of the apocalypse (6:1-8). Six can refer to humankind. It is used in a multiple number 666 (13:18) and interpreted by some in a reverse form of gematria with reference to an individual or as the unholy trinity. Seven is used literally with reference to the seven churches of Asia (2:1-3:22) and symbolically to indicate perfection or completion. The most powerful anti-Christ beast has seven heads (17:3, 7). The restoration of the earth takes place during the seventh seal, and the seventh trumpets occur after the seventh plague (11:14-19). Ten may also indicate completion and derives
its significance from the 1o fingers of a hand. Ten also draws on the combination of three and seven (completion). Scholars interpret the 1o-day imprisonment of the faithful of Ephesus as literal (2:10). The symbolic/literal interpretation of the 1o horns of the great red dragon (12:3); the 1o horns of the
beast out of the sea (13:1); and the scarlet-colored beast with 1o horns (17:3, 7,12,16) is debated. Twelve represents order and derives attention from the 12 tribes and the 12 apostles. The New Jerusalem has 12 gates and 12 foundations (21:12-14, 21), and the tree of life yields 12 kinds of fruit (22:2). Revelation contains multiples of 12: the 24 elders around God's throne (4:4); the 144 thousand composed of 12 thousand from 12 tribes (7:4); and the New Jerusalem measuring 12 stadia (21:16). Thousand represents a large number: Satan's being bound for a thousand years (20:3, 7), and the thousand-year interval between the first resurrection and the second death (20:6). Likewise, multiples of a thousand represent an uncountable number: the 1o thousand times 1o thousand, and thousands of thousands praising God in heaven (5:11).
Revelation contains vivid colors. White can have a literal interpretation and also symbolize purity and conquest. It describes Christ's hair (1:14); the stone given to the overcomer (2:17); the garments of God's servants (3:4-5,18; 7:9); the clothing of the 24 elders (4:4; 7:13); horse(s) (6:2;19:11,14); the robes of the martyrs (6:11); robes made white by the blood of the lamb (7:14); a cloud (14:14); the army from heaven robed in white (19:14); and the great white throne (20:11). Red symbolizes slaughter/ bloodshed: the red horse (6:4) and a great red dragon (12:3). Black is often associated with famine and scarcity: the black horse (6:5). Ashen/pale represents death, the color of a corpse: the ashen/pale horse (6:8).
Beings can be used symbolically: angels range from messengers (1:1; 2:1, 8,12,18) to celestial be
ings (5:2; 7:2;14:6, 8-9,15,17-19). The lamb symbolizes the crucified Christ (5:6, 8, 12-13; 12:11; 21:9, 14, 22-23). Other beings include the seven spirits, interpreted as angels or the Holy Spirit (4:5); the four living creatures around the throne (4:6). The woman with child represents Israel (12:1-2), but the son is Christ (12:5). The dragon is Satan (12:3-4, 7, 9,13,16-17; 20:2); the beast from the sea represents world empires (13:1); and the beast from the earth has secular power and gives religious sanction for its injustice (13:11).
Symbolic objects include a variety of items. Names can be literal (3:5, 8; 13:6, 8,17;19:12) or offer a symbolic description of a person's character (3:1; 9:11; 15:2; 17:5; 19:13). The bow (6:2) and the crown (2:10; 6:2; 12:1) symbolize conquest and victory. The scales/ balances symbolize a time of scarcity (6:5). The measuring rod represents God's care and protection of his people (11:1; 21:15). Horns symbolize power: the slain lamb with seven horns (5:6); four horns of the golden altar (9:13); the great red dragon with 1o horns (12:3); the beast from the sea with 1o horns (13:1; 17:12, 16); the beast from the earth with two horns as a lamb, symbolizing harmlessness (13:11); the scarlet beast with seven heads and 1o horns (17:3, 7). Diadems are the insignia of royal authority (12:3; 19:12). Lightning and thunder are visible and
audible portrayals of God's power and majesty (4:5).
Places and people are described symbolically. Babylon is the symbolic name for Rome (14:8; 16:19;18:2,10, 21). God's people are described as Israel (7:4) and the beloved city (20:9).
Revelation is unique to the New Testament in style but not in perspective, for it presents the exalted Christ. One must use discernment in interpreting this book. Some passages call for a literal interpretation, while some are figurative. The multiplicity of symbols demonstrates John's vividness in presenting Revelation and the rich experience of God's people.
For Further Reading
Butler, Trent C., ed. Holman Bible Dictionary. Nashville: Holman, 1991, S.V. "Imagery," 689; "Number Systems and Number Symbolism," 1029-31; "Symbol," 1310-11.
Clouse, Robert G., ed. The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1977.
STEVEN L. Cox
15-16 The Seven Bowls The plagues poured out from seven bowls display God's wrath against the unrepentant and come rapid-fire at the end of the tribulation (15:1; 16:17). Resisters of the beast, the saints marked with the seal of God, enjoy immunity from these divine punishments, which largely parallel the trumpet-disasters and/ or recall plagues inflicted on Egypt. The saints celebrate deliverance by singing the "song of Moses," which recalls safe passage through the Red Sea (15:3-4; Exod. 15:1-8; Deut. 32:1-43). Other Old Testament allusions include the heavenly "tent of witness," reflecting the tabernacle housing the ark of the covenant (15:5; Exodus 24-27); the priestly robes of the angels (15:6; cf. Exodus 28); and the smoke filling the temple as indication of God's glory (15:8; cf. Exod. 40:34-38).
The first bowl-plague causes "painful sores" reminiscent of the boils inflicted on the Egyptians (16:2; cf. Exod. 9:9-11). The second and third plagues putrefy fresh- and saltwater sources so both land and sea creatures die, and the fifth plague darkens the earth. All three duplicate earlier trumpet-disasters (compare 16:3-4 with 8:8-11; Exod. 7:20-21; 16:10 with 8:12; Exod. 10:21-29). The pouring out of the seventh bowl creates an unprecedented storm even more devastating than the hailstorm rained on the Hebrews' Egyptian oppressors (compare 16:17-21 with Exod. 9:22-35).
The initial bowl-plagues appear divinely intended to prompt repentance by worshippers of the beast (16:9-11), but as with Pharaoh their persistent recalcitrance eventually seals their fate. Thus the drying up of the Euphrates River in 16:12 promises not deliverance but doom (contrast Exodus 14). In the 1st century, the Euphrates delimited the civilized world, so
in john's vision the barbaric armies to the east answer the satanic summons to "Harmagedon" (Hebrew for Mount Megiddo, Armageddon), for all-out battle against God. Megiddo, which guards a strategic east-west pass through the Jezreel Valley in Galilee, was the site of countless armed engagements since ancient times and had become a symbol of military conflict. The final battle in john's vision (elaborated in 19:11-21) ushers the fulfillment of 14:8 by felling "Babylon the great" (16:19).
17:1-19:4 The Fall of Rome
As noted, "Babylon" refers to Rome, the city built on seven hills (17:9) and 1st-century champion of apostasy and immorality (cf. 14:8). The lengthy description of Rome's religious harlotry (ch. 17) and materialistic pursuit of pleasure (ch. 18) makes God's annihilation of the self-secure superpower a necessary act of divine vengeance and justifies the saints' celebration of her demise (19:1-4). The couching of her wickedness in sexual terms reflects the language of the Hebrew prophets (cf. Isa. 1:21; 23:15-18; Jer. 2:1-3:5; Ezekiel 16; 23). The "adultery" of Rome stands in contrast to the "chastity" of the saints in 14:4 and the portrayal of the church as the pure bride of Christ in 19:7. Interpreters view the beast-serving kings of 17:9-18 variously as specific Roman emperors or symbolically succeeding world empires.
The mound of Megiddo (Hebrew "Harmagedon" or Armegeddon), where John envisioned the final battle between the forces of God and the forces of evil. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)
19:5-21 The Marriage Banquet
The heavenly banquet celebrating the marriage of Christ, the Lamb, and his bride, the true church, fulfills the prophetic parables about the messianic wedding feast recorded in Matt. 22:214; 25:1-13; Luke 14:15-24 (cf. Matt. 8:11; Luke 13:29). Verses 11-21 describe a different kind of feast - the bloody banquet of Armageddon, when evil gets devoured by the army accompanying Christ at his second coming (cf. 16:17-21).
20 The Binding of Satan
With his servants, the beast and the false prophet, defeated at Armageddon and consigned to the "lake of fire" (19:20), the dragon (Satan) himself receives a loon-year sentence to the "pit" (cf. 9:1-11). Meanwhile, faithful Christians who have died come to life in the "first resurrection" and reign with Christ (during the "millennium"). ("Amillennialists" view this period as symbolic of Christ's rule at God's right hand and in the hearts of true believers, rather than as a posttribulational era.) But the saintly reign does not effect universal conversion, and when Satan is released he leads the innumerable holdouts of the earth in a final failed revolt, after which he is sent to the place of eternal torment to join his already condemned associates. "Gog and Magog" (v. 8) represent all nations gathered for war against Israel (cf. Ezekiel 38-39). In a second resurrection, the rest of the dead rise to life for the final judgment, when God reviews the written record of their earthly deeds and checks it against the list of the elect inscribed in the book of (eternal) life. Condemnation falls on the wicked unbelievers, who in the "second death" join Satan and his beastly aides for eternity (cf. 21:8).
21:1-22:5 The New Jerusalem
The eternal imprisonment of evil coincides with the eternal renewal of the world, now free of chaos (symbolically, the "sea' ; 21:1). In contrast to
the harlot Babylon (17:1-19:4), the "new Jerusalem" constitutes the true church, described as an urban utopia built of jewels and called the "bride" and "wife of the Lamb," whose marriage to Christ heaven celebrates in 19:7-9. "Entrance" into the city is through gates inscribed with the names of the 12 Hebrew tribes (21:12; cf. Ezek. 40:30-34), and the names of the apostles appear on the foundation stones of the city wall (21:14). God's dwelling among the saints obviates the need for a physical tabernacle/temple (21:3, 22), and their having been made holy by Christ's paying their debt of sin allows them unhindered fellowship with God as intended from creation. The precious stones that adorn the city recall those of the high-priestly garments (Exodus 28) and suggest that every new Jerusalemite enjoys access to God apart from human intermediaries. The measurements of the city symbolize perfection.
The perpetual daytime that characterizes the new Jerusalem represents its righteous purity, embodied by the eternal Illuminator in whom "there is no darkness at all" (i John 1:5-7). The Edenic tree of life grows alongside the lifegiving water flowing from the throne of God. Sustenance from them reverses the curse of death, handed down to humanity through the disobedience of Eve and Adam. The entire scene blends the characterizations of Jesus as the light of the world, the true vine, and the source of living water.
22:6-21 Closing Exhortations and Encouragement
John's angelic guide confirms the truth of the visionary messages; John verifies witnessing them; and Christ affirms his near return to weigh the deeds of humans and compensate them accordingly and irreversibly for eternity. Christ's identity as the promised Messiah, the "root and the descendant of David" (v. 16), ensures his power and authority to fulfill his word - encouraging news for the clean-robed repentant and fair warning for the persistently sinful, who, to chart the good course for eternity, need only drink the "water of [eternal] life, offered by Christ as a gift N. 17).
So serious is the message of Revelation that John calls curses on anyone who amends his record. A final benediction invokes divine favor ("grace") on the saints to whom John addresses the book (cf. 1:ii).
John's record ends with the opportunity Christ offers to humanity for irreversible reinstatement from the consequences of sin spawned in the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:22-24). But every individual must decide between Christ's promise of eternal restoration and never-ending suffering under the curse of sin. The invitation is simple: "Come." And eternity beckons a response.