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The book of Isaiah heads the third major division of the Old Testament, the Prophets, containing books designated as "major" or "minor" based on their length. The prophets Isaiah, Amos, Hosea, and Micah lived in the 8th century B.C. Isaiah prophesied in his hometown of Jerusalem, and his prophetic career in the southern kingdom of Judah spanned over four decades.

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Chapters 1-39 of Isaiah include historical narratives, which proceed in roughly chronological order according to the man Isaiah's activities, prophecies of doom, and oracles of hope. Initial judgments against the hypocritical leaders in Jerusalem pave the way for oracles concerning the Syro-Ephraimite War during the rule of wicked King Ahaz and prophecies relating to the Philistine revolt against Assyria. This section ends by recording Isaiah's interactions with King Hezekiah during the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem. God's impending judgment constitutes the dominant theme of chapters 1-39, with the empire-building kingdom of Assyria constituting the threatened instrument of divine punishment.

By the beginning of chapter 40, however, Babylon has replaced Assyria as the dominant power in the ancient Near East. From here through the end of the book (ch. 66), the poetic oracles presuppose Judah's exile in Babylon, a period that started nearly a century and a half after Assyria's 722/21 conquest of the northern kingdom of Israel. In this last section of Isaiah, the theme of divine comfort for God's people takes over. Their time of judgmental punishment has passed, and restoration to the promised land via a "second exodus," this time from Babylon, holds for them a hopeful future. Some scholars believe that chapters 40-55 speak to the soon-to-be-released exiles in Babylon, while chapters 56-66 address the community of returnees in Judah/Jerusalem. In the New Testament, Jesus fulfills many of the prophecies of hope recorded in Isaiah.

Composition

Taken as an introduction to the book as a whole, Isa. 1:1 identifies the contents of the subsequent 66 chapters as the "vision" of 8th-century Isaiah. But modern scholars have challenged the traditional view that considers him the source of all the material contained in the book that bears his name. Though chapters 40-66 echo certain themes contained in chapters 1-39, they also contain specific, predictive prophecies that some scholars doubt Isaiah foretold. For example, they consider it unlikely that an 8th-century prophet not only predicted the 6th-century Persian king Cyrus's conquest of the Babylonian Empire but also named him specifically (see 44:28 and 45:1). Old Testament prophets normally directed their messages to contemporaries. For Isaiah to have directly addressed the Babylonian exiles (and perhaps returnees to Judah) pictured in chapters 40-66, his prophetic ministry would have to have extended well beyond the reign of Hezekiah (the last king mentioned in ia), and he would have to have lived for more than two centuries.

On the other hand, in this book God holds out his power to predict the future as proof of his divine supremacy (chs. 41, 44, 46, and 48). It is not unreasonable, therefore, to think that Isaiah mediated predictive messages as words from God and at times addressed audiences of future generations.

Those who do see multiple sources behind the text of Isaiah generally view the oracles in chapters 1-39 largely as originating with the prophet himself, while the narrative sections represent additions by later editors. Scholars suggest two general scenarios for the authorship of chapters 40-66: (1) A disciple of Isaiah ("Second Isaiah") authored chapters 40-66; (2) Second Isaiah authored chapters 40-55, and "Third Isaiah," perhaps a disciple of Second Isaiah, wrote chapters 56-66. Because Isaianic traditions characterize all these chapters, they became appended to the first part of the book and attributed to the 8th-century Isaiah much like Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs became associated with King Solomon, who embodied their respective themes of wisdom and love.

1-39 Impending Doom

1 Confronting Judah with a Choice Verse 1 locates the man Isaiah in Judah during the period of its 8th- and early 7th-century kings; establishes him as a visionary prophet (cf. ch. 6); and confirms his Hebrew heritage as the son of Amoz (not the prophet Amos). Isaiah begins his address in typical ancient Near Eastern treaty style by invoking heaven and earth as witnesses to an indictment in which the overlord, God, states his case against his vassal, Judah, whose people have violated the moral covenant he established with them through Moses at Mount Sinai. The designation of God as the "Holy One of Israel" (v. 4) anticipates the prophet's visionary call (cf. 6:3); this name occurs almost exclusively in Isaiah.

The prophet zeroes in on the southern kingdom's desperate state after the Assyrian destruction of 46 of Judah's outlying fortified cities (vv 7-9; cf. 2 Kgs. 18:13). The capital, Jerusalem ("daughter Zion," v. 8), stands isolated. The defeat of the northern kingdom by Assyria in 722 left Judah as sole survivor of the original 12 tribes, and Isaiah develops this "remnant" theme through the first major division of the book (v. 9). Yet Judah, whose extreme disobedience earns for it the nicknames "Sodom" and "Gomorrah" N. 10; cf. 3:9), has failed to learn the lesson from the fate of the northern tribes. The hypocritical Judahite leaders sicken God by carrying out religious rites and ceremonies mechanically (vv. 10-15; Cf. 1 Sam. 15:22). In spelling out the practical evidences of sincere repentance, Isaiah repeats the prominent Deuteronomic theme of caring for society's disenfranchised, specifically orphans and widows (v. 17; contrast V. 23; cf. Deut. 14:28-29). The good news is that national repentance will effect divine cleansing of sins otherwise indelible (v. 18; "scarlet" and "crimson" dyes were colorfast). But continued rebelliousness will bring about violent devastation (cf. the covenantal curses in Deut. 28:15-68). God vows to purify the harlot city Jerusalem by crushing his enemies, who include unrepentant bribe-lovers (v. 23) and participants in Canaanite religious rites at pagan shrines in oak/terebinth groves (vv 29-30).

2-4 The Purification Process and Its Peaceful Outcome Isaiah describes the outcome of the purification process by picturing Jerusalem ("the mountain of the house of the Lord," 2:2) as the multinational center of worship and government, ruled by God and characterized by everlasting peace (2:2-4; cf. the almost identical Mic. 4:1-3). The prophecy previews the formal incorporation of the Gentiles in the new covenant inaugurated by Christ (see Rom. 11:11-12).

God will humble his defiantly proud people to accomplish this ideal. They have violated God's laws by engaging in the magical arts, forbidden in Lev. 19:31, and by making alliances with foreigners, prohibited in Exod. 34:12-17 to prevent the Hebrews from slipping into the worship of false gods. They have amassed material wealth, multiplied war machinery (2:7), and made idols to worship (2:8). But they will run for cover at God's terrifying demonstration of majesty and power as he levels their pride, manifested ages before by the Tower of Babel and now embodied in symbols such as the famous cedars of Lebanon, which Solomon used in building the temple and royal palace (1 Kings 5; 7); the mighty oaks of Bashan, located in northern Transjordan; and the ships of Tarshish, which Solomon used to import gold and exotic goods (2 Chr. 9:21).

In chapter 3, Isaiah gives specific examples of how God will humble the disobedient. Famine, drought, incompetent leadership, and social strife will all contribute to the downfall of Judah's flagrantly wicked "Sodomites," who have brought their fate upon themselves (3:1-9). Isaiah pictures a "world turned upside down" - women ruling over men and socially powerless children in the role of oppressers (3:12) - as God's judgment against leaders who have plundered the poor to become rich and thereby crushed the nation (3:13-15). God will reverse the fortunes of the haughty, seductive, elaborately adorned Jerusalemite women and the kingdom's mighty warriors alike. Judah's male population will be so severely depleted that women will compete to marry the same man in a desperate search for the social acceptance afforded by marriage (4:1).

A righteous remnant (the "branch of the Lord;' 4:2) will survive the divine judgment (cf. 11:1). God will reverse his abandonment of the "house of Jacob" (2:6), and the Lord will signify his renewed residence among the remnant in Zion in a cloud cover by day, smoke and a fire by night (cf. Exod. 13:21-22; 19:16-18; 40:34-38); the dedication of the temple (1 Kgs. 8:10-12); and the second coming of Christ (see, e.g., Matt. 24:30; Luke 21:27; Rev. 1:7). Chapters 11-12 further develop the theme of the purged and peaceful kingdom introduced here.

5 A Prophetic Parable: The Song of the Vineyard Verses 1-7 feature God as the "wellbeloved" and the Hebrew nation as his "vineyard:" (In V. 7 "the house of Israel" refers to the descendants of all 12 of Jacob's/Israel's sons; cf. Jesus' parable in Matt. 21:33-41.) God carefully prepares the soil, plants the choicest vines, makes provision for pressing and storing the wine, and anticipates a good harvest (righteousness). The vineyard, however, produces only worthless grapes (wickedness). God calls the "inhabitants of Jerusalem and people of Judah" to self-judgment ("What more could I have done to ensure a good crop?") and announces his plan to destroy the vineyard (contrast ch. 27).

"My beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill" (Isa. 5:1). (www.HolyLandPhotos.org)

Isaiah's prophetic woes (vv. 8-23) specify some of the nation's sins: appropriation of land (prohibited in Deut. 19:14), drunkenness, injustice, and pride. God's judgment will severely curb the fertility of the people's vineyards and fields, and Sheol, the abode of the dead, will swallow up the starved (v. 14). Judgment will also come in the form of exile. God will summon a swift, indefatigable, ever-ready predator, epitomized by the 8th-century Assyrian army (vv 26-30), to carry out the covenantal curses (cf. Deut. 28:15-68).

6 Isaiah Responds to His Vision of God The account of Isaiah's vision reveals the catalyst for his prophetic ministry: a religious conversion. As with other Old Testament figures, Isaiah's sight of God issues in fear for his life (cf. Exod. 3:6; 33:20), and the overwhelming holiness of God generates his confession of sin (cf. Job 42:56). Sanctification and forgiveness, mediated by heavenly beings called "seraphim" (mentioned in the Bible only here), issue in Isaiah's eagerness to volunteer for a prophetic mission, the seeming futility of which becomes immediately obvious (contrast Moses' reluctance in Exod. 3:10-4:17). Isaiah must deliver a message of impending disaster to his already doomed fellow Judahites, whose persistent hardening of heart has so dulled their moral sensitivity that nothing will prompt them to heed the warning (cf. Exod. 4:21; 7:3; 8:15, 32). Jesus quotes verses 9-1o when he explains to his disciples the reason for his use of parables (Mark 4:12-13). Judah's reason for hope does not completely fade away, however, for a "stump" refined by fire will remain (v. 13).

7-8 Isaiah Urges Faith but Predicts Doom Shortly after Uzziah's death (ca. 736/35) and the call of Isaiah, the prophet challenges to faith Judah's new king, Uzziah's grandson Ahaz, whose embrace of paganism went beyond even that of the northern kings (see 2 Kings 16; 2 Chronicles 28). Probably because Ahaz appeared to favor the Assyrians, Judah's neighbors to the north - Israel and Syria, whose geographical location made them more vulnerable than Judah to Assyrian invasion - jointly seek to overthrow the royal "house [dynasty] of David" represented by Ahaz and to place on the Judahite throne their man, "the son of Tabeel" (probably a Transjordanian who shared their opposition to Assyria). The coalition's attempt to take Jerusalem fails, but their military forces remain poised to attack Judah from within the territory of Ephraim, by then the most southerly of the northern tribes. God sends to the terrified Ahaz the prophet Isaiah, who delivers a message of reassurance and a challenge to be faithful to the Lord. Isaiah and his son Shear-jashub ("a remnant shall return") approach the king by the road to the Fuller's ("laundryman's") Field (7:3).

Isaiah's message is a divinely assured prediction that the coalition will fail to defeat Judah. Also, in the not too distant future "Ephraim" (7:8), here the entire northern kingdom, will itself fall. To ensure his security, Ahaz needs only to exercise faith in God rather than making alliances with foreign powers. In a clear show of false piety, Ahaz refuses God's offer to grant a sign of the king's choosing as a guarantee of the predicted outcome, for a sign would seal his obligation to faith (7:12; cf. Deut. 6:16). Ahaz then appeals to Assyria for help - a move that rid the southern kingdom of the immediate threat from Syria and Israel but at the same time severely limited Judah's independence by effectively subjecting the southern kingdom to Assyrian control (2 Kings 16).

God will not let Ahaz off so easily, however, and through Isaiah he provides an unsolicited sign, which will unfold over time: a "maiden" (the Hebrew word means merely a "young woman"; the Greek translation of the Old Testament, which Matthew quotes, indicates specifically a "virgin") will bear a son and call him Immanuel ("God with us"). The name will signify both God's initial protective presence with Judah and his eventual judgment of the southern kingdom (7:14). Before the boy can tell right from wrong, Syria and Israel will cease to exist as independent kingdoms. In fact, Syria fell to the Assyrians in 732; Israel's northern territory was occupied by the Mesopotamian superpower beginning in 734; and in 722 the northern kingdom crumbled completely. Like many other Old Testament prophecies, the divine sign carries a double meaning - one for the current day and one with future significance in the incarnate Christ (Matt. 1:23).

Isaiah goes on to predict bad times for Judah, too. Egypt and Assyria will humiliate and subordinate Judah - a fate signified by the shaving of the head, body, and facial hair (7:20). Briars and thorns will replace the kingdom's valuable vineyards. Ironically, Judah's impoverished, severely reduced population will enjoy more milk and honey than they can stomach, with these symbols of abundance constituting their only means of sustenance.

As with other Old Testament prophets, Isaiah's ministry involved symbolic actions in addition to oracles. Here he fathers a son by "the prophetess" (presumably, his wife) and gives him a name that predicts the doom awaiting not only Syria and Israel, but Judah, too (8:1-3). Again the Assyrians are the instrument of God's judgment, which neither human planning nor protective measures will thwart (8:6-1o). The prophet pictures the invaders as an unstoppable flood of water overflowing the banks of the Euphrates River in contrast to the gently flowing "waters of Shiloah" (most likely an aqueduct outside Jerusalem). Isaiah's new son, "Mahershalal-hash-baz" ("swift booty, speedy prey"), becomes the inseparable twin of "Immanuel" in his representation of God's judging presence among his unfaithful people.

Isaiah instructs his students to preserve a record of his prophecy, which comes from God, and to resist seeking advice by occult practices. Still, he recognizes that God's judgment will not produce the chosen nation's immediate repentance. The famished but defiant people will gaze heavenward as if in prayer, but their parting communication before entering the darkness of exile will be cursing rather than remorse (8:21-22).

Nations, Peoples, and Empires (Part 1)

Ancient Israelites and Judahites encountered many nations, peoples, and empires throughout the course of their history. Four prominent groups affected the economic, political, religious, and social experience of the Hebrews.

Canaanites

Urban settlements along trunk highways and at ports on or near the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea were primarily inhabited by Canaanites, who often experienced Egyptian forced labor and taxation throughout the Late Bronze Age. Egypt's records seem to indicate that Canaan's principal eastern boundary was the Jordan River and that Transjordan was ordinarily not reckoned a portion of Canaan. Thus the term "Canaan" designated the combined territory of Phoenicia and Palestine west of the Jordan River, encompassing approximately modern Lebanon and Israel. The terrain of fertile valleys and plains between hills and mountains spawned a city-state form of government, with each urban fortification surrounded by smaller villages and the adjacent hinterland. Battered-earth ramparts characterized construction, as did gates designed with a smooth surface and a straight entrance to accommodate iron war chariots. (Canaan's monarchs and nobles evidently composed a military elite.) Underground drainage systems carried water away from not only these imposing gates but also palaces and temples. Canaanites

produced pieces of jewelry from sheets and wires of gold and silver. Artisans carved ivory and bone for inlays in decorative furniture and further worked semiprecious gems. They sculpted both stone and metal into images of deities and guardian lions. Metallurgists cast bronze daggers, mirrors, swords, and tools. Potters made bowls, chalices, jars, jugs, and pots - besides figurines, incense burners, and masks used perhaps for spiritual purposes. Canaanites were enterprising traders and shippers, and they invented an alphabet that was destined to become the primary means of writing.

Astarte, Canaanite goddess of war and fertility and sometime consort of Baal, with her daughter; Iron Age I, ca. 1100 B.C. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

El was the supreme Canaanite deity, who created the planet and humans and begot gods and goddesses. Aged, he was noted for wisdom along with kindness and graciousness. El's wife was the holy Athirat, who conceived his children. Baal, clearly the most active deity in the Canaanite pantheon, brought rain plus lightning and thunder. He rather than his father, Dagon, was appointed king of the gods by grandfather El. Although Baal's chief consort was Anat, Astarte occasionally filled that role. Kothar-wa-Hasis, the divinities' artisan, built Baal's palace and made the magic clubs with which Baal defeated Yamm, god of the sea. The sun-goddess, Shapash, scorched the earth during the netherworld stay of Baal, who died and rose seasonally. Mot caused the temporary burial of Baal before his revival and

was the primary death-god, but another named Resheph served as Shapash's porter at the time of her daily setting. Offerings to gods and goddesses included cattle, sheep, grain, wine, oil, and additional produce, considered food for the deities. Priests officiated over sacrifices held at temples. Canaanites prayed to communicate with the divine - Baal in particular being regarded an agent in history. The practice of divination involved inspection of livers and lungs, for example, and could be based on unnatural births of animals. Canaanites envisaged an existence after death, believing that the shades of the dead (or at least of deceased monarchs) were deified. While still alive, these rulers had the duty of protecting the poor, orphans, and widows and the requirement generally of maintaining a high ethical standard.

Egyptians

Located at Africa's northeastern tip, Egypt is sustained by the lushness of the Nile River and Delta, surrounded by desert on their east and west. Written on clay figurines in the shape of bound prisoners or on pottery bowls during the 12th Dynasty of the early 2nd millennium B.C., Execration Texts listed the names of various leaders and localities in Libya, Nubia, and Syria-Palestine and directed ritualistic curses against these foreigners. One hundred years afterward, Asiatic Hyksos infiltrators prospered and ruled as lords over Egyptian vassals. This occupation was a watershed in history, because until that point the Egyptians, despite periods of internal political chaos, had been free from invasion. The liberated 18th Dynasty's Amenhotep IV accompanied his indirectly expressed disdain for traditional cults by unquestionable signs of favor to the solar disk Aten alone. About 1350, he changed his own name to Akhenaten and, in Middle Egypt north of Thebes, established for his god a new worship center, Akhetaten (modern el-Amarna). Rather than attempting to annex property, the loth-century Sheshonq I of the 22nd Dynasty preferred to despoil territories in Judah and Israel, an endeavor which had the advantage of providing needed booty in order to pay his army. A force of Jewish troops was maintained throughout the 5th

century in the important garrison town of Elephantine at the First Cataract. They were absorbed into Egyptian society but also endured antagonism, which arose largely from local Egyptian resentment at the sacrifice of animals in Yahweh's shrine there.

The Egyptians organized their deities hierarchically, with the creator assuming the role of king of gods and goddesses. Likewise, the supreme god became a controller of time and human destiny. In theory the pharaoh (himself viewed as divine) was the sole liturgist in all sanctuaries, but in practice this position was delegated to priests functioning as royal deputies. The masses worshipped the deities of the state religion but additionally had minor patron deities not revered elsewhere. The last of the io-day week in Egypt was a day off from work, thus offering an opportunity for common people to participate spiritually at a temple. In a more personal manner, the supernatural might become manifest through the medium of dreams. Individuals readily acknowledged that their bodily suffering could be due to a transgression against a god or goddess, to whom they begged for mercy. People had to live according to the concepts of justice and righteousness so they might be vindicated when standing before the heavenly tribunal for judgment, where their good qualities were weighed against their wrong behaviors. One aspect of the afterlife was the simple continuation of existence in the tomb, where family members left food and drink for the deceased's spirit. The soul could ascend to the sky and travel with the sun-god, or the ghost could exert influence upon a living human being.

Hittites

The Hittites were a people of Indoeuropean origin who penetrated into Anatolia probably before or around 2000 B.c. and became a great power of the ancient Near East in the following period. During the 13th century several battles with the Egyptians led to treaties and marriages as a diplomatic stabilization of the boundaries of their spheres of influence in SyriaPalestine. Although Hittites had put an end to the independent existence of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni a century earlier, their own empire collapsed merely ioo years later. Nevertheless, states particularly around northern Syria maintained Hittite traditions until the 7th century. The Hittite king was designated the governor of the storm-god, their pantheon's most important male figure. A clear relationship also existed between the queen and the sun-goddess, the leading female divinity and the storm-god's consort. When a king died, he became a god. As the land's supreme judge, the king invited persons who believed themselves unjustly treated in lower courts to appeal to his court, while serious cases (such as treason) which carried the death penalty were always referred there. In addition to the corpus of laws governing all citizens, there were rule books for the performance of every major governmental office. Prices and fines were measured in weights of silver. At least in theory, the law provided for periodic remitting of debts and manumitting of slaves. High esteem was attached to the ability to write; scribes are the only group of individuals aside from kings for whom genealogies were produced.

Every city and town in the Hittite domains had at least one temple, served by both male and female cult personnel. Priests could marry and were exempted from many taxes and forced labor. Proper conduct of a cult was essentially conforming faithfully to carefully transcribed archaic ritual: a succession of acts at moments dictated by the liturgical calendar. The divine image to which worship was rendered could be a stela or a statuette (a bull for the storm-god, a deer for protector gods, a lion for war gods). Several Hittite rituals entailed lowering offerings for underworld deities

into specially prepared pits in the ground. Other rites dispatched a small animal bearing away sin or impurity. While daily worship occurred at each of the temples, festivals were special times when the cult statue of the divinity was transported in procession through the streets; entertained with music, dancing, acrobatics, and athletic events; and offered

a wide variety of sacrifices. The two main Hittite seasonal holidays marked the harvesting or planting of a crop and were celebrated for three to five weeks or longer in the spring and autumn. During these special occasions the king and queen visited sanctuaries in the capital and the most important nearby towns. With support from abundant clergy, both monarchs enacted worship on behalf of the gods and goddesses. The final religious season featured ceremonies on the winter solstice and the new year.

Sennacherib on his throne in camp, conferring with officials on the Assyrian conquest of Lachish; relief from his palace at Nineveh, 930 B.C. (British Museum)

Mesopotamians

Mesopotamia sits within the boundaries of modern Iraq, straddling the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and their tributaries. The dwellers of the Babylonian plain in the south invented artificial irrigation systems in order to regulate the erratic water supply from rainfall and flooding so that crop production was possible. Mesopotamians bred horses from the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. onward, and for swift communication the Assyrians in the north established a system of relay posts where fresh horses were kept at the ready 24 hours a day. In an emergency, messages could be relayed even faster by a system of observation towers and fire signals. Assyria also established a number of merchant colonies in Anatolia in order to promote trade. Mesopotamians eventually replaced their Akkadian language with Aramaic, which by the 1st millennium had been adopted throughout the entire Near East as the international tongue. In 853 a major Syro-Palestinian coalition including chariots and infantry

from the kingdom of Israel confronted Assyria's Shalmaneser III at the battle of Qarqar on the Orontes River and in later years continued to resist his advances. Babylonia ultimately eliminated Assyria, defeated Egypt, and annexed Syria-Palestine ca. 6oo. Politically, Mesopotamian states were absolute monarchies, but had three checks to power: religion, legal precedent, and the attitudes of the nobility. Through his law code, the Babylonian Hammurabi, to whom any subject possessing a just grievance had access, typified the royal concern for justice. But all disputes (even homicide) were between private individuals seeking punishment and compensation, inasmuch as the state took no one to court. Only rarely did a woman act in a legal or business transaction on her own behalf, because she had virtually no rights as an individual. The art form most associated with Assyria is the bas-relief carving on slabs of stone, which were placed on edge to panel palace corridors and rooms. A Babylonian doctor could perform certain kinds of surgery, such as operations on the eye, and Babylonian scholars employed a system based on the number 6o, which survives as hours with 6o minutes and circles with six times that many degrees.

The majority of chief deities of the pantheon were male (Adad, Ashur, Enlil, Marduk, Nabu, Nergal, Shamash, Sin), with the notable exception of Ishtar. By far the most important Mesopotamian festival was the New Year ceremony, including a coronation at which the right of the king to rule for another year was divinely confirmed and the princes and nobles renewed their loyalty oaths. On this New Year holiday the high priest slapped the king's face and pulled him by the ears to remind the monarch that he was a humble servant of the deities, who were the sole guarantors of nature's renewal. Everyone, even the lowest slave, had a personal god or goddess, whose rank related directly to the human's rank. Death

and what followed were very gloomy subjects in Mesopotamian thought, for there was no concept of a happy afterlife.

For Further Reading

EDWIN C. HOSTETTER

9:1-7 The Future Hope Chapter 9 immediately moves us from the Immanuel of judgment to the Immanuel of hope, who transforms the dark days of exile into an eternity of light. Of the northern tribes, Zebulun and Naphtali fell first in the overwhelming Assyrian assault on Israel. The "Way of the Sea," an important ancient trade route connecting Egypt and Syria, passed through the territory of these tribes - the first to fall, but also the first to recover (v. 1). Isaiah compares the nation's future deliverance from divinely wrought oppression to the outnumbered Hebrews' Gideon-led victory over nomadic Midianite raiders N. 4; see judges 7).

The symbolism of a prophetic child carries over from chapters 7 and 8, now as a herald of hope for a coming kingdom of everlasting peace (shalom), which in Hebrew thought means not only the absence of war and strife, but also justice, righteousness, and covenantal blessings. The names of the eternal occupant of the revitalized Davidic throne indicate that he is none other than God himself (v. 6; cf. Luke 1:31-35).

9:8-10:4 Israel's Self-Inflicted Sentence The message of hope leaves off as quickly as it appeared. "Jacob" and "Ephraim and the inhabitants of Samaria;" Israel's capital city, are terms for the entire northern kingdom, which has invited intensified divine judgment through its people's arrogant refusal to repent in the face of God's initial punishments (9:8-13). Isaiah condemns Israel's civic leaders and false prophets for leading the people astray, yet God holds even socially powerless individuals ("orphans" and "widows;" v. 17) responsible for their godlessness and evil actions (9:14-17). The rampant wickedness in the northern kingdom has poised it to self-destruct in a frenzy of intertribal strife (9:18-21). In the coming "day of punishment," Israel's corrupt, oppressive leaders will find nowhere to run and hide (10:1-4).

10:5-34 Assyria Cut Down to Size God will show his anger with intense but measured punishment, which will leave a "remnant" of survivors (vv. 5-7, 20ff.). As the instrument of his wrath, however, the arrogant Assyrians will pursue a search-and-destroy mission that oversteps the bounds of the divine plan. Further, they will claim success for themselves, while discounting the God who ensures their victories. But Assyria will no more escape divine judgment for its haughty disregard of the Lord than will God's own people, whom he uses the Assyrians to punish (vv. 17-19, 34; cf. 37:36-38; 2 Kgs. 19:35-37).

The judgmental purge will produce a positive outcome as the righteous remnant of Israel returns, never again to rely on Assyria (vv. 21-23). In urging the southern kingdom to take courage, Isaiah alludes to the Hebrews' history of Egyptian slavery and divine deliverance (vv. 24, 26). Though Jerusalem's defeat by the Assyrians will appear imminent, God will stop them in their tracks. The hill-country cities listed in verses 28-32 occur in the order of a northern approach to Jerusalem from about 1o miles away. Actually, the oracle's purpose is symbolic and inspirational - Sennacherib and the Assyrian army marched on Jerusalem from the southwest (36:2).

11-12 The World Renewed Continuing with the theme of hope, Isaiah paints a picture of a renewed world order that recalls both the moral state of creation prior to the fall and the political state of the Hebrew nation during the height of the united monarchy (cf. 65:17-25; Revelation 21). In fulfillment of the Davidic covenant (2 Samuel 7), a spirit-endued descendant of Jesse, father of King David, will rule this new world with the ability to discern between good and evil) and with reverence for God, which produces righteous behavior. Appearances and hearsay will carry no weight in the court of this fair and faithful judge, to whom the nations will flock for justice (11:3,10). In his kingdom, hatred will turn to harmony (11:6-9).

Isaiah portrays the renewal of the kingdom in political and geographical terms easily understandable to his audience. God will gather back to Canaan the remnant of his chosen people dispersed in far-off lands, from Ethiopia (Cush) and Egypt ("Pathros" refers to southern Egypt) to the southwest, Hamath to the north, and Mesopotamia (Assyria, Elam, and Shinar) to the northeast. The northern and southern tribes will reunite to reclaim the Philistine territory previously conquered by David and to repossess Transjordan. Neither the Sea of Egypt (possibly the Red Sea) nor the mighty Euphrates will hinder the exiles' homeward journey, which Isaiah likens to God's parting of the Red Sea during the exodus. The restored population's unbridled joy at God's deliverance will show itself in songs of praise and thanksgiving as a worldwide witness to God's greatness (ch. 12).

13-23 Oracles against the Nations These chapters contain a collection of oracles uttered at different times (e.g., 14:28; 20:1). Though at first glance they might suggest that God purposes permanently to punish the pagan nations, in part for their offenses against his chosen people, a closer look reveals that God ultimately intends to redeem for himself people of all nations and to restore universal peace to an entire world loyal to him alone (Cf. 19:24-25). Ancient audiences probably found unimaginable the utter devastation of the overwhelmingly powerful nations whose demise the prophecies address.

13:1-14:23 (see also chs. 46-47) Babylon This oracle looks a century beyond the historical circumstances of Isaiah's day, when Babylon was still struggling to gain independence from the current Mesopotamian superpower, Assyria. Here, Babylon has already succeeded Assyria in that capacity, enslaved the Hebrews (14:1-3), and adopted the same self-sufficient posture that earned divine condemnation for the empire's prideful predecessor.

Isaiah portrays judgment day for the overconfident Babylonians as a battle scene, described as the foreboding "day of the Lord" (13:10). The divinely initiated purge will decimate the empire's population. In an indisputable demonstration of his sovereignty over the nations of the world, God will use Babylon's longtime allies, the Medes, as the instruments of his judgment. Cyrus's Medo-Persian army actually did overthrow the Babylonians in 539, the historical context of Isaiah 40-66. In 478 the Persian king Xerxes destroyed the city of Babylon, which had surrendered to Cyrus without a fight (cf. 13:19). In the and century the complete desertion of Babylon by its few remaining residents would leave the formerly exquisite capital a ghost town inhabited by wild desert animals (13:17-22).

The taunt Isaiah scripts for the exuberant exiles, who return to the promised land as Persian subjects, personifies Sheol as a host eager to meet its Babylonian guests (14:9). Isaiah portrays Babylon as the morning star, which never fully rises (14:12). The lofty ambitions of Babylon, which parallel those involved in the building of the Tower of Babel, will sink to the depths of Sheol, "the pit" (14:13-14).

14:24-27 Assyria A fuller oracle concerning the future downfall of Assyria has already appeared in 10:5-34. The empire's divinely accomplished defeat in Judah, prophesied in verse 25 and recorded in 2 Kings 18-19/Isaiah 36-37, preceded their ultimate overthrow by the Babylonians.

14:28-32 Philistia The death of the pro-Assyrian Judahite king Ahaz should not occasion rejoicing on the part of the Philistines, who held the territory on Canaan's southern coast; for the long arm of Assyria - in effect, Judah's overlord at this time - still holds deadly cards. Nevertheless, the people of God will find refuge in Zion (= Jerusalem).

15-16 Moab The descendants of Abraham's nephew Lot populated Moab, the Transjordanian plateau east of the Dead Sea, but they enticed the Canaan-bound Hebrews to abandon their loyalty to Yahweh shortly before they entered the promised land (Numbers 25). As with Assyria and Babylon, Moab's failure to acknowledge the supremacy of Yahweh earns God's intense judgment, the foreshadowing of which gains Isaiah's sympathy (15:5). He foresees miserable Moabite fugitives seeking divinely sanctioned refuge in Jerusalem from the judgment that God will complete within three years' time. To pave the way for a welcome reception at the Judahite capital, the desperate Moabites send a lamb as tribute (16:1-5, 14).

This oracle, expanded in Jeremiah 48, names numerous sites in Moab, including Nebo, the mount from which Moses viewed Canaan (Deuteronomy 34); Medeba, a town at times controlled by the Israelites; Heshbon, seat of the Amorite king Sihon, who hindered the Hebrews on their journey from Egypt to Canaan (Num. 21:21-31); Zoar, to which Lot fled during the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. 19:18-30); Sela ("rock'), a name associated with the ancient Edomite fortress Petra; the Arnon, a deep "wadi" or gorge which at times marked the boundary between Moab and its northern neighbor Ammon and at the bottom of which flows the Arnon River; and Sibmah, famous for its wine and here a symbol of Moab's prosperity. The "temple" in 15:2 refers to a Moabite shrine, and the worshippers' baldness and beardlessness signify their state of mourning for Moab.

17 Damascus That the oracle against the Syrian city of Damascus (vv. 1-3) also includes a more extensive word against the northern kingdom of Israel (vv 4-11) indicates that this prophecy relates to the alliance of the two powers against Judah in an attempt to stave off southwestern expansion by the Assyrians, whose fall Isaiah also foretells (vv 12-14; cf. 10:5-34). The takeover backfired, for Judah's king Ahaz appealed to Assyria for aid, and the rising Mesopotamian superpower overran Damascus and eventually conquered the northern kingdom as well. The "asherim" of verse 8 refer to carved wooden im

ages of the Canaanite fertility goddess Asherah. Verses io-11 condemn the northern kingdom's religious compromising through political partnership with a pagan people - a situation forewarned in Exod. 34:11-16.

18 Cush/Ethiopia Ancient Cush encompassed the region south of Egypt and immediately east of the Red Sea (modern Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen). The land "beyond the rivers of Cush" (v. 1) suggests specifically Ethiopia. Isaiah's description of the distant place as the "land of whirring wings" designates it as bug-ridden from the waters of the Nile River, on which the "papyrus vessels" travel and whose tributaries divide the land through which they flow (vv. 2, 7). The Nubian dynasty, based in Ethiopia, ruled Egypt from the mid-8th to the mid-7th century and thus spanned the heyday of Assyrian aggression and Hezekiah's reign in Judah. Isaiah's prophecy (v 2) pictures a Judahite envoy making political overtures to the northern African kingdom, presumably to establish an alliance against the powerful invaders from Mesopotamia. God, however, calmly awaits the right time for "pruning" - meting out judgment on these smuggly self-sufficient nations (vv. 3-6). As a result of God's judgment, the former recipient of the envoy from Judah will then send by envoys a "gift of homage" to Mount Zion, where the Jerusalem temple housed the "name" of the Lord.

19 Egypt In imagery reminiscent of the Canaanite storm (and fertility) god Baal, Isaiah pictures God riding on a cloud to bring judgment on Egypt (cf. Jesus' return, Mark 13:24-27; Matt. 24:28ff.; Rev. 1:7; cf. Dan. 7:13). The oracle foretells the disintegration of the Egyptian Empire from the inside out, beginning with internal strife (v. 2; cf. 9:19-21). Drought will devastate Egypt's economic lifeblood, its fishing industry and agriculture dependent on annual flooding of the Nile (vv. 5-10). Bewildered leaders will seek answers through the magical arts (vv. 3, u-15) and abandon the nation's intellectually incapacitated advisors - the "princes" of Zoan (probably the delta city of Tanis) and Memphis, both former capitals of Egypt. Finally, poetic justice will come full circle as the former taskmasters of the Hebrew people themselves fall subject to a cruel king N. 4).

The divine judgment of Egypt is punishment with a purpose, namely, God's revelation of himself to the Egyptian people, with the result that they swear allegiance to him even in Heliopolis ("City of the Sun," = On), Egypt's center of sun worship (v. 18). In a wordplay, the Hebrew alters the spelling of the city's name to make it read City of Destruction. God will "heal" the Egyptian people in response to their worship and cries for deliverance. In the end, Israel's greatest enemies - Egypt and Assyria - will join the Hebrew nation as equal partners in the worship of God, thus fulfilling God's promise to bless the nations of the earth through the descendants of Abraham (Gen. 12:2-3).

As history played out, the Assyrian army defeated Egyptian forces on Judahite soil in 701, though the Assyrian commander Sennacherib failed to conquer Jerusalem (2 Kings 18-19). When Assyria advanced on Egypt in the mid-7th century, the invaders sacked the capital of Thebes (Egyptian No-Amon, "City of [the god] Amun") and pillaged its temples, including modern Karnak and Luxor. Following the Babylonian defeat of Assyria and destruction of Jerusalem (587), influential Jewish colonies in Egypt and Assyria began to grow. Ultimately, however, Isaiah's prophecy anticipates not merely a regional spiritual renewal but a global one (vv. 16-21; cf. Rev. 20:11-21:8).

20 Egypt and Cush/Ethiopia In 713 the Philistine port city of Ashdod began a revolt against Assyria and eventually secured a pledge of support from Egypt and Cush. But the North African kingdoms left Ashdod in the lurch when the Assyrians arrived in 711 to quell the rebellion for good. By going naked and barefoot for three years, Isaiah publicly portrayed the role of a slave to warn of the humiliation awaiting Assyrias opponents (v 2). A decade later, King Hezekiah of Judah wisely heeded Isaiah's counsel to rely on God, not Egypt, for deliverance from the Assyrians.

21 Babylon, Edom, and Arabia Verses 1-1o foretell the Medo-Persian conquest of Babylon (538), called the "wilderness of the sea [Persian Gulf]"

in verse 1 (cf. v. 9). Elam, between the Tigris River and Media, became a Persian satrapy, or province (v 2). This second oracle against Babylon emphasizes Isaiah's personal distress over his vision of the devastation to come, even though the downfall of the Hebrews' exilic overlords means welcome relief for the captives (= the "threshed [people];" v. 10). Revelation 14:8; 18:2 take up the cry in verse 9 in recording the ultimate triumph of God over Satan.

The oracle concerning Dumah ("silence"), which the Septuagint changes to "Idumea" (= Edom), anticipates a temporary forestallment of judgment (vv. 11-12). Edom became home to Esau's descendants (Genesis 36).

Verses 13-17 foresee the impending fall of Arabia, conquered by Sargon of Assyria in 715. The oracle calls on the Dedanite merchants, who occupied an oasis in northwest Arabia, and the nearby inhabitants of Tema to shelter and care for their fellow Arabians, the powerful Bedouin Kedarites, pictured as fleeing south from the front lines of battle.

22 Jerusalem, the Valley of Vision The first 14 verses use the past tense to convey certainty that divine judgment will not bypass Jerusalem. The 587/86 destruction of Judah's capital occurred a century after Isaiah's time at the hands of the Babylonian army, which included mercenaries from the outposts of Elam and Kir, inherited from the Assyrians (v. 6). The Jerusalemites armed themselves with weapons stored in the "House of the Forest" (the city's arsenal) and built up the water supply inside the city walls for sustenance against a siege. (In Isaiah's day, Hezekiah built the Siloam tunnel, which brought water into the city from a source outside the defensive walls; 2 Kgs. 20:20; 2 Chr. 32:30.) But their failure to place ultimate trust in God will lead to their defeat (v. 11). Instead of repenting of their sins, they partied on (vv. 12-13).

The remaining verses report God's replacing Shebna with Eliakim in a high position in Hezekiah's royal court (2 Kgs. i8:i8ff.). But Eliakim will abuse his authority (v 22), possibly by indiscriminately granting official favors to all manner of relatives (v. 24), and this action will undo him in the end (v. 25).

23 Tyre For centuries, extensive trade launched from the port cities of Tyre and Sidon, on the coast of today's Lebanon, established the Phoenicians as the dominant seafaring merchants in the eastern Mediterranean. Isaiah foresees the news of Tyre's destruction passing from the city's nearest colony on Cyprus to the far reaches of its sea-trade in Egypt and Tarshish (probably Tartessus in Spain, v. 6). In images borrowed from the birthing process and childrearing, the sea itself bemoans the absence of her children, the Phoenician merchant ships (v. 4). Tyre earns the title "bestower of crowns" (v. 8) for its widespread establishment of colonies. The term "Canaan" (v. ii) included Phoenicia.

The prophecy envisions the "land of the Chaldeans" (Babylonia) as carrying out the destruction of Tyre N. 13), after which the city goes unremembered for the span of a lifetime (70 years; v. 15). When Tyre does resume international trade, the material gains will benefit God's faithful (v. i8).

Assyria conquered and at least temporarily subjugated Tyre in 722/21. The decline of Assyrian power emboldened the city to reassert its independence, but the Babylonians recaptured it. The cycle of Tyre's resurgence and submission continued through its conquest by Greece under Alexander the Great (332) and beyond.

24-27 Global Judgment and Renewal Sometimes called the "Isaiah Apocalypse," these four chapters contain a mixture of prophecies, prayers, laments, and songs of praise and thanksgiving, all of which revolve around God's judgment of the entire, corrupt world and renewal for the faithful remnant. By transgressing the "everlasting covenant" (24:5), usually understood as a reference to the promise to Noah (Genesis 9), humanity forfeits the promised blessings and becomes subject to the threatened curses. Only a few will survive the coming devastation, which will turn all human joy to gloom and from which not even kings can escape (24:6, 11, 21-22). The doomed "city of chaos," the "palace of aliens;" represents the world gone morally wrong (24:10; 25:2; cf. 26:5; 27:10). The faithful remnant rejoices in God's display of righteous judgment (24:14-16), and the Lord's glory out shines the sun and moon (24:23; cf. Matt. 24:29; Rev. 6:12; 8:12).

Pool of Siloam, connected to Jerusalem's only perennial source of water, the Gihon Spring, by an underground tunnel constructed by Hezekiah. (www. Ho l yL an d Ph o to s. o rg)

The representative city that bears God's judgment stands in stark contrast to Jerusalem (Zion), where divine "salvation" will "swallow up" death and eradicate sadness and shame (25:6-12; cf. Rev. 21:4). The decisively humbled "Moab" represents all the unfaithful (25:10).

Jerusalem's gates open to welcome home the righteous (26:1-2). In the city's future lies divinely established peace, marked by God's blessing in all spheres of life (26:12). One of two clear Old Testament references to a bodily resurrection appears in 26:19 (cf. Dan. 12:2).

Isaiah borrows imagery from Canaanite myth in portraying God's cosmic victory over the forces of evil as the defeat of the mythical sea serpent "Leviathan" (27:1). Isaiah 27:2-6 recast the Song of the Vineyard in positive terms (cf. 5:1-7). Punished for unfaithfulness by exile (27:7-8), "Jacob" will receive full pardon by destroying the trappings of pagan religion (27:9). A trumpet blast will signal the start of the exiles' return from faraway Mesopotamia and Egypt (27:12-13; cf. Matt. 24:31).

28-31 Oracles against Israel and Judah 28 The Leaders of Israel and Judah Chapter 28 begins with an oracle against Israel prior to the northern kingdom's defeat by the Assyrians in 722/21 B.c. The Israelite capital of Samaria lay in the tribal territory of Ephraim, which represents here the northern kingdom as a whole. The gluttony of Israel's civil and religious leaders make the kingdom morally ripe for judgment (vv. 3-4, 7)• Verses 9-1o expose their prideful rejection of divine instruction, which they consider beneath their level of moral maturity. (Imitating the babbling of a child, the Hebrew in verse 1o uses words of one syllable to mock authentic prophetic warnings.) Since the Israelite leaders pooh-pooh prophetic instruction and refuse God's offer of "rest," the Lord will teach them through "a foreign tongue" - that of the Assyrians, who in 722 captured and deported the northern population (vv. 11-13). The "crown" of Israel will not completely disintegrate, however, for God himself will assume his rightful place as king over the surviving Israelite remnant (v. 5).

In verse 14 the focus shifts to the rulers of the southern kingdom of Judah. Isaiah ominously refers to their divinely prohibited alliance with Egypt against the Assyrians as a "covenant with death" and a pact with Sheol (v. 15). If the Judahite "scoffers" fail to heed prophetic warnings, they can expect God to reverse completely the victories he granted to King David (v 21; cf. 1 Chr. 14:8-17).

The chapter ends with a parable. Just as for the farmer everything has a season, so God in his wisdom sends judgment or salvation as he sees fit (vv 23-29).

29 Jerusalem "Ariel" (v. 7), which sometimes means "Lion of God," can also mean "altar hearth" and here refers to the altar in the Jerusalem temple complex (cf. Ezek. 43:15). The envisioned siege found historical fulfillment in the Assyrian Sennacherib's divinely thwarted attempt to take the Judahite capital in 701 (see 2 Kgs. 19:32-37; Isa. 37:33-38).

The chosen people's spiritual blindness prevents them from understanding the divine instruction (vv. 9-10; cf. 6:9-10) and inclines them toward mechanical observance of religious ritual rather than heartfelt obedience (v. 13).

The spiritually dull conceal in the darkness their twisting of the truth (v. 15; cf. John 3:19-21).

They think they can achieve equality with God (v. 16; Gen. 3:5; cf. Rom. 9:20-21). But God the Creator can bring about true reversal in the world for the good of his people by opening their spiritual eyes and ears.

30 Judah's Foolishness Isaiah pronounces woe on the defiant, faithless Judah for looking to Egypt for security (in the face of the Assyrian threat) rather than exercising trust in God. Egypt's inability to make good on any promise of military aid and the weakness of the kingdom's leaders will make the treacherous journey of Judah's envoys futile (v. 6). Egypt will be like "Rahab," the mythological chaos monster defeated by the god Marduk prior to his creation of the world (v. 7; cf. 51:9).

The prophet chastises the Judahites for actively suppressing divine truth (vv 10-11). Since the divine rule that God established with his chosen people intertwined religion and state, the people's unfaithfulness invites both political and military disaster (vv. 12-14). God has urged his people to turn away from their sin and toward obedience to him (v. 15), but they have chosen military action rather than faith (vv. 1617; cf. Matt. 26:52).

Verses 18-26 convey God's gracious longing to relieve the oppression through which he has taught his people a lesson and to restore to them unimaginably abundant blessings.

The concluding verses describe God's angry judgment against the pagan nations and single out the current power, Assyria. At Topheth ("place of burning;' V. 33), located in the Hinnom Valley just south of Jerusalem (New Testament "Gehenna," a word for hell), human sacrifices were offered to the Ammonite god Molech. In the midst of this divine punishment, God's spiritually renewed people will worship him with songs, celebration, and gladness of heart (v. 29).

31 God's Supremacy over Egypt and Assyria The Egyptian army is no match for God, who will protect Jerusalem despite his people's foolish hope in their southern neighbor. Even the mighty aggressor Assyria will panic in the encounter with God (v. 4; cf. the lion imagery applied to Assyria in 5:29-30). The chapter turns not on the theme of deliverance, however, but on the call to repentance and the pure worship of God, whose refining fire proves the righteous (vv. 6-7, 9).

32-35 A Brighter Future 32 A Righteous King and a Peaceful Future In a brief return to the theme of a future righteous king, Isaiah describes the renewed kingdom as populated by a morally enlightened people (vv 3-4; contrast 6:9-10). Verses 6-8 reflect the Wisdom style of the book of Proverbs. Isaiah admonishes his female contemporaries, who are living the good life and lulled by a false sense of security, to put on mourning attire and lament the judgment that will precede this righteous reign, dominated by justice and peace.

33 A Prophetic Collage A variety of voices and poetic forms comprise this chapter. It begins with a prophetic woe against an unnamed "destroyer" (v. 1), followed by a prayer (W. 2-4), a hymn (vv. 5-6), and a corporate lament that includes widespread geographic references (vv.7-9). Prophetic threats against unspecified enemies and promises extend from verse 1o to the end of the chapter (the refining fire of God's judgment, W. 14-15; the future, righteous king, V. 17; foreign oppressors, v. 19), with a hymn of confidence in verses 20-22. This chapter may have been used in worship, perhaps in times of national emergency, or later as a summary recollecting Isaiah's prophecies.

34 An Oracle against the Nations Verse 2 presents the future divine judgment of the nations as an accomplished fact. Their offenses against Zion (v. 8) earn them utter destruction in a final, bloody battle that ends in cosmic collapse N. 4; cf. Matt. 24:29; Rev. 6:13-14). Edom, land of Esau's descendants and a constant thorn in Israel's side, will be a special target of God's wrath (vv. 5-7). God will carry out the devastation with chilling precision (vv 11, 13-15).

The "book of the Lord" (v. 16) may signify the collection of Isaiah's prophecies. Elsewhere the "boob' refers to the "book of life," which lists the saved (cf. Dan. 12:1; Mal. 3:16; Rev. 20:12).

35 A Preview of Renewal The idyllic renewal of the promised land and the joyful repopulation of Jerusalem stand in stark contrast to the intense devastation of pagan nations described in chapter 34. The barren southern desert (Heb. "Arabah") will blossom as gloriously as Canaan's densely vegetated north (vv. 6-7); spiritual and physical healing will abound (vv. 5-6; cf. Matt. 11:6); and God's redeemed will travel the perilless "Holy Way" to return to Zion, where they will find never-ending joy. This picture far surpasses Judah's actual restoration following the Babylonian exile and later that of the returned Diaspora. Ultimately, the prophecy anticipates the glorious final age envisioned in Revelation 21-22.

36-39 An Assyrian Siege and Hezekiah's Babylonian Blunder A nearly identical textual twin of 2 Kgs. 18:13-20:19, these chapters bring to a climax Isaiah's preceding prophetic warnings by giving a prose account of the Assyrian king Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem (chs. 36-37) and the visit of Babylonian well-wishers to the ailing Hezekiah (38:1-9; 39). Isaiah's account omits mention of Hezekiah's initial, fainthearted cowing to Sennacherib (2 Kgs. 18:14-16), which may have been a separate occasion.

The most obvious difference between the parallel chapters in Isaiah and 2 Kings consists in the addition of Hezekiah's poem in 38:9-20 expressing the ailing king's fear of an untimely death. Hezekiah nevertheless anticipates his recovery on the basis of Isaiah's prophetic assurances, backed up with a miraculous sign (38:5-8, 20).

40-55 Hope for Restoration

The transitional chapter 39 shifts attention away from the Assyrian threat, which provides the historical background for chapters 1-38, and toward Babylon, which overthrew Assyria, conquered Judah, and destroyed Jerusalem (587/86). Chapters 40-55, sometimes called "The Book of the Consolation of Israel," address the Hebrew exiles in Babylon. Here the hopeful theme of imminent restoration replaces the ominous message of impending doom that characterizes the first half of Isaiah. The New Testament views the ultimate fulfillment of the prophecies in chapters 40-55 in eschatological terms.

40 On the Other Side of Punishment From chapter 40 on, the perspective in Isaiah changes dramatically. The political crisis threatened in chapters 1-39 is long gone, not because God's people have done a spiritual about-face in response to the harsh, prophetic warnings, but because he has punished them for failing to do so. Here God announces the end of the punitive period in a message of kindly comfort (vv. 1-2; cf. Deut. 30:1-10). The meat of this message, however, does not consist in a rehearsal of tangible, earthly blessings to which the Hebrews may look forward; rather, the message focuses on the greatness of God, who in his tireless, unfailing love, incomparable strength, and absolute sovereignty possesses the will and ability to effect his people's restoration to the promised land in a "second exodus" (cf. ch. 35).

In the context of the exiles' return from Babylon, verses 3-5 envisage the preparation of an easy route to Canaan through the desert, with God in the lead (cf. Exod. 13:17-22). The New Testament relates these verses to the ministry of John the Baptist as heralding the restorative mission of Christ (Matt. 3:1-3; Luke 3:1-6). In verses 11 and 12, the shepherd/sheep language of Psalm 23 balances God's ruling might with his nurturing care. The "span;' or "half cubit;" used metaphorically in verse 12, measured about 9 in.

Compared to God, the "[pagan] nations" aren't even a blip on the screen (vv 15-17). Neither idols/graven images nor earthly rulers can compare to this sovereign ruler of the universe (vv. 18-26; compare V. 21 and Rom. 1:18-25). Finally, the chapter emphasizes the unfailing energy of God, who thoroughly reinvigorates the weary faithful (vv 27-31).

41 The Power of God's Words God summons the nations to court for a hearing, at which he establishes himself without challenge as the one who puts into action the events that will lead to his people's release from bondage in Babylon, namely, the conquests of Cyrus the Persian (vv. 2, 25; 44:28). Cyrus's empire extended from the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea in the east to the

Black Sea, due north of Canaan. Fearing the emerging power, the pagan peoples encourage each other in a futile attempt to resist. But now the politically powerless Hebrew exiles, who formerly ignored the prophetic call to exercise faith in God, will get a second chance to experience divine deliverance in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds. God will arm them with a divinely made "threshing sledge," a heavy, flint-studded, wooden beam dragged over harvested ears of corn to break them open. In subsequent winnowing (the tossing in the air of the threshed product), the wind blew away the inedible, lightweight husks - the easily disposed of "chaff" that serves as a metaphor for Israel's enemies (vv. 11-16). Verses 17-20 echo chapter 35 in previewing the abundant provisions God will grant to his afflicted people.

Verse 21 returns to the courtroom, where the inability of the pagan nations' gods to see the future disproves their divinity. Their silent impotence contrasts with God's power in speaking events into being (v. 25; cf. 40:8).

42 God's Servant and His Willfully Wayward People This first of what have traditionally been called "Servant Songs" (vv. 1-7) begins on a positive note: God's spirit-imbued servant will play a central role in establishing global justice and bringing about spiritual enlightenment among the pagan nations (cf. Gen. 12:3; 22:18). The grace of God in this new world order will extend even to Israel's former enemies (vv. 9-13). But their salvation will not be automatic. God's judgment for their idolatry will come first (vv. 14-17). Verses 10-12 constitute a victory hymn similar to those represented in Psalms 96 and 98.

Israel certainly has not demonstrated the capacity to fulfill such a servant role. The willful nation has turned a deaf ear and a blind eye to God's law and thereby rendered itself) ust as spiritually dull as the pagan nations. The chosen people have not even recognized God's judgment as punishment for their sin. Verses 18-25 constitute their wake-up call.

Three more "Servant Songs" appear in 49:113; 5o:4-11; and 52:13-53:12, and the passages show a progressive development of the servant theme prominent in chapters 40-66. The New Testament understands Jesus as the Suffering Servant, who on behalf of all humanity bears God's judgment for sin, mediates salvation, and returns to establish a just and righteous eternal kingdom (Matt. 12:15-21; Mark 10:45; Luke 4:1621).

43 God's Loving Redemption and Israel's Rebuff Through Moses, God established a personal relationship with his people by revealing to them his name: Yahweh (Exod. 6:1-13). In ancient Near Eastern thought, a name served not merely as an identification label, but it actually conveyed the nature of its bearer - thus the importance of the prohibition against taking God's name in vain (Exod. 20:7). God's naming of the nation of Israel intensifies the intimate nature of their relationship and also establishes God's authority over his people (v. 1; cf. Gen. 2:19-20). He calls them "precious;' declares his preferential love for them, and pledges to gather the scattered exiles from every direction of the compass (vv 2-7).

Verses 8-13 return to the courtroom scene introduced in chapter 41, with God's calling Israel as witness to his unchallenged supremacy over the phony gods of pagan nations (v. 9; cf. 40:21-29). Verse 14 resumes the theme of Babylon's downfall, foreshadowed in 41:2, 25 by God's rousing of Cyrus the Persian. No longer should Israel look back to its ancestors' miraculous exodus deliverance through the Red Sea, for a new set of divine wonders awaits in a "second exodus" from captivity in Babylon (vv. 16-21).

Only God's determination to save his chosen people for the sake of his own name prevents defiant Israel from forfeiting all these plans for good (vv 22-28). Fortunately for Israel, God's justified frustration with the nation does not cancel out his gracious forgiveness of their sins. These transgressions go all the way back to their "first ancestor" (v 27), a probable reference to Jacob, renamed "Israel" and forebear of the 12 Hebrew tribes. Only through this ill-deserved pardon could Israel hope to escape God's total destruction (v 28; cf. Joshua 6).

44-45 God's Singular Divinity Ensures Release, Renewal, and Restoration After summarizing the divine blessings in store for God's beloved

servant "Jacob" (= Israel), also called by the poetic name "Jeshurun" (vv 1-5), God repeats and intensifies his singular claims to divinity. His appeal to his chosen people as witnesses (44:8) resumes the courtroom metaphor (ch. 41; 43:8-13). These chapters extend the themes of God as sole Creator of the world, orchestrator of human affairs, redeemer and liberator of his chosen people, and forecaster of earthly events (chs. 40-43). Isaiah 44:9-2o develop in detail the contrast between this all-powerful God and utterly impotent, wooden idols, fashioned in human form by human hands.

The final verse of chapter 44 names Cyrus as God's instrument of restoration in Canaan (v. 28). Only rarely does the Old Testament specify future historical figures by personal name (cf. 1 Kgs. 13:2). Some believe these instances represent the work of authors/editors who lived after the events described. In chapter 45, God previews his orders to Cyrus, who despite his unfamiliarity with God, is nevertheless destined to do his bidding N. 4; cf. Ezra i:iff.). In particular, the Persian king will release the captive Hebrews, whom the new conqueror will inherit from defeated Babylon, and rebuild Jerusalem and the temple (45:13; cf. 44:26-28).

Israel's divine reversal of fortunes will include commercial profit from Egypt and Cush/ Ethiopia and voluntary subservience on the part of the Sabeans, nomadic raiders from southwestern Arabia (45:14). The courtroom hearing resumes in 45:20 with God's reassertion to the pagan nations of his singular divinity. God's global offer of redemption to the penitent parallels the New Testament theme of the "ingrafting" of the Gentiles (v 22; cf. Rom. 11:11-32). The Apostle Paul names Christ as the object of the universal allegiance to God foretold in 45:23 (Rom. 14:11; Phil. 2:10-11).

"I will make a way in the wilderness and rivers in the desert" (Isa. 43:19). (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

46 Contrasting Gods Chapter 46 sets in climactic contrast the Babylonian gods, whose motionless, unresponsive graven images their devotees must shoulder while marching into exile, and the vigorous God of Israel, who has "carried" his people from the beginning and will carry them back to Zion (vv. 1-7,13). Bel, a title meaning "lord" (cf. the Canaanite Baal) and probably used here to refer to the Babylonian high god Marduk, appears in the name Belshazzar ("[May] Bel protect the king"; Dan. 5:1). The other principal Babylonian god, Nabu (Heb. "Nebo"), son of Marduk and god of learning, is represented in the name Nebuchadnezzar ("[May] Nabu protect my boundary stone," i.e., my borders). The sins of God's stubbornminded Hebrew children will not deter him from granting their "salvation" - deliverance from affliction and oppression. The "bird of prey" from a distant, eastern country refers to Cyrus, whose Medo-Persian army defeated Babylon in 537 (v. 11).

47 A Taunt Song for Doomed "Queen Babylon" The taunting invitation to the city of Babylon (the "virgin daughter/fair maiden" and "daughter of the Chaldeans") to "sit in the dust" and "strip off the skirt" represents a summons for the capital city to mourn the inevitable fall of the Babylonian Empire, the idea of which the "queen" city never entertained (vv. 1, 7; cf. 32:11). Her haughty mistreatment of the Hebrew exiles has gone too far, and her lack of mercy is about to come back to haunt her as she finds herself relegated to slavery (vv. 2-6). The personification of Babylon continues in the picture of the city as a woman simultaneously widowed and deprived of her children (vv. 8-9). When it comes to thwarting the impending disaster, Babylon's magicians and astrologers will prove just as powerless as her gods, and even long time comrades will abandon the queen in her time of need (vv 9-15).

48 A Sober Sendoff The focus shifts from Babylon to the Hebrew exiles, as God lectures the obstinate rebels for their arrogance. In the past, God announced in advance his actions to prevent his people from ascribing divine deeds to false gods (vv 1-11). The Hebrews' "refinement" through exile in Babylon emerges as a purposeful, corrective punishment for their sin, not a disproof of God's sovereignty (vv. 9-11). In truth, God's "tough love" approach constitutes an act of grace (not merely undeserved favor, but ill-deserved favor), which saves his people from a worse fate - being "cut off" from their covenantal relationship with God. Yet God's primary motivation for restoring them is the vindication of his own name (v 11; cf. 43:7, 25).

Verses 12-22 look to the future as they revolve around God's disclosure of his next move: the defeat of Israel's current captors, the Babylonians (= Chaldeans; W. 14-16). The new, spirit-accompanied speaker in the last line of verse 16 may represent the prophetic author or the Servant of the Lord. With a final expression of frustration over the Hebrews' past, self-destructive disobedience, God drives the released captives out of Babylon to return to Jerusalem, where they may legitimately worship him in his chosen dwelling place (vv. 17-22). God charges them to proclaim their liberation in affirming his gracious redemption (v 20). He reminds them of his historic, miraculous acts on behalf of their exodus ancestors (v. 21) but balances this reassurance with an ominous warning confirming that the old rules of punishment for disobedience still apply (v. 22).

49 New Children for Lady Zion In the second "Servant Song" (vv. 1-13), God's servant both is "Israel" and is sent to the people of Israel. Some scholars understand the nation of Israel as both conveying and receiving the message. Others see the messenger as an individual called Israel sent to minister to and on behalf of the nation of the same name. The poem stresses God's compassion for Israel and also commissions this servant to bring "light" to the pagan nations (cf. Gen. 12:2-3).

The bereaved Zion (= Jerusalem) - personified, like Babylon, as a woman (ch. 47) - receives comfort and the assurance that God has not forgotten her (vv. 14-26). The taunt song foretelling Babylon's bereavement and abandonment contrasts sharply with the impending reversal of fortunes for Lady Zion, who will soon welcome so many new children that she will lack room to house them all (vv. 14-23; contrast 47:9-15). While deposed Queen Babylon sits on the ground, foreign rulers will "lick the dust" of Zion's feet (v 23; contrast 47:1). The doom of Israel's oppressors includes their having to resort to cannibalism (v. 26; cf. 2 Kgs. 6:24-30; Lev. 26:29; Deut. 28:53-55).

50 The Exile as Purposeful Punishment Verse 1 expresses the Hebrews' exile in the language of divorce. In Deuteronomy, the "certificate of divorce" required a husband to declare a valid reason ("some indecency") for dissolving the marriage (Deut. 24:1-4). Here it gives testimony that Israel's exile did not result from a lack of power on God's part; rather, God purposefully "sent [her] away" as deliberate punishment for unfaithfulness. Verses 2-3 offer further evidence against arguments that would deny God's absolute power.

The third "Servant Song" appears in verses 4-11. (Vv. 6-7 continue the "Suffering Servant" theme.) Despite intense affliction, the servant defiantly pursues his mission and expresses confidence in his divine vindication. The final two verses address the hearers of the servant: verse 1o calls the righteous to faith, while verse 11 prophesies the tormenting demise of the defiant.

51:1-52:12 Release and Restoration This section furthers the message to the righteous. God's provision of children to Abraham and his previously barren wife, Sarah, and the multiplication of their descendants provide the basis for the exiles' trust that God will make good on his promises to restore joy in the promised land and to establish for eternity global justice, righteousness, and deliverance from oppression (51:1-8). In 51:9-11, the prophet calls on God to awaken to this task. He affirms God's power to accomplish it by citing God's triumph over pre-creation chaos and parting of the Red Sea during the exodus (on "Rahab," see 30:7).

God speaks words of comfort to the soonto-be-released captives. He points out the folly of fearing human oppressors instead of trusting in their vastly more powerful Creator God. The prophet interrupts (51:17-20), wanting to make sure the exiles hear the good news, which God restates in 51:22-23: their punishment has come to a permanent end. But that is not all, according to chapter 52. It is time to shake off the dust and chains of enslavement and prepare to return to the promised land. Isaiah 52:3 establishes the capture and release of the exiles as divinely accomplished feats, not humanly engineered business deals. The Assyrian and Babylonian deportations will end in a second exodus in which the ritually purified people will carry back to Zion the sacred temple treasures confiscated by the Babylonians (52:4-12; for the circumstantial contrasts between the two exodus events, compare v. 12 and Exod. 12:29ff.).

52:13-53:12 The Suffering Servant: Rejected by Humanity but Exalted by God This fourth, final, and best-known "Servant Song" develops the theme of the "Suffering Servant" to its greatest extent. The exaltation of the physically disfigured, humanly despised and rejected servant of the Lord will so surprise people that they will be rendered speechless (52:13-53:3). The poem makes clear that God himself causes the servant's intense suffering, not as a sign of divine rejection, but in order to effect spiritual healing from sins for "us all :" A willing sacrifice unblemished by violence or deceit, the servant fills the role of a sacrificial lamb, which according to Mosaic law effected atonement for sins (53:7-9; cf. Leviticus 1; 5:14-6:13; John 1:29). The contrast between the servant's outward offensiveness and inner purity highlights the true measure of humanity: religious sincerity of spirit, which results in heartfelt obedience to God and by which he judges individuals (cf. 1 Sam. 16:7).

In the New Testament, Christ emerges as the ultimate Suffering Servant prophesied in Isaiah (Matthew 27; Rom. 5:6-9, 18-19; Phil. 2:5-11; 1 Pet. 2:21-24).

54-55 The Covenantal Blessings Revitalized and Enhanced As in 49:14-21, chapter 54 envisions the multiplication of inhabitants for the depopulated Zion, again portrayed as a wife socially disgraced because of her childlessness (the "barren one," V. 1). God, the husband who in 5o:1 divorced his people for unfaithfulness, takes back his bride for good and vows never again to afflict her (cf. God's covenant with Noah in Gen. 9:11). Moreover, God promises to adorn her gloriously, to protect her unfailingly, and to provide for her abundantly and without charge (54:11-12). The reference in 55:3 to David likens the eternal nature of God's current promises to the covenant in which God pledged to establish a perpetual Davidic dynasty (2 Sam. 7:16), and 55:4-5 foresee the fulfillment of God's vow to Abraham that his descendants become a blessing to the nations of the earth (Gen. 12:3). Yet the road to such blessing is a two-way street. Repentance - the simultaneous abandonment of wickedness and "return" to the Lord - surfaces as the Hebrews' part of the bargain (55:6-7).

God's power to accomplish his superior purposes resides in his "word," which here proclaims the exiles' joyful return to a revitalized promised land restored for eternity (55:8-13). As in chapter 35, the picture of abundant, everlasting renewal painted here far surpasses the circumstances of Judah's restoration following the Babylonian exile and ultimately anticipates the global, final restoration envisioned in Revelation 21-22.

56-66 Reestablishing Righteousness

These last 11 chapters reassure the returned exiles, living in a still devastated Judah and Jerusalem, that in a future act of judgment God will root out the wicked from the promised land and reestablish righteousness in Zion.

56:1-8 God's Welcome to Foreigners and Outcasts The incorporation of converted social outcasts and foreigners into the Hebrew community began early in the nation's history with such individuals as the harlot Rahab and Ruth the Moabitess (Lev. 19:33-34; Josh. 6:22-25; Ruth 1:16). Verses 1-8 confirm the divinely sanctioned

share of these converts in the religious life of the restoration community. Even converted eunuchs, who lack heirs to carry on their name and thus ensure their perpetual participation in the covenantal promises, enjoy primacy of place in God's scheme. Not surprisingly, however, these verses also emphasize the converts' obligation to observe covenantal law, especially by honoring the Sabbath. The "holy mountain" of Jerusalem, home to God's "house of prayer," thus begins to develop as the center of global worship envisioned in 2:2-4 (cf. Mic. 4:1-3; Psalm 87).

56:9-57:21 A Call to Contrition The ideal portrayed in 56:1-8 differs from reality, which this next section addresses. The blind watchmen and clueless shepherds of 56:10-12 represent Israel's corrupt, complacent religious and civil leaders. Death paves for the righteous the only path to peace (57:1-2), while the rebellious Hebrews never tire of engaging in pagan cult prostitution, brutal child sacrifice, and futile idol worship. God chastises the deceitful religious harlots for their wickedness, but so great is his desire to bestow on them the covenantal blessings that he calls them to contrition and pledges to heal them in response (57:11-21).

58 God Clarifies His Requirements This chapter exposes the Hebrews' obsession with religious ritual for the empty hypocrisy it is. The people's failure to recognize the sinfulness of their actions and intentions renders them unable to understand why God ignores their outward displays of piety (vv. 1-5). In verses 6-14, God corrects their understanding of what pleases him - sincere deeds of unselfish personal sacrifice, not false humility disguised by fasting (vv. 6-7; cf. Matt. 25:35-36).

59 God's Determination to Redeem Religiously fallen as God's people are, he still can save them. A litany of transgressions spells out the means by which the Hebrews have denied themselves communion with God and given birth to a depraved society: murder, lying, fraud, injustice, hastiness to do evil, and violence. God's displeasure with this appalling situation stirs him to "save" the repentant and punish the persistently wicked. Verse 20 anticipates Christ as the ultimate accomplisher of God's redemptive work. Paul borrows language from verse 17 in calling Christians to don the "full armor of God" (Eph. 6:11-17).

60 Jerusalem Rejuvenated The rejuvenation of Jerusalem, destroyed in 587/86 by the Babylonians, parallels the redemption of the people divinely designated to repopulate the holy city. Bathed in the light of God, Jerusalem stands out from the rest of the dark earth (vv. 1-13, 19-20; cf. Rev. 21:22-26; John 8:12). Foreign nations and kings flock to the radiant temple-city with riches to offer to God (vv. 4-9). God will guarantee the security of the rebuilt city (vv. 1014), and its economic vitality, aesthetic beauty, structural strength, and peaceful atmosphere will surpass anything in its past (vv. 15-18). Verses 21-22 echo the divine promises of the "land" (= Canaan) and offspring (Gen. 12:1-3).

61 A Nation of Priests Some scholars view the speaker here as the Servant of the Lord first mentioned in 42:1 and so consider this poem a fifth "Servant Song." Others hear in these verses the voice of the prophet. Jesus publicly inaugurates his ministry by claiming the mission set forth in verses 1-2 (see Luke 4:16-21).

Verses 4-9 envision the entire nation of Hebrews serving as priests, with the peoples of foreign nations filling the secular roles assumed by Israel's non-Levitical tribes and providing their livelihood as prescribed by Mosaic law (cf. Exod. 19:6; Numbers 18). Firstborn sons normally inherited twice as much of their father's estate as younger male siblings, and here a divinely granted "double portion" replaces Israel's previous inheritance of humiliation-by-exile. A song of praise closes the hopeful chapter (vv. 10-11).

62 Jerusalem Essentially Changed The transformation of Jerusalem into a global beacon of righteousness will mean for the city an essential change of status (vv. 1-2). No longer called "Forsaken" or "Desolate;' her new names will signal the renewal of her "marriage" to God and the newlywed delight he takes in his bejeweled bride (vv. 4-5, 12). Verses 6-7 call on watchmen,

posted on the defense walls of Jerusalem, vigilantly to hold God to his promise to exalt and protect the city, whose inhabitants will joyously welcome the returning exiles.

63:1-6 The Divine Avenger The divine bridegroom who delights in Jerusalem also avenges the city by punishing its enemies, here represented by Edom and its periodic capital, Bozrah (cf. 34:6). This homeland of Esau's descendants figures as a particularly appropriate representative for the pummeled peoples, whose blood has stained the garments of the divine avenger, for Edom means "red." These verses give a more graphic portrayal of the same event of judgment envisioned in 59:16-20 (cf. Rev. 19:11-16).

63:7-64:12 Lamenting the Present, Reminiscing about the Past The opening vow to praise God for his goodness to Israel launches a contrite rehearsal of the nation's rebellious history. This communal lament ends with a plea that God once again deliver them from the consequences of their sins. Verses 9-14 recall God's singling out the Hebrews as his chosen people, their rebellion, and Moses' role in mediating their deliverance from oppression in Egypt.

In 63:15-64:7, appeals that God renew his redemptive actions on Israel's behalf alternate with expressions of puzzlement over his neglect and despair at the plight of the nation so separated from God that even its founding fathers, Abraham and Israel (= Jacob, 63:16), cannot recognize it. The lament appears to lay at God's doorstep the blame for the nation's persistent religious rebelliousness (63:17; 64:7), but in actuality that is a path they have already determined to pursue. Decade after decade, the prophets delivered to Israel and Judah countless warnings to change course, which for the most part went ignored. Thus the Hebrews bore full responsibility for God's "delivering [them] into the hand of [their] iniquity."

The lament ends on a tone of utter humility by acknowledging God as sovereign "potter" over his people, the "clay" (64:8). Seeing no end to their punishment and bemoaning the devastation of their promised land, they plead for an end to their affliction. The basis of their hope for a reversal of fortunes lies in Deut. 30:1-10.

65-66 God's Double-Edged Answer God breaks his silence with a message of hope for the righteous and doom for the wicked. He begins by castigating his people as a whole for constantly rebuffing his overtures and flagrantly inflaming his anger by offering sacrifices at unauthorized locations, consulting the spirits of the dead, ignoring food laws, and communing with "Fortune" and "Destiny," the gods Gad and Meni (65:1-7,11). Playing off the names of these Syrian deities, God declares that the "destiny" of the unfaithful lies in destruction, and their "name" leaves a legacy of cursedness (65:12-15).

But not all the grapes in the cluster of the chosen people are sour, and here the remnant theme developed in chapters 1-39 resurfaces as God vows to preserve and provide for the faithful. To signify their receipt of the promised inheritance of land, progeny, and blessing, their name will differ from that of the wicked (65:810,13-25).

The utopian picture of the re-created world of human beings (the "new heavens" and "new earth;" 65:17) includes for the inhabitants of the renewed Jerusalem perpetual gladness, longevity (an Old Testament sign of divine blessing), independence from overlords, enjoyment of the fruits of labor, intimacy with God, harmony in nature, and universally upright behavior (65:1725; cf. 11:6-9; Revelation 21).

Chapter 66 continues to contrast the futures of the faithful and the wicked. In acknowledging the limitlessness of God, the opening verse echoes Solomon's prayer at the dedication of the first temple (1 Kgs. 8:27, 30). Verses 2-3 do not signal God's rejection of worship through the offerings and sacrifices legislated in Mosaic law; rather, they emphasize God's requirement

of humble contrition as the necessary attitude for worship, because insincere ritual amounts to none other than abominable paganism (cf. 1 Sam. 15:22-23; Ps. 40:6-8).

In 66:5, hateful compatriots of the faithful discriminate against them. The taunting challenge of the skeptics echoes in the words of mockers at Jesus' crucifixion (Matt. 27:39-44).

Later, apocalyptic literature characterizes the events that precede the end times as the pangs of childbirth - language that here describes the rebirth of the nation of Israel from mother Zion (66:7-9; cf. Mark 13:8). Isaiah 66:13 likens God to a comforting mother and casts him in a maternal role.

According to 66:18-20, survivors of the destruction forewarned in verse 6 and described in verses 15-17 will proclaim God's glory in distant lands and usher back to Jerusalem the faithful who remain scattered abroad. The locations mentioned in 66:19 skirt the northern Mediterranean coast from Asia Minor as far east as Spain (Tarshish) and Put, which lies on the southern coast in the territory of modern Libya. From the ranks of the returning exiles, who represent a "grain offering," God will appoint priests and Levites, set apart for full-time sacred service in the enduring new world (66:20-22).

The final verses of Isaiah dramatically summarize the contrasting fates of the righteous and wicked. Those who recognize God's sovereignty will inherit an enduring legacy (66:23; cf. Phil. 2:9-11), and those who rebel will suffer deadly judgment (cf. Psalm 1; Rom. 6:23). The state of perpetual dying, pictured in 66:24 as the wages of the rebellious, offers a rare Old Testament hint at the afterlife.

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