Hasmonean Rule, 143-63 B.C.
Shortly before the advent of Jesus Christ, the Roman Empire had already become the ruling power over Israel.
Hasmonean Rule, 143-63 B.C.
After the demise of the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great defeated the Persians in Asia Minor in 334-333 B.C., Israel in 332, Egypt and Mesopotamia by 331. After the death of Alexander in 323, his kingdom was eventually divided among four generals, two of which affected Israel. Israel came under the Ptolemies of Egypt from 301 to 198 and under the Seleucids from 198 to 143. It remained somewhat independent under Hasmonean rule from 143 to 63, at which time the political leader and high priest were combined in one person, Alexander Jannaeus. But when Jannaeus died in 76 B.C., the political leadership was continued by his wife, Salome Alexandra, and their son Hyrcanus II became the high priest. When Salome Alexandra died in 67, Hyrcanus became political leader and continued as high priest with the support of the Pharisees. Three months later, Hyrcanus's brother Aristobulus II, who sided with the Sadducees, seized control and became king and high priest. Hyrcanus was willing to accept this, but the Idumean Antipater II (son of Antipater I, who had been appointed governor of Idumea by Jannaeus), father of Herod the Great, had other plans for him. Antipater convinced Hyrcanus that he had been wronged, for he was the legitimate ruler. It is at this juncture that Rome stepped in.
The Roman general Pompey advanced eastward by capturing Damascus in 64 and proceeded to Israel, where both rivals, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, appealed to him to be the rightful ruler. After some delay, Pompey sided with Hyrcanus II. Then he captured Jerusalem, entered the temple's holy of holies without plundering it, and reinstated Hyrcanus II as high priest. The political leadership was given to Scaurus, whom he made legate of the province of Syria (63). This marked the end to 8o years (143-63) of independence of the Jewish nation as well as the end of the Hasmonean house. Hyrcanus became merely a vassal of the Roman Empire.
Roman Rule, 63 B.C.-A.D. 70
Hyrcanus II, 63-40 B.C. Although Hyrcanus II was reappointed high priest, Antipater II was the power behind the throne. Antipater proved himself useful to the Romans officials and in their operation against the Hasmoneans.
The Roman Republic was plagued with problems. In 49 B.C. Julius Caesar waged war against Pompey, and Antipater appeared with troops to help Caesar. Antipater knew whose side to be on. After the victory over Pompey (in Egypt) in 48, Caesar confirmed Hyrcanus as high priest and also gave him the title of ethnarch of the Jews. Further, in appreciation for Antipater's services, Caesar made him a tax-free Roman citizen and procurator over Judea. Although Antipater was of lower rank than Hyrcanus, he continued to wield power by appointing his oldest son, Phasael, governor of Jerusalem and Herod, his second son, governor of Galilee in 47.
After Cassius, Brutus, and their followers murdered Julius Caesar in 44, Cassius went to Syria. Needing to raise certain taxes required by Cassius, Antipater selected Herod, Phasael, and Malichus (a Jewish noble) for the job. Because of Herod's success in this endeavor, Cassius appointed him governor of Coele-Syria. Herod, an Idumean, became betrothed to Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus II and daughter of Aristobulus's son Alexander, and thus a niece to Antigonus, Herod's rival. Herod's position was strengthened, and as a result he became regent when the aging Hyrcanus died.
When Antony defeated Cassius in 42, the Jewish leaders accused Herod and Phasael of seizing the power of the government, leaving Hyrcanus with only titular honors and no real authority. Herod's defense nullified these charges. Antony asked Hyrcanus who would be the best qualified to rule, and Hyrcanus chose Herod and Phasael. Antony appointed them as tetrarchs of Judea.
Antigonus, 40-37 B.C. The Parthians, who lived south of the Caspian Sea, appeared in Syria to deliver it from Roman power. Antigonus, son of Aristobulus II, asked them to help remove Hyrcanus, eliminate the Idumean Herod, and restore the Hasmonean monarchy. Antigonus was able to control Jerusalem and much of the countryside. Herod, his family, and his troops moved to Masada and then to Petra. Antigonus was made king and cut off Hyrcanus's ear to prevent the possibility of his restoration to the high priesthood.
Meanwhile Herod went to Rome, where Antony, Octavius Caesar, and the Senate designated him King of Judea. In late 40 or early 39, Herod returned to Israel, and with the help of Antony's legate Sossius was able to recapture Galilee. It was before attacking Jerusalem that he married Mariamne, a Hasmonean, which consolidated his acceptance by the Jews but may also have served to spite Antigonus, Mariamne's uncle. Herod then laid siege to Jerusalem, which finally fell in the summer of 37. Antigonus was beheaded, marking the end of Hasmonean rule. Herod became king.
Herod the Great, 37-4 B.C.
Consolidation, 37-25 B.c. Having won over Antigonus, Herod needed to gain the loyalty of his subjects and to eliminate those hostile to his rule. He severely punished the Pharisees and others who opposed him and rewarded with favors and honors those who were loyal to him. Herod also executed 45 of the wealthiest among the aristocracy and confiscated their properties. In an attempt to diminish Hasmonean influence, he appointed the Aaronic Hananel as high priest to replace the mutilated Hyrcanus. But Herod's motherin-law Alexandra pressured to have her 17-year-old son Aristobulus become high priest. Aristobulus was well liked by the populace, but Herod contrived to have him "accidentally" drowned in a pool at Jericho. Meanwhile, Octavius defeated Antony in the battle of Actium (30). Herod successfully convinced Octavius that he would be loyal, and Octavius confirmed his royal rank. The following year Octavius returned to him Jericho and added Gazara, Hippos, Samaria, Gaza, Anthedon, Joppa, and Straton's Tower.
Prosperity, 25-14 B.c. Herod proceeded to build theaters, amphitheaters, and a race course, all in violation of Jewish law. About 24 he built a royal palace and built or rebuilt many fortresses and Gentile temples, including the rebuilding of Straton's Tower, which he renamed Caesarea. His greatest achievement was the rebuilding of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem, begun ca. 20. In 23/22 Octavius, now named Augustus, gave Herod Trachonitis, Batanea, and Auranitis and, in 20, Zenodorus. Herod remitted one-third of the taxes to bring goodwill among his subjects, and later in 14 he reduced taxes again by one-fourth.
Herodium, mountain palace-fortress of Herod the Great. (Phoenix Data Systems, Neal and Joel Bierling)
Domestic Troubles, 14-4 B.c. Herod had married io wives, and this led to domestic infighting. During this time he drew up six wills. In the fifth (5 B.c.) Antipas was to succeed as king, but only days before his death Herod drew up his sixth will, whereby Archelaus was to succeed as king, with Antipas and Philip as tetrarchs. Although this last will was disputed, it remained intact, except Archelaus was named ethnarch rather than king. Herod, nearly 70 years old, died a very sick man in the spring of 4. Shortly before Herod's death are set the visit of Jesus by the magi, the journey of Joseph, Mary, and Jesus took to Egypt, and Herod's massacre of all the male children of Bethlehem two years and under (Matt. 2:1-16).
Archelaus, 4 B.C.-A.D. 6 Archelaus (born ca. 22 B.c.), the son of Herod the Great and Malthace (a Samaritan), was made ethnarch over Idumea, Judea, and Samaria with the promise that he would be made king if he ruled with prudence. But his rule was disastrous and short-lived. He deposed two high priests, divorced his wife, and married Glaphyra, who had been the wife of Alexander, the half-brother of Archelaus, thus violating ancestral law. An unlikely delegation of Jews and Samaritans complained to Augustus about Archelaus's brutality and tyranny, indicating the seriousness of the complaint. Archelaus's brothers Antipas and Philip also went to Rome to complain about him, and as a result Archelaus was banished in A.D. 6 to Vienna in Gaul.
Archelaus's brutal treatment of the Jews and Samaritans is in keeping with Matthew's report that Joseph heard that Archelaus was ruling Judea and was afraid to go there. Being warned in a dream on his return from Egypt, he took Mary and Jesus to Nazareth in Galilee (Matt. 2:22-23).
Pontius Pilate, A.D. 26-36 With Archelaus deposed, his territories of Idumea, Judea, and Samaria were retained by the Roman government and were ruled by 14 different governors from A.D. 6 to 41 and from 44 to 66 (Herod Agrippa I was given these territories in 41-44), with Pilate the most notable. (Felix and Festus are mentioned in Acts 24-26 in connection with Paul's imprisonment in Caesarea.) Pilate was appointed prefect through the influence of his mentor Sejanus, commander of the praetorian guard, who was known to be anti-Semitic. According to Josephus and Philo, Pilate was greedy, inflexible, cruel, and resorted to robbery and oppression. He exhibited this behavior shortly after his arrival in Judea in 26, when he introduced into Jerusalem Roman standards with embossed figures of the emperor, arousing the indignation of the Jews. He also seized funds from the sacred treasury, Corbanas, in order to construct an aqueduct. Luke 13:1 mentions a cruel incident in which he mixed the blood of the Galileans with their sacrifices. Pilate is most notable for his trial of Jesus in 33. Here he is portrayed as weak and willing to comply with the wishes of the Jewish leaders rather than enact his own desires - just the opposite of his portrayal in Josephus and Philo. The Jews, having learned that Pilate's mentor Sejanus had been recently executed by Tiberius, cleverly used this to threaten Pilate by declaring that a refusal to release Jesus to them would signify that he was not Caesar's friend (John 19:12). Pilate realized, however, that the Jews might also accuse him of still being a friend of Sej anus or friendly toward his policies, which Tiberius had now refused to accept. Pilate was deposed at the end of 36 or the beginning of 37 due to a Samaritan complaint to Vitellius, prefect of Syria.
Herod Antipas, 4 B.C.-A.D. 39 Herod Antipas (born ca. 20 B.c.), the younger brother of Archelaus, was made tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, the territories where both Jesus and John the Baptist concentrated their ministries. He rebuilt Sepphoris (ca. A.D. 8-1o), the largest city in Galilee and, until he built Tiberias, capital of his territories. Joseph, living in Nazareth only 4 miles SSW of Sepphoris, may well have used his carpentry skill (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3) during its rebuilding. Antipas also rebuilt Livias (or Julias) in Perea (ca. 13) in honor of Augustus's wife Livia and built the new city of Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee (ca. 25) in honor of the emperor Tiberius.
In the eyes of Rome Antipas was a good ruler. In A.D. 6 he, along with his half-brother Philip the tetrarch and a Jewish and Samaritan delegation, had his brother Archelaus deposed. Antipas hoped he would receive the title of king, but Tiberius allowed him only the dynastic title of Herod. In the Gospels Herod Antipas is best known for his imprisonment and beheading of John the Baptist (Matt. 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20), who had criticized Antipas's marriage to Herodias because her former husband was still alive. In 33 Antipas was involved with the trial of Jesus (Luke 23:6-12). Three years later Antipas's former father-in-law Aretas attacked and defeated Antipas to avenge Antipas's treatment of Aretas's daughter when he fell in love with Herodias. The Jews saw this defeat as divine punishment on Antipas for killing John the Baptist. In 39 Antipas and Herodias were banished to Lugdunum Convenarum (now Saint-Bertrand de Comminges) in the foothills of the Pyrenees in southern France, and his territories were given to Agrippa I, Antipas's nephew and brother-in-law.
Philip the Tetrarch Philip the Tetrarch (born ca. 22/21 B.c.) was the son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem. Augustus appointed him tetrarch over the northern part of Herod the Great's domain: Gaulanitis, Auranitis, Batanea, Trachonitis, Paneas, and Iturea. It was in his territory that Jesus most likely fed the 5000 and later the 4000, and where in Caesarea Philippi Peter confessed Jesus' messiahship and received the revelation of the formation of the church (Matt. 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30). Philip, well liked by his subjects, married Herodias's daughter Salome, whose dance led to the execution of John the Baptist. When Philip died in 34, Tiberius annexed his territory to Syria, and in 37 Caligula gave this territory to Agrippa I.
Herod Agrippa I Agrippa I (born io B.c.) was the son of Aristobulus (son of Herod the Great and Mariamne) and Bernice (daughter of Herod's sister Salome and Costobarus). His sister was Herodias. Agrippa, who was schooled in Rome and had indulged in careless and extravagant living, was considered the black sheep of the Herodian family. When Caligula became emperor (A.D. 37), he gave Agrippa the territory of Philip the Tetrarch along with the title of king, which Herod Antipas had coveted. In late summer 38, Agrippa went to Israel to see the land he would govern. This roused Antipas's jealousy, and he along with Herodias went to Rome to request a new title. Instead, Caligula banished them to France and Agrippa acquired Antipas's territories of Galilee and Perea. In 41 Agrippa was in Rome when Caligula was murdered, and he helped Claudius ascend to the throne. Claudius confirmed Agrippa's rule and added Judea and Samaria to his domains, meaning that he ruled over all the territory of his grandfather Herod the Great.
Agrippa I is known in the New Testament for his persecution of the early church in order to curry the favor of the Jews (Acts 12:1-19). He killed James the son of Zebedee and imprisoned Peter. Agrippa died in 44 at Caesarea (Acts 12:20-23).
Herod Agrippa II Agrippa II (born A.D. 27) was the son of Agrippa I and Cypros, daughter of Phasael (Herod the Great's nephew) and Salampsio (Herod's daughter). He was too young to succeed his father immediately, but in 53 Claudius finally granted him Philip the tetrarch's territory plus the tetrarchy of Abilene (or Abila) and the town of Arca at the northern extremity of the Lebanon range. In 54 Nero added to his realm portions of Galilee and Perea. When Festus became procurator of Judea (59-62), Agrippa II, in company with his sister Bernice, went from Caesarea Philippi to Caesarea to welcome him to his new office. There he heard Paul's case (Acts 25:13-26:32). In the war of 66-7o, Agrippa II openly sided with the Romans, giving allegiance to Vespasian and joining with Titus in the triumph over his own people. Agrippa was rewarded by further increase of his kingdom.
FOR FURTHER READING
HAROLD W. HOEHNER
Worshippers of Other Gods (Part 2)
Introduction
Even a cursory reading of the literature of the Roman Empire impresses one with the importance and pervasiveness of religious worship. The traditional Roman city would have sanctuaries erected to numerous gods, such as Jupiter (Zeus), Juno, Minerva (Athena), Mercury, Isis and Serapis, Apollo, Mars, Venus (Aphrodite), Artemis (Diana), and Hermes. It is said that the city of Philippi in Macedonia had a mix of Greco-Roman gods numbering more than two dozen, while the coins of the city of Nicomedia in Bithynia indicate that more than 4o deities were worshipped in that city. The Apostle Paul explains this proliferation of gods and goddesses as the result of the ungodliness and unrighteousness of people who knew God through the witness he had left of himself in the natural world, yet ignored him and exchanged the glory of the incorruptible God for images made in the various forms which appear in the worship of the ancient world: humankind, birds, animals, and reptiles (Rom. 1:18-23).
Lystra
The striking story of Acts 14:8-13 reports an event that occurred in the city of Lystra. God had used Paul to heal a man crippled from
birth, with the result that the priest of Zeus, the major deity of that city, prepared to lead the people in worship of Barnabas and Paul, saying they were Zeus and Hermes who had become like men and come to earth. The crowd's use of Lycaonian, a language apparently unknown to Paul's company, explains why Paul and Barnabas did not grasp what was afoot until the preparations to pay them divine honors were well advanced.
A story told by Ovid may have played a part in the reaction of the crowd. In his Metamorphoses Ovid tells of an aged couple, Philemon and Baucis, who entertained Zeus and Hermes unaware and were rewarded for their hospitality. Additionally, Zeus and Hermes are mentioned in statue and altar dedications at a town near Lystra by men with Lycaonian names. Zeus, worshipped by the people of Lystra, was known as the highest god, the strongest god, the constantly victorious god who was father of gods and men. He was named by Aeschylus as all-powerful, all-accomplisher, cause of all, and thus was worshipped everywhere. So it is not surprising to find his sanctuary "before the city" or facing the city gate of Lystra, or to find that he is accompanied in worship by Hermes, the swift messenger of the gods, whose work involved successful communication with enemies and strangers.
Athens
Given the proliferation of polytheism, it is understandable that the Apostle Paul, while touring the city of Athens, was "deeply distressed to see that the city was full of idols" (Acts 17:16), or that his first words addressed to the rulers of the city were, "I see how extremely religious you are in every way." The apostle mentioned only one of those objects of devotion, however: an altar to an unknown god." Paul used this inscription as an introduction to his proclamation of the living God, who was unknown to his hearers. While some have doubted this characterization of an Athenian god, the Greek traveler Pausanias (ca. A.D. 150) notes that near Athens there were altars of gods both named and unknown. Tertullian and Jerome also mention an altar to unknown gods.
Corinth
While the "many gods and many lords" (1 Cor. 8:5) of Corinth are not named in the biblical text, the Apostle Paul makes it very clear that there were pagan sanctuaries in Corinth. Archaeologists report that they included kitchen and dining areas that were set apart for the worship of pagan deities, places where religious and social life were joined in sharing the sacrificial meat that had been offered to the idol. Paul warns believers against joining the real devotees of the gods in the deity's temple grounds to share in the celebrations. He reminds his readers that while an idol is nothing, what the Gentiles sacrifice is sacrificed to demons, and you cannot partake of the table of the Lord and the table of demons" (1 Con 10:20-21). Corinth was the center of the worship of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, whose temple was situated on the Acrocorinth that rises 1900 feet above the city. The city's reputation for sexual promiscuity has often been related to her temple, said to have been staffed at one time by a thousand female slaves, and gives background for the various admonitions against unchastity in Paul's Corinthian letters.
Ephesus
That the city of Ephesus was involved in the worship of other gods is powerfully seen in two major events: first, many believers who had practiced magic - an effort to manipulate and master the spirits by magical incantations - burned their books, valued at 50 thousand pieces of silver, in the town square (Acts 19:18-19). Second, the name, glory, and temple of the goddess Artemis whom all of Asia and all the world worship" were perceived to be threatened by the powerful ministry of Paul. Also threatened
was the livelihood of the silver artisans who made shrines of Artemis - apparently likenesses of the temple with the image of the many-breasted goddess within - for deposit in her temple (Acts 19:27). Artemis had been worshipped in Ephesus since before 1000 B.C., and her temple was considered to be one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It is no wonder that the populace grew angry with Paul and sought to silence him with the chant, "Great is Artemis of the Ephesians."
Statue of Artemis of Ephesus, goddess of fertility and patron of the city; 2nd century A.D. (www.HolyLandPhotos.org)
For Further Reading
Marshall, I. Howard. The Acts of the Apostles. 1980; repr. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.
WAYNE S. FLORY