Background
Called the "Pastoral Epistles" because they address young ministers, i and 2 Timothy along with Titus are the latest of the New Testament letters claiming authorship by the Apostle Paul. The books contain instructions on matters of church administration, such as the appointment of leaders and the ousting of the unrepentant, warnings against false doctrine, guidance on dealing with fellow Christians of different age groups and sexes, and admonitions to exemplary personal conduct. 1 Timothy and Titus, probably authored contemporaneously, show the closest literary and thematic parallels.
Background
Timothy hailed from Lystra, in southern Asia Minor. Paul visited this town on his first missionary journey, when his ministry may have resulted in Timothy's conversion to Christianity (Acts 14:23ff.). When Paul returned to Lystra during his second evangelistic tour, he enlisted Timothy as an itinerant missionary companion and pastoral protege (Acts 16:1-3). Timothy's subsequent activities included consolidating the church in Beroea, checking on the church in Thessalonica, mediating corrective measures in the Corinthian church, and overseeing ecclesiastical matters in Ephesus - his assignment at the time Paul writes these letters.
Authorship
Strong and early church tradition supports the claim of Pauline authorship made in all three
Pastoral Epistles. Nevertheless, the question of their authorship has generated more debate among scholars than any of the other New Testament letters traditionally attributed to the apostle. Those who reject Paul's writing of the Pastorals cite their differences in vocabulary and grammatical style as compared to the apostle's other, uncontested letters. They also note the impossibility of harmonizing the geographical movements of Paul, Timothy, Titus, and Demas with the record of their travels in Acts and other Pauline epistles. Many who deny Paul's authorship of these books view them as the and-century effort of a pseudonymous author to combat the rise of Gnosticism, a heresy that characterized the spiritual world as good and the material world as evil. See "The Question of Pseudepigraphy" (685-86).
Scholars who accept Paul's authorship of the Pastorals stress that the different purpose, subject matter, and target audience of these epistles naturally call for different vocabulary and grammatical style, and they note Paul's likely employment of secretaries, who through the years exercised differing degrees of literary freedom in penning his dictation. A tenable explanation of differing geographical data includes the apostle's possible release from the Roman imprisonment recorded at the end of Acts (anticipated in Phil. 1:19, 25; 2:24); his resumption of an itinerant ministry, during which he wrote 1 Timothy and Titus; and his rearrest and imprisonment in Rome, when in anticipation of his execution he wrote 2 Timothy (2 Tim. 4:6-8).
The Question of Pseudepigraphy
"Pseudepigraphy" (lit., "false writing") has come to mean a writing falsely ascribed to a particular author ("falsely named"). Many writings from classical antiquity and the Greco-Roman world were pseudonymous. Most scholars have concluded from this that the early Christians must also have accepted pseudonymity as a legitimate literary practice, and they so classify such New Testament letters as 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, Ephesians, 1-2 Timothy, Titus, James, 1-2 Peter, and Jude - as well as perhaps the Johannine Apocalypse (Revelation). Others argue that the early Christians would have been alert to such a practice and repelled by it.
Questions regarding pseudepigraphy are not necessarily the same as for an author's use of an amanuensis (secretary) or an anonymous writing later ascribed to someone. Pseudepigraphy has to do with a writing whose author is "falsely named" in the composition itself.
The key difficulty in studying New Testament pseudepigraphy is the lack of direct evidence, and so scholars have had to look more widely to practices in GrecoRoman and Jewish writings. But many argue that early Christianity had a uniqueness that renders invalid comparisons with other writings of the day. Questions regarding literary genre also arise; for example, can Jewish apocalyptic writings be compared to Christian letters?
Only two early Christian texts speak directly to the question of pseudepigraphy. The writer of 2 Thessalonians acknowledges the existence of reports that were being falsely attributed to him (2 Thess. 2:1-3), refers to a forged letter (2:15), and expresses concern for authenticity of authorship - even setting out a test for authenticity: his own handwriting in the subscription (3:17). Evidently he wants his readers to understand that authorship is important for both authenticity and authority.
Tertullian (ca. 145-220 A.D.) in his treatise On Baptism, written toward the end of the 2nd century, asks whether women in the church can baptize others (ch. 17). He notes that some in his day were citing the precedent of the godly woman Thecla, who, in effect, baptized herself by throwing herself to her death into a water pit (Acts of Paul and Thecla 34). Tertullian could have pointed out that such a "baptism" should hardly be taken as a precedent. For while Thecla taught Christian doctrine and performed miracles, she never baptized others - only herself, and that as a final act of martyrdom. Instead, Tertullian attacked the authorship of Acts of Paul and Thecla, arguing that the writings were wrongly ascribed and its author was removed from his place/office. Tertullian clearly considered the authorship of a text to be important for its authority, and he expected his readers to do so as well.
Eusebius of Caesarea (ca. 260-339), theologian, bishop, and church historian, refers to the words of two 2nd-century church leaders that have a bearing on the question of pseudepigraphy. He quotes Dionysius, a bishop at Corinth, as complaining about those who have adulterated his writings (Ecclesiastical History 4.23.12). Just what others "exchanged" or "added" in Dionysius's letters we are not told, but he resents these matters going out under his name. He further notes the sacred writings of the Lord" as having also been adulterated, probably meaning Marcion's treatment of the New Testament. Eusebius also cites a writing by Serapion, bishop of Antioch in Syria ca. 200, which argues that the Gospel of Peter is heretical (Eccl. Hist. 6.12.3-6). More importantly, however, Serapion wants his readers to understand that authorship is important for authenticity and authority. If the text were indeed by Peter, he would accept it - but, in fact, it is not.
The Muratorian Canon, an 8th-century Latin manuscript translated from an original Greek text dated ca. 180-200, evidently represents the views of the Western church at the end of the 2nd century regarding the books to be included in the New Testament canon. After setting out those works to be received as canonical, it addresses other extant writings. Acceptable to be read in the church are the epistle of Jude and two ascribed to John, the apocalypses of John and Peter, and the Wisdom of Solomon, but not the epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians pseudepigraphically attributed to Paul. The canon appears to view authorship as the most important criterion for accepting or rejecting the authenticity and authority of a text.
The earliest extant evidence, therefore, suggests that Christians of the first two centuries did relate authenticity and authority to questions about authorship and did not view pseudonymity as an acceptable literary technique. Many of the matters of content, style, structure, and vocabulary that have led scholars to propose pseudonymity for various New Testament writings can better be explained in terms of diverse set
tings in differing circumstances, the use of assistants as amanuenses, and our own lack of understanding regarding resemblances and differences in the writings under consideration.
For Further Reading
ed. Michael J. Wilkins and Terence Paige. JSNTSup 87. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1992, 212-24.
Metzger, Bruce M. "Literary Forgeries and Canonical Pseudepigraphy," JBL 91 (1972) 3-24. Repr. in New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. Leiden: Brill, 1980, 1-22.
RICHARD N. LONGENECKER
1 Timothy
Cf. the parallels with Titus.
1 The Church Scene in Ephesus
In standard, 1st-century practice, the letter begins with identification of the writer and the intended recipient. "Grace and peace" form the signature greeting in most of Paul's letters, and here "mercy" is an added invocation of God's blessing on his "loyal child" (convert) in the faith (cf. 2 Tim. 1:2).
Timothy is currently overseeing the church in Ephesus, where Paul ministered for more than two years during his third missionary journey (Acts 19). Timothy's mission is to squelch unorthodox doctrine, fruitless philosophical speculation, and misleading instruction in the Mosaic law by unqualified teachers. Paul affirms the goodness of the Law when applied properly, not as a works-based way to obtain salvation but as a means of convicting people of their sinfulness (cf. specific examples in vv. 9-1o) and thus their need for the gospel. By deploring his own preconversion transgressions and identifying himself as "foremost" of sinners, Paul shows that rather than standing in judgment over the wicked, he fully appreciates their urgent need for God's mercy and grace. He charges Timothy to cling to his faith and conduct himself accordingly so as to keep a clean conscience, in contrast to two spiritually "shipwrecked" apostates mentioned by name. Paul's enigmatic announcement that he has "turned [them] over to Satan" probably means that he has ejected them from the church and so subjected them to the source of worldly suffering (cf. 1 Cor. 5:5).
2 Prayer and Propriety
Paul's pastoral instruction to Timothy begins with the directive to pray for the salvation of all people, especially governmental authorities, whose salvation would ensure for Christians a peaceful life. God "desires" the salvation of all but recognizes Jesus as the sole mediator, whose giving of himself as a "ransom for all" makes possible the salvation of all humanity; but individuals must respond to Christ's offer by recognizing "the truth" of the gospel (v 4).
The directives to women in vv 9-15 fit the cultural norms of the ist century A.D., but modern readers should not dismiss this teaching as culturally irrelevant today. Because women at that time typically lacked a formal or religious education, the apostle prohibits their exercise of authority over men and in matters of church and faith (cf. 1 Cor. 14:34-35, directed to women whose talkativeness during church services detracts from reverent worship). The apostle's comments in verse 15 do not make childbearing the means by which women attain salvation; rather, they assure sincere Christian women of their salvation despite the great pain that attends giving birth.
3 Qualifications for Church Leaders
From the first of his missionary journeys, Paul appointed leaders in the local churches that he founded (Acts 14:21-23). Here he outlines the qualifications for "bishops" ("overseers;' essen tially synonymous for Paul with "elders") and for "deacons" ("helpers;' who assist the overseers in the distribution of charity and other practical matters). Paul requires overseers to demonstrate irreproachable character through upstanding personal conduct that commands recognition even outside the church. Overarching temperateness, a well-managed household (v 4-5), and spiritual maturity qualify candidates for church leadership. Possible interpretations of the directive that leaders "be husbands of [only] one wife" include the disqualification of bigamists or remarried divorcees and widowers (vv. 2,12). "Lovers of money" (v. 3) are prey to competing priorities (cf. 6:9-10). Deacons must measure up to a similar set of standards. Verse 11 states requirements either for female deacons (deaconesses) or the wives of male deacons. Verse 16 quotes a hymnic or creedal confession that summarizes the earthly career of Christ, from his incarnation to his postresurrection return to heaven.
Temple of Hadrian at Ephesus, commemorating his visit in A.D. 128. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)
4 Pastoral Encouragement
Paul instructs Timothy to educate the Ephesian church about satanically inspired doctrines that stress self-deprivation of legitimate pleasures (e.g., marriage and food) and distract Christians from the pursuit of true godliness (cf. Acts 20:28-31). He encourages Timothy in overcoming the authoritative handicap that attends his relative youth in a society that values wisdom gained by years. He must vigorously pursue his ministry of teaching and exercise his spiritual gift as conferred by the church elders.
5:1-6:2 Correction and Care
Timothy should not, however, overcompensate for his youth by rigidly exercising pastoral authority. When correcting individual believers, he should treat them as he would members of his family by showing respect for his elders, sensitivity to his peers, and purity of intentions toward the opposite sex. Paul pays specific attention to widows, a significant component of the 1st-century population owing to the typical marrying of girls in their early teens to older men. Destitute upon their husbands' death, many in Ephesus resorted to cult prostitution at the temple of Artemis (cf. Acts 19:24-41). Paul's program for widowed Christian women aims largely at preventing their moral descent through providing for their economic welfare.
Paul calls "real widow" one who forfeits remarriage to concentrate on spiritual devotion (5:3, 5, 16). Descendants of such widows should assume responsibility for their support (v. 8), and widows at least 6o years old who have led commendable Christian lives should receive support from the church. Young widows should remarry not only to recoup economic support but also to legitimate acting on their natural sexual desires and to resume responsibilities that make for a productive life (v 14). A Christian woman with dependent widows (v. i6) might include a mother-in-law charged with supporting the wives of her deceased sons (cf. Ruth 1).
Church leaders who are especially competent deserve double compensation ("honor"; W. 17-18). To protect the high profile elders - often the favorite targets of false accusers - the apostle charges Timothy to require testimony from at least two witnesses before acting on a charge against them (cf. Deut. 19:15). The apostle recommends public rebuke as a deterrent against persistent sinning. Rather than hastily ordaining candidates for church leadership, Timothy should take ample time to observe their behavior in the light of the requirements elaborated in chapter 3.
Paul admonishes slaves to act respectfully toward their masters and work extra hard for those who are fellow Christians (6:1-2; cf. Eph. 6:5-9).
The apostle interjects sound medical advice in 5:23. Timothy's drinking of unpurified water was causing problems for his sensitive stomach. Imbibing a mixture of water and wine would help alleviate the symptoms, since the alcoholic component of the wine would counteract the offending impurities in the water.
6:3-21 Final Instructions
For the third time Paul warns against false doctrine (vv. 3-5; cf. 1:3-7; 4:1-8). He also restates the merits of pursuing godliness and good works versus amassing material wealth (vv 6-1o, 17-19; cf. 3:3; 4:7-8; Phil. 4:11-12). Paul challenges Timothy to persevere in working out his personal Christian faith and commends him for his "good confession" that Christ is Lord (vv. 11-14; cf. John 18:33-37). A final, fourth warning against falling prey to false doctrine drives home the essentialness of intellectual discipline to maintaining one's Christian faith (VV. 20-21).
2 Timothy
1:1-2:13 No Reason for Timidity
The first hints that Paul expects soon to die surface immediately. His greeting to Timothy mentions the promise of "life and immortality" (1:1o). The apostle's fatherlike affection for his protege appears in the reflective designation of Timothy as his "beloved" child in the faith, whose tears at their last parting Paul recalls and whom he longs to see one more time. Sure of God's forgiveness, Paul confirms his clarity of conscience and his certainty of salvation in the face of impending death (1:3,12; cf.1 Tim. 1:16). As he anticipates passing the apostolic baton, Paul exemplifies his charge that Timothy meet courageously the challenges of the Christian calling (cf. 4:6-8). He directs attention to Jesus, who showed exemplary courage by enduring the agony of crucifixion - reason enough for Timothy not to be ashamed of the gospel or of Paul's suffering in its service, and not to be timid in ministry. A reminder of his empowerment by the indwelling Holy Spirit assures Timothy that he can fulfill Paul's charge.
At the time of writing, Timothy is still overseeing the church in Ephesus, capital of the Roman province of Asia. So as a warning by negative example, Paul cites his forsaking by Asian Christians ashamed of his imprisonment. In contrast he blesses the Ephesian native Onesiphorus, who on visiting Rome sought out the incarcerated apostle. Timothy should emulate his moral courage by finding strength in the "grace" of Christ. Paul also commands the entrusting of the gospel message to faithful people who will perpetuate the ministry he has so publicly pursued (2:2). Examples of the diligent soldier, athlete, and farmer challenge Timothy to focus attention and energy on his ministerial task (2:3-6). Paul's own focus - the sharing of believers in the resurrection and eternal reign of their faithful Lord, Jesus Christ - likely stems from his current circumstances as a condemned prisoner. Far from shaking his faith, his ominous earthly fate has bolstered his confidence for eternity - an emboldening example for Timothy.
2:14-4:8 The Mentor's Final Charge
Timothy knows well Paul's teaching with regard to the gospel (2:2, 8; cf. 3:14-15); so Paul reminds him to shun and squelch quarrelsome religious speculation and false doctrine, which prove unprofitable at best and spiritually destructive at worst (cf. 1 Tim. 1:3-7; 4:1-8; 6:3-5; Tit. 1:1o-16; 3:9). Instead, the apostle commends the pursuit of godliness evidenced by good works (cf. Titus 2; 3:8). He instructs Timothy to demonstrate kindness, patience, and gentleness when correcting opponents, with the ultimate goal of bringing about their repentance for salvation. Nevertheless, such beneficent Christian meekness should not be confused with unconstructive timidity.
In chapter 3, Paul's prediction of the end times cautions Timothy to hold firm to orthodox doctrine, as taught by the apostle and in the Hebrew Scriptures (vv 14-16), and to persevere amid inevitable persecution. Extrabiblical texts identify Jannes and Jambres as the magicians of Pharaoh who opposed Moses (Exodus 7), and Paul cites the ultimately unsuccessful pair to foretell the failure of learned fools who oppose the "truth" of God - specifically, the truth of the gospel (v. 8). The reminder that Timothy has previously witnessed God's deliverance of Paul from dire circumstances gets Timothy to expect persecution but also reassures him of God's continued presence and supreme power (vv. 1012; cf. Acts 13-14; 16:1-5). Verses 16-17 instruct Timothy to use the God-inspired Scriptures as his manual for ministry.
A final charge stresses Timothy's primary ministerial duties and steels him for the difficulties he will face in fulfilling them (4:1-5). Timothy remains in the race; but Paul has successfully "finished the course" (cf. 1 Cor. 9:24-27). He faces his imminent death with honesty about the present (4:6), peace of mind about his past (v 7), and confidence about his future, which holds an eternal reward (v. 8). His self-characterization as a "libation" (4:6) recalls the Israelite sacrificial system, in which a liquid offering often accompanied the presentation of a grain offering or animal sacrifice (e.g., Lev. 23:13,18,37).
4:9-22 Last Requests and Final Instructions
Practical matters come last in the apostle's final letter. Luke, the physician-author of Luke-Acts and frequent missionary companion of Paul, attends the imprisoned apostle in Rome (v. 11).
Paul urges Timothy to visit him soon - before winter, when stormy weather prevents safe seafaring from Asia Minor to Italy, and before Paul's "departure" (execution; vv. 6, 21). He also summons John Mark, the author of the gospel of Mark and the cousin of Barnabas whose desertion of Paul during his first missionary journey caused a relational rift (Acts 15:36-41). Apparently Titus has completed his work in Crete (Tit. 1:5). Tychicus served as a courier of earlier Pauline epistles, and perhaps Paul has sent him to Ephesus to fill in for Timothy while he visits Paul in Rome. The apostle appears particularly keen on retrieving certain "parchments" - documents that contain information valuable enough to record on the expensive material. The farewell request that Timothy bring his mentor's cloak (v. 13) conjures the image of the falling of Elijah's mantle to his prophetic successor, Elisha (2 Kgs. 2:13).
After warning Timothy to watch out for "Alexander the coppersmith" (cf. 1 Tim. 1:20), Paul voices Christlike magnanimity toward those who deserted him (v. 16; cf. Luke 23:34). His rescue "from the lion's mouth" N. 17) implies extreme danger, but verse 18 makes clear that ultimately Paul does not define divine deliverance as immunity from harm, but, rather, as safe passage to eternal salvation on the other side of affliction.
Greetings to the fellow tent-making couple with whom Paul lived and worked at Ephesus (Prisca, the shortened form of Priscilla, and Aquila) head the list of closing notes. Verse 21 mentions Roman Christians who remain loyal to Paul.