Genesis
The five books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy provide the foundation upon which the rest of Scripture builds. Their full significance, however, is generally not well appreciated by most Christians, who have but a very limited knowledge of their contents. Moreover, much in these books seems far removed from life in the 21st century, given that they were composed at least 2500 years ago. If we are to understand them, we need to appreciate not only the unique features of the ancient culture and history reflected in them, but also the distinctive way in which these things are described. The contents of these five books are more alien than we often imagine.
Unlike modern books, these books were originally given no titles, either individually or as a whole. Although it has been customary to refer to them collectively as the Pentateuch, this title originated long after they were composed. The English word "Pentateuch" derives from Greek pentateuchos ("five-volume work"), a title first used in the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. In Jewish tradition, the designation Torah, a Hebrew term meaning "instruction" although often translated "law," has long been applied. While "law" is used within the Pentateuch itself, it clearly refers there to only part of the book of Deuteronomy (Deut. 4:44-49; 27:2-8; 31:9-13; 31:24-26). Through time the name Torah gradually became associated with the whole of the Pentateuch, and, indeed, occasionally came to denote the whole of the Old Testament as "law" (cf. John 10:34;1 Cor. 14:21).
This gradual process by which titles were given to the five books together may mean that they were not intended to be viewed as a self-contained work when first composed. As they stand, Genesis through Deuteronomy narrate an unfinished story. While the whole movement in Exodus to Numbers is toward the Israelite occupation of the land of Canaan, by the end of Deuteronomy this remains unfulfilled. Only in the book of Joshua, which follows, do we learn of the people's successful progress across the River Jordan into Canaan. Without the books of Joshua to Kings the Pentateuch is incomplete.
At first sight, it may seem that the Pentateuch does not hang together and is inconsistent in form and purpose. The short, episodic nature of the narrative, broken up by other literary forms (e.g., genealogies, poetry, laws, census lists), can be disconcerting and confusing. While modern works may be compared to a finely woven tapestry, the Pentateuch resembles a large collage formed from a wide variety of materials. The product of a very different age and culture, it is clearly a masterpiece of composition, for on closer inspec tion the Pentateuch displays a much greater degree of unity and structure than is often appreciated.
We encounter this literary collage first in Genesis, where major narrative blocks are separated by genealogies. Although two very different types of material are found here, they are cleverly bound together by the use of almost identical headings, traditionally translated "These are the generations of .. " (Gen. 2:4; 5a; 6:9; 1o:1; 11ao, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1, 9; 37:2). More important, both types of material are intimately linked by the overall purpose of Genesis. By carefully positioning narratives and genealogies side by side, Genesis traces a unique family line that moves from Adam down through many generations to the sons of Jacob.
The family history recorded in Genesis, especially in chapters 12 to 50, forms the basis for what follows. Central to this family history is a series of divine promises that focus on two main issues: nationhood and the blessing of the nations. The promise of nationhood (see Genesis 15) is made up of two elements: the promise of numerous descendants and the promise of land. Although intimately connected to the promise of nationhood, the divine promise of international blessing is linked to a future royal descendant of Abraham.
Nationhood
The divine promises of land and numerous descendants form the background to the book of Exodus. On the one hand, they explain the remarkable growth of the Israelite population and the threat that this in turn poses to the Egyptians. On the other hand, God's earlier commitment to the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob provides the motivation for his intervention to deliver the Israelites from bondage to Pharaoh.
Although the exodus from Egypt is essential for the divine promise of nationhood to be fulfilled, this is only part of a much larger process described in the Pentateuch. Centered on Mount Sinai, the Israelites enter into a unique covenantal relationship with God which results in his coming to dwell in their midst. To make this possible, the Israelites construct a special tent or tabernacle, which will become God's earthly dwelling place.
While the final chapters of Exodus describe the construction of the tabernacle, Leviticus addresses the complex issue of how to maintain the newly established relationship between God and the Israelites. Exceptional measures need to be taken to enable a holy God to live among people who are prone to sin. A specific family of priests is appointed and a new sacrificial system is introduced, by which the people may atone for their sins. Other customs are also inaugurated, all intended to ensure that the Israelites maintain a standard of holiness acceptable to God, something vital for their future well-being.
The whole process of covenant-making and tabernacle-building is undertaken in order to establish Israel as a holy nation, their holy status coming from God's presence among them. While this separates the Israelites from other peoples, the Pentateuch reveals that their priestly status is not entirely successful. Surrounding and interspersed throughout the account of the Israelites' stay at Mount Sinai is a series of events that highlight their tendency to disregard and disobey God. Foremost is the construction of a golden calf (Exod. 32:1-8), which is undertaken in spite of a specific warning against such activities (20:23). This, however, is no isolated incident, for the theme of Israel's rebellious nature dominates the book of Numbers, resulting in God's decision to destroy the entire adult generation that came out of Egypt. To underline the tragedy of this, the Pentateuch emphasizes that only after a delay of some 40 years are Joshua and Caleb permitted to enter the promised land; even Moses, the great champion and leader of the people, dies outside the land of Canaan.
In spite of the Israelites' rebelliousness, God remains committed to the promises that he made to the patriarchs. The final chapters of Numbers and the whole of Deuteronomy look forward with hope toward the successful entry of the Israelites into Canaan. Before this can happen, however, a new generation of Israelites must affirm their covenantal relationship with God. Deuteronomy is devoted to urging them to embrace it again or to remain faithful to it.
While Deuteronomy prepares the reader to expect that the Israelites will soon enter the promised land, its concluding chapters are less than optimistic about Israel's longterm future in the land. In a variety of ways, attention is drawn to the possibility that the Israelites, due to their own waywardness, will be exiled from the land of Canaan. Various warnings against neglecting God in the future have an ominous tone. In Deuteronomy 28, for example, the list of curses for disobedience (vv. 16-68) is much longer than the comparable list of blessings for obedience (vv.3-14). Similarly, Moses is instructed to teach the Israelites a song (Deut. 32:1-43) that will be a "witness" against them for rejecting God and breaking the covenant (Deut. 31:19-22). These warnings eventually come to fulfilment when, as recorded in the book of Kings, first the northern kingdom of Israel is decimated by the Assyrians and then later the southern kingdom of Judah is conquered by the Babylonians.
The manner in which Deuteronomy anticipates both Israel's occupation of Canaan and her eventual exile is striking. With good reason, scholars have argued that the books of Joshua to Kings cannot be easily separated from Deuteronomy. The promise of nationhood and its fulfillment link the book of Genesis to those of Kings to form a continuous story that needs to be read and understood as such. Some even call this the Primary History.
The Blessing of the Nations
Although the blessing of the nations is the second major divine promise given to the patriarchs in Genesis, and may appear at first sight to be less important, such is not the case. It forms the climax to the divine call of Abraham in Gen. 12:1-3, is central to the covenant of circumcision in Genesis 17, which affirms that Abraham will be the father of many nations, and is repeated in the divine oath sworn by God to Abraham in 22:16-18. Moreover, it looks to make amends for the alienation of humanity from God that follows Adam's and Eve's rebellion in the garden of Eden.
Through these passages and others, the book of Genesis gradually develops a fuller picture of the promise of blessing. One of the most significant factors to emerge is this: the fulfillment of the promise is linked to the "firstborn" descendants of Abraham, through whom a future monarchy will be established. Remarkably, the patriarchal narratives in Genesis focus particular attention on the fact that this line does not always proceed through the one who is born first. Isaac takes precedence over Ishmael, Jacob over Esau, Joseph over his io older brothers, and Ephraim over Manasseh. As a result, Genesis concludes by focusing attention on Joseph's lineage traced through Ephraim. In this way the expectation is created that through the tribe of Ephraim God will fulfill his promise to bless the nations. With each generation in the patriarchal sequence royal expectation surfaces (e.g., Gen. 17:6; 23:6; 27:29), Joseph's dreams being part of a much larger motif (37:5-10).
Yet, although Genesis associates royalty with the lineage of Joseph traced through Ephraim, the story of Joseph is interrupted in Genesis 38 by an unusual story involving Judah and his daughter-in-law Tamar. The location and content of this incident are important to the development of the Genesis narrative. Focusing on the continuation of Judah's family line, and especially Tamar's unconventional role in this, the chapter ends by describing the birth of twins, Perez and Zerah - yet another example of a younger brother taking precedence over a "firstborn" brother. The extraordinary account of the birth of Perez is especially significant because he is the father of the royal line of David (cf. Ruth 4:18-22).
While the Genesis narrative as a whole gives greater prominence to the idea that Joseph's line through Ephraim will become a royal line, Jacob's blessing of Judah (Gen. 49:8-12), viewed together with the events described in Genesis 38, suggests that royalty may later be associated with Judah. Significantly, as Ps. 78:67-72 emphasizes, it was in the time of Samuel that God passed over the lineage of Joseph in favor of Judah. This major new development also coincides with the rejection of Shiloh, in the region of Ephraim, as the location for God's temple. The transportation of the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem confirms God's choice of David as the head of the dynasty through which the earlier divine commitment to bless all the nations of the earth will now be fulfilled.
Any attempt to understand the Pentateuch must take into account the agenda set by the divine promises of nationhood and international blessing. While nationhood becomes a reality at Mount Sinai and through the conquest and settlement that follow, the promise of international blessing remains basically unfulfilled throughout the Old Testament. But as the New Testament writers confidently assert, with the coming of Jesus Christ God's blessing begins to be imparted in a unique way to all the nations of the earth.
T. DESMOND ALEXANDER