Leviticus
"Exodus" (Greek for "a going out, exit") takes its name from the event through which God begins to fulfill his promise to the patriarchs of a land of their own - a promise he made in Genesis. Through the central figure of Exodus, Moses, God makes himself known to his people by name. Using Moses as leader of the emerging nation, God delivers the "sons of Israel" from 400 years of slavery in Egypt. With Moses as mediator, God enters a new covenant with the descendants of Abraham through Isaac and Jacob. And at Moses' appeal, God agrees to live among the Israelites in a special tent built according to his instructions. In these ways, God establishes an intimate relationship with his people.
The chosen people come to know their God in Exodus: he is caring, compassionate, and forgiving, yet he is also holy, just, and jealous. God's presence among the Israelites set them apart as God's holy nation, and the laws in the Decalogue (20:2-17) and the Book of the Covenant (20:22-23:33) were intended to enable the Israelites to remain in God's presence. But throughout Exodus, the Israelites' lack of faith in God and their disobedience to his commands stand in sharp contrast to God's consistent faithfulness to his people. The Israelites learn the hard way that God requires their obedience and their loyalty to him alone, and Exodus clearly illustrates that it is God who takes the initiative in redeeming sinful humanity.
Background
Although the primary interest of Exodus consists in theology, not history (in the modern sense), scholars have proposed two main theories regarding the date of the Israelite exodus from Egypt narrated here. The "early date" receives support from a literal reading of the text, in that 1 Kgs. 6:1 says Solomon began building the first temple in the fourth year of his reign (ca. 966 B.C.) and 48o years after the Israelites left Egypt. Adding 48o years to 966 puts the exodus at ca. 1446. Most of the archaeological evidence for the Israelites' entry into Canaan, however, supports a "late" 13th-century date for the exodus - a date which a more figurative interpretation of "48o years" could achieve by considering the number to represent 12 generations of 25 (rather than of 4o) years. No extrabiblical texts discovered to date mention the exodus, and the book itself gives few historical clues that could help pinpoint more specifically the timing of the event described. (See "The Exodus" [11o-u].)
Authorship
As with Genesis, Exodus does not give direct information concerning its author or date of writing. Tradition assigns its authorship to Moses; the Documentary Hypothesis considers it a compilation of material by several editors.
1 From Favored Friends to Oppressed People
Verses 1-7 recap the migration of Jacob's household to Egypt, detailed in Genesis, and then move quickly to the current situation (mid to latter and millennium B.C.) several centuries after the death of Joseph. The generation of Jacob's sons has passed, but their descendants have become numerous and mighty. (The biblical "sons of Israel" [our "Israelites"] now refers to all Jacob's descendants, not just his 12 immediate sons.)
But this great blessing (which fulfills God's promise to make the patriarchs "a great nation" [Gen. 12:2]) does not come without difficulties. A new (unnamed) "Pharaoh" - one unfamiliar with Joseph and his service to Egypt - grows fearful of the now powerful Israelites. Rather than viewing their prosperity as a blessing to his own kingdom (contrast Gen. 26:28; 30:27), Pharaoh perceives them as a threat; therefore, he drafts them into forced labor to build two store cities (Pithom and Rameses; some associate the latter with Pharaoh Ramesses II [1290-1224 B.C.]) and also attempts to halt their population growth. But Pharaoh's efforts to dominate the Israelites produce an undesired result: the foreign sojourners multiply even more and occupy even greater territory. Getting no cooperation from the Hebrew midwives, who show reverence for God rather than obeying Pharaoh's command to kill all newborn Hebrew boys, Pharaoh instructs the Egyptians to put infant Hebrew males to death by throwing them into the Nile.
2 Hope for Deliverance
If chapter 1 reveals the plight of the Israelites in Egypt, chapter 2 sets the stage for their deliverance. From his birth, the Hebrew Moses maintains close associations with Pharaoh's house and repeatedly escapes death at Pharaoh's hand. One of Pharaoh's own daughters rescues Moses from death by drowning and adopts him as her own. (The same Hebrew word is used for Moses' floating basket-cradle and Noah's ark. God delivers both Noah and Moses from a watery grave and uses each to provide deliverance and a new beginning - Noah for all humanity and Moses for the Hebrew people.) But later, as a 40-year-old adult (cf. Acts 7:23) fully aware of his ancestry - and therefore of the oppression of his people by the very household that has nurtured him as an Egyptian prince - Moses kills an Egyptian taskmaster in defense of a fellow Hebrew. As a result, he flees from Pharaoh's murderous hand once again.
Settling in Midian (east of Sinai around the Gulf of Aqabah) among the descendants of Abraham and Keturah, Moses marries the daughter of a priest and becomes a shepherd (3:1). His new lifestyle must have differed dramatically from the life he led in the Egyptian royal court, where undoubtedly he learned to read and write Egyptian hieroglyphics and cursive scripts, studied Egyptian law, and acquired additional skills alongside other foreigners receiving training for official service to Egypt. Yet this nomadic life in the desert must have prepared Moses well for his role in delivering his people out of Egypt and leading them to Canaan.
Chapter 2 closes noting God's awareness of the Israelites' oppression in Egypt and his remembrance of his covenantal promises (cf. Gen. 15:13-21). The mention of both foreshadows God's impending action on his people's behalf.
3:1-4:17 God's Charge to Moses
As he did with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, God speaks to Moses directly, yet here God appears not as a man but in flames of fire. (Throughout Exodus, fire and smoke symbolize God's presence; esp. 19:18.) The sight of a burning but unconsumed bush at Horeb (traditionally identified with Jebel Musa in the southern Sinai Peninsula; Moses later receives the Ten Commandments at Horeb [= Mount Sinai of ch. 19]) captures Moses' attention, and he responds to God's call from the midst of the bush with reverent obedience. When God identifies himself as the God of the patriarchs, Moses hides his face out of fear that looking at God will cause him to die.
God then reveals to Moses his compassion for the enslaved Israelites as well as his plan to deliver them - through Moses! Moses immediately makes excuses as to why he cannot return to the Egyptian court where he grew up or to the people in whose defense he had acted previously. First he questions his worthiness for the task, and God responds by pledging his presence with Moses. Then Moses questions whether the Israelites will believe him or trust his sender and therefore his mission. God responds by identifying himself further: not only is he the God of the Hebrew patriarchs of the past, but he is also the God of the present (I AM WHO I AM [= perhaps a pun on Yahweh, God's personal name, translated and written "LORD" and sometimes read as "Jehovah"] ), and also the God of the future (3:15) - the God who will fulfill his covenantal promise of a land for his chosen people (3:17).
Despite God's assurance to Moses that the Israelites will listen to him, Moses further doubts they will believe him. God then gives Moses three signs (similar to the magic of Egyptian religion and therefore familiar to the Israelites; cf. 7:12, 22) that show God's power over the natural order. Two of the signs God demonstrates immediately: Moses' staff turns into a serpent and then back into a staff; next, Moses' hand becomes leprous and then well again. The third sign - that water from the Nile poured on the ground by Moses will turn to blood - God will display only in Egypt. But Moses further resists his assignment by appealing to his lack of eloquence. God answers that he, the creator of the mouth, will "teach" Moses what to say. God's responses to all Moses' excuses underscore that God himself will accomplish the deliverance of his people; Moses will serve merely as God's human instrument.
Having run out of excuses, Moses pleads that God send someone else. Although Moses' request makes God angry, God provides him with tangible support: Moses' older brother Aaron will speak for him (7:7), and Moses' staff will help him perform the "signs."
4:18-5:23 Moses Returns to Egypt
Moses can resist God's command no longer and sets out for Egypt with his family and his staff (a sign of divine authority). God repeats the warning that Pharaoh will not listen to Moses (cf. 3:19) because God himself will harden Pharaoh's heart in order to show his power to the Egyptians and establish himself as God supreme over them (7:3, 5; cf. 8:15, 32, where Pharaoh hardens his own heart).
In a mysterious encounter on the way to Egypt, God seeks to kill Moses. Moses has failed to administer to his son Gershom the sign of the covenant (given to Abraham in Gen. 17:1014), but Zipporah circumcises the boy in time to spare Moses.
As promised in 4:14, Aaron meets Moses in the wilderness, and Moses reports God's plans to deliver the Israelites from their Egyptian oppressors. Although God charges Moses only with performing the "signs" before Pharaoh, Moses does so for the Hebrew elders first, and they believe; when he later performs the same signs for the Egyptians, they do not believe, so further signs will be required (7:3-4). Moses and Aaron then approach the pharaoh (one unknown to Moses; 2:23; 4:19) and request that he allow the Israelites to go into the wilderness to worship God. The number and might of the Israelites during Moses' earlier years in Egypt had led the former pharaoh to seek their domination. That development led to the Israelites' becoming the core of the Egyptian workforce, and the new pharaoh, who does not recognize God in any way (5:2), will not spare this valuable resource even for a few days. Not only does he refuse, but he also imposes even harder labor - so much harder that the Israelites turn against Moses (5:21), and Moses regrets his decision to obey God (vv. 22-23).
Bricks of mud mixed with straw, with a mud and dry-grass mortar, one of the most common building materials in Egypt and Palestine from prehistoric to Roman times. (Wikimedia Commons)
6:1-13 God Claims the Israelites as His Own
The time has come for God to act. He identifies himself again, but now in a way that emphasizes his personal relationship with his chosen people: they know him by name, and he here affirms his power and authority by pledging to deliver them to their own land. God also reaffirms that the covenant now extends not just to one individual but instead to all the Israelites in bondage in Egypt. But by the time God determines to act, the Israelites have already lost hope, and Moses, too, loses confidence. If his own people will not listen to him, how will Pharaoh? Here again, Moses' and the Israelites' lack of faith highlights God's role as sole deliverer of his people.
The Exodus
Exodus is the Greek word for "going out," the name of the book in the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible (OT). It refers to the Israelites' going out of Egypt and beginning their return to the promised land. This migration of people took place because God brought the people out of Egypt by means of miracles carried out in part by his chosen agent, Moses. The story of this event is found in Exodus 1-15 and referred to throughout the Bible. It is remembered and celebrated as the first of a series of God's actions of salvation in behalf of his people. The exodus event is foundational for the Israelites' faith and practice.
While Egypt had been a place of refuge for Jacob and his sons during a famine (Genesis 42-49), it later became a place of bondage. The family had grown so large that the king of Egypt tried to reduce their numbers by oppressing them with hard labor and tried to control their population growth by having new baby boys killed at birth. One young boy, Moses, is miraculously spared from this disaster and raised by Pharaoh's daughter. When he witnesses an Egyptian beating a Hebrew man, Moses kills the Egyptian and then flees to the land of Midian. The people cry out to God because of the oppression, and God hears their prayers. Moses, who is shepherding for his father-in-law Jethro, is called by God to lead his people out of Egypt. Moses is very reluctant about this, and God must convince him and equip him to return to Egypt.
Moses intercedes for his people, but Pharaoh does not want to let them go. He makes life even more miserable for the Israelites. God sends a series of io plagues that show God's power over Pharaoh and the Egyptian gods. Only after the death of the firstborn of Egypt are the Israelites finally allowed to leave. When after a change of heart Pharaoh orders his army to pursue the Israelites, the Red Sea parts miraculously, the Israelites rush through, and the Egyptian soldiers following them are drowned when the waters return.
The exodus is viewed as a historical event that brings about physical deliverance for the people. But it is not the historical details that are of primary importance. Instead of noting natural causes for events, biblical authors confess that God has been active in history working through people such as the midwives and Moses and controlling nature such as the plagues and the waters of the Red Sea. The story is meant to help future generations celebrate the wondrous events, and the account even contains instructions for liturgical celebration of the event.
The report lacks the details necessary to situate this story within the sequence of events known in Egyptian history with any degree of certainty. For instance, the name of the specific pharaoh is not mentioned. There are no reports of this event in sources outside the Bible. Some particular details in the biblical texts are
problematic. 1 Kings 6:1 notes that the exodus took place 48o years before the fourth year of Solomon (ca. 966 B.C.), which would suggest ca. 1446 for the exodus, but it is argued that the reign of Ramesses II (1279-1213) fits the time when cities were built as suggested in Exod. 1:11. According to Exod. 12:37, some 6oo thousand men went out of Egypt. If one adds women and children, this means that well over 2 million people came out of Egypt, yet Pharaoh sent only some 6oo chariots in pursuit of them (Exod. 14:7). The locations of cities in Egypt and the exodus route are not known for certain. Various scholarly proposals have been made to provide a historical framework for the story. Some scholars try to draw upon general information known about the history and geography of the time and propose the most plausible details that fit with the biblical story. The Merneptah Stela, celebrating the military victories of Ramesses II's successor ca. 1220, is the first written external account that mentions Israel as a people living in Canaan and supports the exodus as taking place shortly before this time.
The exodus event means that God has shown love and care to his people. He has sided with the oppressed against the oppressors. This involves physical deliverance from physical slavery. The Israelite people celebrated the exodus with singing and rejoicing. One finds words of this celebration in the Song of Moses (Exod. 15:1-18) and the Song of Miriam (Exod. 15:2021). The event is a common theme of thanksgiving psalms or a motif of such psalms (Psalm 114). Even before the crossing of the Red Sea takes place, liturgical instructions concerning the Passover, the Feast of Unleavened Bread, and the redemption of the firstborn interrupt the flow of the story of the deliverance in Exodus 12-13. These practices are all related to key exodus events.
Not only do people respond with gratitude when they remember the exodus, but they are also motivated to live their lives differently in response to God's action in their behalf. Now that they have experienced God's deliverance and grace, they are called upon to enter into a covenant with God, which means that they must follow God's instructions (Exodus 19). These instructions are revealed to the people through Moses beginning with the Ten Commandments and
including several collections of laws found in Exodus 2o-Numbers lo. The exodus provides the motivation for particular laws. Of special importance is the concern not to oppress others and to be compassionate to those who are in trouble, such as the poor and the sojourners (Lev. 19:33-34; 25:35-37). Here they are to imitate God, who has delivered them from slavery; they should not enslave others but be compassionate. Since the Israelites have been slaves themselves, they should have empathy with others similarly oppressed (Exod. 23:9; Deut.15:15).
While the exodus event is unique, it is also viewed as a paradigm for God's continued activity in our world. The pattern of events associated with the exodus, including oppression of a group of people, crying out to God for help, God's deliverance of the people, and their celebration of that deliverance, is central throughout the
Bible. Complaint psalms reflect this basic pattern for individuals as well as groups. Even the central New Testament event of Jesus' death and resurrection fits this pattern. Throughout history individuals and groups of people experiencing all kinds of oppression have sought help and deliverance from the same God who delivered the Israelites from Egyptian bondage.
For Further Reading
Kitchen, K. A. "The Exodus." ABD 2:700-708.
Walzer, Michael. Exodus and Revolution. New York: Basic, 1985.
STEPHEN A. REED
6:14-27 The Genealogy of Moses and Aaron
The genealogy here appears intent on establishing Moses and Aaron as descendants of Jacob's son Levi (esp. VV. 26-27), whose descendants became Israel's priests (Num. 26:57-65).
6:28-11:10 Signs and Wonders
God bolsters Moses' courage to approach Pharaoh once again. This Moses does, accompa
nied by Aaron, and the two perform "signs," or "wonders;' designed to instill respect for God. The account of the signs shows a progression in Pharaoh's knowledge of God (compare 5:2 with 8:28; 9:27; 12:32), but it also demonstrates that mere knowledge does not necessarily result in sincere repentance or true humility before God. Pharaoh first asks for a sign to prove God's power; through Moses and Aaron, God produces 11 wonders. Yet even after receiving the proof he asks for, Pharaoh's knowledge leaves him faithless.
Pharaoh's magicians duplicate the first sign, in which Moses' staff turns into a serpent (7:1012; cf. 4:3). Although Moses' serpent swallows up the magicians' serpents, Pharaoh remains unimpressed.
Beginning with the second sign (which becomes the first plague), God uses Moses and Aaron to issue specific warnings concerning most of the punishments that await the Egyptians if Pharaoh refuses to allow the Israelites to worship God in the wilderness. By sending the very punishments he has warned about, God displays the ability to do what he says he will do. In addition, God starts and stops the punishments at will and, beginning with the fourth sign, limits their geographical extent to protect his people. God gives Pharaoh every opportunity to recognize God's supreme power and to humble himself before God (cf. 9:16-17), yet Pharaoh's heart remains hardened.
Pharaoh's magicians also duplicate the second sign - turning the water of the Nile into undrinkable "blood" (7:20; cf. 4:9). Perhaps unusually high flooding of the Nile (flooding occurred annually between June and October prior to the building of the Aswan dam) washed red clay soil from Ethiopia into this part of the Nile, or perhaps God caused red algae to pollute the water. But these explanations do not account for Moses' prior performance of the sign before the Israelites (4:30), the magicians' duplication of the wonder (7:22), or the transformation of the water contained in vessels throughout Egypt (7:19). Whether God worked through or overruled the natural order to accomplish this sign, the shortsighted pharaoh shows no concern about the occurrence (7:23).
After one week, God causes frogs escaping the putrid river waters to infiltrate the Egyptians' homes. Again Pharaoh's magicians mimic the sign, but the situation has become a nuisance, and so, recognizing God's power, Pharaoh agrees to let the Israelites worship God if Moses and Aaron will persuade God to stop the plague (8:8). But acknowledging the power of God does not produce humility in Pharaoh, and he goes back on his promise once he gets what he wants, relief from the frogs (8:15).
God gives Pharaoh no warning concerning the next plague - gnats (8:17), undoubtedly attracted by the piles of rotting frogs heaped up throughout Egypt. This sign Pharaoh's magicians cannot reproduce, and even they recognize the plague as coming from the "finger of God." But Pharaoh remains defiant.
God does issue a warning concerning the next plague - insects - and this time he gives Pharaoh even greater reason to acknowledge his supremacy. In this plague God will distinguish between the Egyptians and the Israelites by preventing the insects from affecting the land of Goshen, where his people dwell. From this point on, the punishments do not affect the Israelites. God also shows his power over time by informing Pharaoh when the plague will strike (8:23). The destruction brought by the insects initially causes Pharaoh to grant the Israelites permission to make sacrifices to God "within the land." But Moses insists they must worship God in the wilderness so as not to offend the Egyptians with their sacrificial practices. Not only does Pharaoh agree to the proposal; he also charges Moses to pray for him personally (8:28). Remembering Pharaoh's earlier broken promise, Moses departs warning Pharaoh not to "deal deceitfully again."
Pharaoh does go back on his word, and now God determines to cause the Egyptians' livestock to die (perhaps of diseases carried by the insects). Again God tells Pharaoh when the plague will begin, and again he informs him that it will not affect the Israelites. Even after confirming that none of the Israelites' livestock have died (9:6), however, Pharaoh remains unmoved.
Although Pharaoh's magicians had demonstrated their power to duplicate earlier signs, they now prove powerless even to protect themselves from the next plague - boils (9:11). Indeed, they become too sick even to stand before Pharaoh.
Some of Pharaoh's servants believe Moses and heed his warning about the punishment of hail, but still some do not (9:20-21). Again God protects his people in Goshen (9:26). With the ruin of Egypt's crops of barley and flax (used in the country's important linen industry), Pharaoh finally appears to acknowledge his sin and God's righteousness; and he again promises to allow the Israelites to go. But Moses lets Pharaoh know that he detects the king's insincerity. Still Moses prays to God to stop the hail, and predictably Pharaoh cancels his permission a third time.
Convinced of God's power to bring on the threatened plague of locusts (which would obliterate any crops and other vegetation not ruined by the hail; cf. 9:32) and with the entire country already "destroyed," Pharaoh's ser vants persuade him to grant the Israelites their request. But when Pharaoh learns that even the women, children, and flocks will go, he suspects his labor force will never return, and he gives only the men permission to leave. So the locust plague proceeds. Pharaoh repents insincerely again and God stops the plague, but Pharaoh still will not let the people go.
Pharaoh receives no warning about the sign of darkness, and it results again in Pharaoh's giving at least some ground. He agrees that all the people may go, but not the animals. Moses' standing firm makes Pharaoh angry and causes him to send Moses away for the last time with a warning never to approach him again. Moses leaves defiantly, confirming that indeed he will never see Pharaoh's face again. Here Moses displays a complete transformation from the wilting figure at the burning bush to the confident spokesman in Pharaoh's court. If the signs and wonders did not produce a heartfelt change in Pharaoh, they surely did in Moses.
By now Moses has gained the respect of Pharaoh's servants and the Egyptians at large (11:3), even if not of Pharaoh himself. Now God announces the final blow: the death of every firstborn Egyptian, both human and beast. Not only will this judgment gain God's people permission to leave Egypt, but Pharaoh will actually drive them out. The Israelites will emerge a free people made wealthy by the Egyptians themselves (cf. 3:21-22;11:2-3;12:35-36).
12:1-36 The Passover and the Final Sign
Up to this point, God takes complete initiative in protecting the Israelites from the punishments he inflicts on Egypt. But now he will require them to do their part in claiming divine protection. To prevent the deaths of their firstborn sons and animals, the Israelites must mark the lintels of their doors with the blood from an animal sacrifice (a lamb or a goat), and then they must eat the meat of the sacrificed animal. (Cf. the consecration rituals in Exodus 29; Leviticus 8. The participation of every Hebrew atoned for each individual's sins and set the nation apart as holy before God.)
God gives specific instructions regarding the nature of the sacrifice and also the timing
of an annual, weeklong Feast of Unleavened Bread they must hold to commemorate the divine judgment's "passing over" their firstborn. (Passover marks the first day of the feast; the celebration begins at twilight on the night of a full moon in March/April, which would have provided light for the Israelites on their midnight departure from Egypt.) The regulations specify the types of foods the Israelites must eat (the bitter herbs recall their suffering in Egypt), how they must prepare the foods, how and where they must eat the meal, and the clothes they must wear. The prohibition of eating anything with leaven figures as especially important (the Israelites' quick departure from Egypt did not allow them enough time for their dough to rise); disobeying this command would result in the offender's being "cut off from Israel." Interpretations of this phrase range from premature death to excommunication from the Israelite community, loss of inheritance rights, dishonor in death through burial outside the family tomb, and alienation from one's ancestors in the afterlife (cf. Gen. 17:14; Lev. 7:21; Num. 9:13; Judg. 21:1-7). The annual celebration of the Feast of Unleavened Bread instituted here and first carried out one year later (Num. 9:1-14) becomes another sign of God's everlasting covenant with his people (cf. Gen. 17:13).
The New Testament portrays Jesus as the ultimate Passover sacrifice (see 1 Cor. 5:7), whose bones remain unbroken on the cross (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46). The Last Supper, most likely a Passover meal (Matt. 26:17), becomes the commemorative Lord's Supper (1 Cor. 11:23-33).
The death of all the Egyptian firstborn (males?) parallels and perhaps repays the murder of the Hebrew boys during Moses' infancy. The text does not indicate how God carried out this final judgment, but the anguish that ensues produces the effect God promised: Pharaoh and the Egyptians willingly give the Israelites anything they ask for just to make them leave.
12:37-13:16 Further Instructions Regarding the Passover
The Israelites' initial journey from Rameses to Succoth took them 25 miles southwest. Their number, given as 60o thousand men, seems elevated (cf. Num. 1:46; 11:21; 26:51; estimates for the total population, including women and children, based on this number range from 2 to 3 million). A technical meaning for the Hebrew word "thousand" (such as "clan") or later census data inserted here may account for this seeming exaggeration. In any case, the fact that God later must provide them with food miraculously, since the wilderness cannot support their numbers (16:15), indicates that they comprise a very large group. The theological point is that God has made good on his covenantal promise of blessing by greatly increasing the number of Abraham's ancestors from the 70 (men) who migrated to Egypt in Joseph's day to the "great nation" that now exists. Verses 41-42 emphasize the fulfillment of God's indication that his people would spend four centuries as slaves in a foreign land before he delivered them in the fourth generation from their oppression (cf. Gen. 15:13,16).
God's requirement that his people dedicate to him every firstborn male further commemorates the Israelites' deliverance from Egypt. They must sacrifice firstborn male beasts (or "redeem" them by sacrificing another beast instead), but they must redeem firstborn male sons (a command that confirms God's rejection of human sacrifice).
13:17-22 The Journey Out of Egypt
The account now begins to focus more specifically on the Israelites' exit from Egypt - the exodus. To avoid a military confrontation with the Philistines along the Mediterranean coast, God leads his people on a longer, more southerly route toward Canaan by way of the wilderness and the Red Sea (Heb. literally "Sea of Reeds"; see "Route of the Exodus" [116]). Although Moses had never met Joseph, he takes Joseph's remains out of Egypt in fulfillment of the Israelites' earlier promise (Gen. 50:24-25).
The account indicates that God maintained his presence with the Israelites in a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire during the night. Whether the pillars represent natural or supernatural phenomena here, the Bible often uses clouds and fire to represent God's presence elsewhere (the burning bush, 3:2; the cloud covering Mount Sinai, 24:15-16).
14 Egypt's Final Judgment
Not even the death of Pharaoh's own firstborn causes him to fear God permanently. And not even the protection of their own firstborn from death at the Passover causes the Israelites to trust God completely. With Pharaoh having changed his mind one last time and the Egyptian army hot on their heels, the panicky Israelites blame Moses for putting them in a fearful predicament. But God delivers his people from Pharaoh's clutches, first by protecting them from behind (14:19) and then by creating an escape through the waters of the Red Sea - the same waters that swallow up the pursuing Egyptian army. (The Bible often associates water with death [Ps. 69:1-2; Jonah 2:2-6; Matt. 18:6; Rev. 18:21], so the Israelites' deliverance through the midst of water emphasizes God's divine protection of his chosen people amid otherwise certain doom.) God accomplishes this miraculous deliverance to demonstrate to the Egyptians his sovereignty (14:17-18), but his action also produces a reverence for God and a belief both in God and in Moses on the part of the Israelites that not even the previous signs taken together could produce (14:31).
15:1-21 The Israelites' Song of Victory
The Israelites praise God for his defeat of the Egyptians with a victory song that retells the story of chapter 14 in poetic form and with music and dancing led by Moses' and Aaron's sister, the prophetess Miriam (cf. Num. 12:215). The archaic poem in vv. 1-18 may represent the oldest writing in the Bible.
15:22-17:7 The Grumbling Resumes
The memory of God's mighty deeds of deliverance fades relatively quickly in the Israelites' minds and, faced with the lack of drinkable water in the wilderness at Marah, they grumble at Moses, through whom God performs another miracle to provide for their needs (cf. 17:1-7, where God also provides them with wa ter at Rephidim). Here God tests his people by making clear that they must obey him in order to avoid the diseases he inflicted on the Egyptians. In other words, the Israelites must keep their end of the bargain to realize the blessings of their covenant with God.
As the Israelites move on, their grumbling continues, now over lack of food. Their memories of life in Egypt grow rosy as they compare the barrenness of the wilderness with the plenty they knew formerly. Once again, God responds: in the morning he sends a staple food (the breadlike "manna," which they would eat for 40 years until they entered Canaan; cf. Num. 11:7-9) and at night, meat (quail). But God's testing of the Israelites continues. He gives specific instructions concerning the gathering of the manna (an "omer" equals about two quarts) and twice finds at least some of the people disobedient to his commands (16:20, 27). Here God also requires them to observe a day of rest - the Sabbath (16:29-30; cf. Gen. 2:3).
17:8-16 Victory over the Amalekites
In the battle initiated by the Amalekites (nomadic descendants of Esau) at Rephidim, Joshua emerges as the Israelites' prime military commander (who will later succeed Moses). Joshua and his handpicked fighting force defeat their attackers, but the victory belongs to God, whose covenantal curses fall on the Amalekites from this point on.
18 Jethro's Visit
In contrast to the Amalekites, Moses' Midianite father-in-law Jethro welcomes the Israelites. Jethro returns his daughter and grandsons to Moses (the text does not indicate when Zipporah and Moses parted) and rejoices in God's actions on behalf of the Israelites. Further, he shows concern for Moses' welfare and advises him to delegate responsibilities in the administration of judgments between disputing parties. Moses appoints "able men" as leaders over various-sized groups of Israelites, but Moses continues to judge their major disputes.
The barren Sinai wilderness, through which the Hebrew people would wander for 40 years. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)
19 Return to Mount Sinai
As God promised Moses in 3:12, the Israelites journey to Mount Sinai (=Horeb, 3:1), where God appeared to Moses in the burning bush. God again speaks directly to Moses and instructs him in preparing the Israelites to meet their God.
Verses 5-6 set the stage for the establishment of a new covenant between God and his people, whom God will make "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." Moses instructs the people not to touch the mountain (cf. the "holy ground" around the burning bush, 3:5), on which God descends in a fearful mix of clouds, smoke, and fire (cf. the protective pillars of cloud and fire during the Israelites' departure from Egypt; 13:21-22), accompanied by thunder, lightning, and the quaking of the earth, in order to create a lasting impression of his power and holiness (cf. 20:20). Not even the priests (established as an order only after Sinai) may accompany Moses and Aaron up the mountain to meet with God.
20:1-17 The Ten Commandments
God addresses the Israelites directly by issuing the Ten Commandments (Decalogue) as the basis of his covenant with them. The account contains elements of the treaty pattern typical in the ancient Near East (see "Covenants" [14144]) God identifies himself, describes his past relationship with the Israelites, outlines their obligations to him, and states consequences for obeying or disobeying. Yet the io "words" speak most directly to issues of the heart, rather than detailing legal regulations.
Route of the Exodus
Despite the importance of the exodus in forming and binding Israel as a nation and the people of God and as a central theme in Hebrew thought, no direct material evidence of the event has yet been discovered, and the biblical account remains the only written record.
The Route of the Exodus
The exodus begins at Rameses (Egyptian Pi-Ramesse, modern Qantir), one of the store-cities in
the territory of Goshen in the northeastern Nile Delta where the Hebrews were enslaved to make mud bricks. Warned by God to avoid the northern "Way of the Land of the Philistines" (Exod. 13:17; also called
the Way of Horus), the normal route between Egypt and Canaan heavily fortified by Egyptian troops, the Hebrews headed southeast to Succoth (Tell el-Maskhuta) and Etham (near modern Ismailia). Apparently unable to penetrate the "Wall of Shur," a line of fortresses along an ancient canal connecting the Nile River and the Mediterranean Sea, the Hebrews were forced to
turn back northwest, camping on the edge of the wilderness before crossing the "Sea of Reeds" (Heb. yam suph, traditionally translated "Red Sea"), somewhere in the chain of lakes including Lake
Menzaleh, Lake Sirbonis, and the Bitter Lakes.
Numerous difficulties hinder identification of the exact route taken after leaving the delta region. Although archaeological exploration has confirmed some of the sites mentioned, the lack of permanent settlement in the Sinai Peninsula has not favored historical continuity in the naming of places or geographical features. As a result, various routes have been proposed.
The prevailing view is that the Israelites proceeded south on the Way of the Wilderness along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Suez. Tentative identification of such sites as Marah and Elim in the early stages of the exodus favor this route. The obscurity of later stations suggests the rugged southern terrain, where ancient Egyptian copper and turquoise mines were located. Most important to this theory is the traditional identification of Mount Sinai (Horeb) with Jebel Musa. From here the group headed northeast toward Kadesh-barnea.
For Further Reading
Hoffmeier, James K. Israel in Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
The first four commandments define the Israelites' relationship to God and distinguish them from other ancient peoples: they must serve the one God only, without making images (idols) that might tempt them to false worship (cf. the golden calf, ch. 32), and they must honor God's nature (represented by his name) and emulate him in their work and rest (cf. 16:29-30). The last six commandments flow naturally from observing the first four - they establish social boundaries among the Israelites themselves. Honoring others at every level and in every relationship lies at the heart of these commands (cf. Matt. 22:37-40). The encounter with God instills such fear in the Israelites that they request that all further communication with God come through Moses.
20:22-23:33 The Book of the Covenant
This next narrative of the events at Mount Sinai contains our oldest record of Jewish law, the Book of the Covenant, which comprises judgments (case laws) and statutes (specific commands) that define religious and civil rules and specify punishments for breaking them. This law code restates and expands the preceding Ten Commandments. The Book of the Covenant departs from other ancient Near Eastern law codes in several respects: its appeal to divine authority; inclusion of both sacred and secular laws; applicability to all strata of society (even slaves have rights; 21:1-11, 26-27); the high value placed on human life (over against material possessions); and limited judgments that prevent overly severe punishment and ongoing feuds but at the same time take offenses seriously enough (the lex talionis, 21:23-25). See "Law in Israel and in Judaism"(153-55)•
The laws show God's special concern for society's weaker members (widows, orphans, slaves, foreigners, and the injured; the prohibition against releasing a female slave in 21:7 protects rather than punishes her by demanding her master's continuing responsibility for her). That guilty parties must make restitution to those they have hurt emphasizes God's concern for justice beyond mere punishment (21:3436). The death penalty prescribed for certain transgressions distinguishes just killing from murder (prohibited in 20:13) and emphasizes the seriousness with which the Israelites viewed crimes such as dishonoring one's father or mother (21:15, 17), witchcraft (22:18), and bestiality (common in Canaanite religion; 22:19).
Jebel Musa, traditionally identified with Mount Sinai (Horeb). (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)
The laws concerning the observance of religious feasts in 23:10-19 anticipate the Israelites' settled agricultural life in Canaan. The Feast of Unleavened Bread commemorates the Passover (cf. 12:14-20); the New Testament refers to the Feast of Harvest (=Feast of Weeks) as Pentecost because of its observation 5o days after Passover; and the Bible also refers to the Feast of Ingathering as the Feast of Tabernacles or Booths. Exodus 23:19 provides the basis for Jewish kosher laws prohibiting eating meat and dairy products together.
The Book of the Covenant concludes with an outline of the blessings the Israelites will realize for obeying God's laws: God's protection and the fulfillment of the promise of land he gave originally to Abraham (23:20-33; under David and Solomon the Israelites controlled Canaan within the boundaries God sets in 23:31). These verses also warn against the inhabitants of Canaan, who worship other gods: the Israelites must overthrow them and drive them out, with God's help, in order to avoid the temptation to worship other gods (23:33).
24:1-11 The Ratification of the Covenant
After Moses writes down the laws God has given to the Israelites, he enlists help in ratifying the covenant through a ritual involving animal sacrifices and the sprinkling of blood on the people (reminiscent of the consecration by blood at the Passover; 12:21-23), the reading of the laws aloud, and Moses' ascent up Mount Sinai with Aaron, Aaron's sons Nadab and Abihu, and other Israelite leaders. The group survives their vision of God (cf. Gen. 32:30), and they seal the covenant by eating a meal together. Whereas earlier God established covenants with individuals (Noah and Abraham), this "Mosaic Covenant" involves the nation of Israel as a whole.
24:12-27:21 Instructions for the Tabernacle
Moses and Joshua ascend Mount Sinai to receive the stone tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments, which Moses finally receives
in 31:18. Before he departs, Moses instructs the people to leave legal decisions to Aaron and Hur (paired earlier in supporting Moses' raised arms during the Israelites' battle with the Amalekites; 17:12). Moses will spend 4o days on top of Mount Sinai. The Bible associates the number 40 with significant transitions in salvation history: the flood lasted 40 days; the Israelite spies spent 4o days in Canaan; Elijah's journey to Horeb took 40 days; Jesus spent 40 days in the wilderness at his temptation; and 4o days passed between Jesus' resurrection and his ascension.
Exodus 25 records God's detailed, though still incomplete, instructions to the Israelites for building and furnishing a sanctuary as God's residence. The Israelites were undoubtedly familiar with portable tent-shrines used in Egyptian religion from their long history in Egypt (see "The Tabernacle" [135-36]). In this way, God makes clear that he will not remain on the mountain but instead will come down to live among his people (29:45-46; cf. John 1:14; 6:38).
God requires his people to donate the best of materials for his house - gold, silver, fine linen, wood from the acacia tree (one of the only trees that grows in the desert) - but he wants only contributions that come from sincere intentions to honor him (25:2). Since God caused his former slave-people to become rich through goods given to them by the Egyptians (12:35-36), the Israelites' contributions for the tabernacle represent a return to God of blessings he first bestowed on them.
The tabernacle's furnishings include the ark of the covenant (cf. Deut. 10:8), a wooden chest overlaid with pure gold that will contain the stone tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments (= the "testimony"). The ark's lid later figures in the annual ritual of atonement for Israel's sins (Lev. 16:15-16); it serves as a "mercy seat" protected by cherubim, ancient Near Eastern guardians of holy places. (Cherubim also guard the tabernacle as a whole at its outer curtain-walls, and they guard the inner holy of holies from the larger holy place; 26:1, 31.) Poles passed through golden rings attached to the ark will enable the Israelites to transport the chest without actually touching this holy throne of God. In addition to a seat for God, the tabernacle must house a table with bread placed on it and a lampstand for light - the basic household necessities, which symbolize God's immediate presence. The lampstand, which provides the only light in the tabernacle, appears treelike, with flower-cups for lamp oil fixed on its seven branches. God charges the Israelites to provide olive oil to keep the lamps burning continually (27:20) - a task assigned to Aaron and his sons in 27:21.
Curtains will form the walls of the tabernacle itself, and various layers made from goats' hair cloth, dyed rams' skin, and fine hide will overhang the curtains and protect the rectangular tent against the weather. An inner curtain will separate the holy of holies, which will contain the ark where God in Spirit will "sit;" from the holy place, which will house the table and lampstand. The inner curtain thus represents the moral barrier between sinful humans and a holy God.
A curtain-fenced courtyard will surround the tabernacle. An altar opposite the entrance to this buffer zone between the Israelites' camp and God's house will stand in front of the entrance to the tabernacle itself. Because the priests will make atonement for Israel's sins at the altar, this consecrated location will become the place where God meets with the "sons of Israel" and speaks to them (29:42-43).
Not only will the Israelites give their goods - jewelry, perfume, animals - but they will also donate their labor in constructing and furnishing God's tent. The many skills the project will require include weaving and spinning, dyeing (using the murex shell for the royal color purple and the cochineal insect for scarlet), embroidery, metalworking and engraving, cutting and polishing of gemstones, tanning, and construction. Although twice the size of the Israelites' portable tent-shrine, the temples built by Solomon and later by the returned exiles follow the tabernacle's basic plan.
28 Instructions for the Priestly Clothing
God sets apart Aaron and his four sons to serve in the tabernacle as priests. As high priest, Aaron must wear garments that reflect
the same glory and beauty as God's house, and so many of the same materials used in the tabernacle will go into them: purple and scarlet fabric, fine linen, gold, precious stones. Both the high priest's breastplate and ephod (probably a kind of waistcoat worn over other clothes) will contain the names of the 12 "sons of Israel" and thereby identify Aaron as representative of all the Israelites in his priestly duty of making atonement for sins. The pouch of the breastplate will also contain the Urim and Thummim ("the Lights and the Perfections"), elements of uncertain form used in determining God's will. The tinkling of the bells attached to the hem of Aaron's blue robe will identify Aaron audibly, and the golden plate engraved with "Holy to the Lord" will identify him visibly as God's appointed mediator on behalf of the Israelites when he enters God's presence in the holy of holies. That both Aaron and his sons must wear undergarments will guard against inappropriate exposure (cf. 20:26) and unseemly behavior (cf. Gen. 9:2123) in God's house.
29 The Consecration of Priests
While God determines to dwell among his people, their sin prevents them from approaching him directly and freely. Even the priests, whom God sets apart to represent the Israelites, must undergo a ritual of consecration to atone for their sins and make them acceptable in the presence of a holy God. This rite involves bathing, clothing, anointing, and sacrificing.
The priests' act of placing their hands on the heads of the bull and the rams symbolizes the transfer of their guilt to the sacrifice. The blood dabbed on the "horns" of the altar purifies it too from contact with ritually unclean individuals. (As vertical projections from tops of the altar's four corners, the horns prevented the wood and sacrifices from falling off; a person fleeing for his life could claim asylum by grabbing onto the altar's horns - the specially consecrated parts of the altar; cf. 1 Kgs. 1:50-51; 2:28.) Whereas in the previous chapter elements of Aaron's clothing appeal to God's hearing and sight, now the priests' burnt offerings will provide a "pleasing (= fragrant) aroma" to God's sense of smell (v.18; the text anthropomorphizes God).
The sacrificial blood placed on the priests' right ears, thumbs, and big toes symbolizes their consecration to hear and obey God's commands. God provides sustenance for Aaron and his sons by reserving a portion of the sacrifice for their consumption (vv. 31-35). See "Sacrifices and Offerings" (124-25)and "Holy, Clean, and Unclean' (127-28).
30 Further Instructions for Service in the Tabernacle
At the tabernacle's entrance, a burnt offering would serve as a pleasing aroma to God; inside the tent, incense made according to a special recipe and burned on a special altar would provide a fragrant scent. As with the ark of the covenant, gold would overlay the incense altar made of acacia wood, consecrated by the high priest once a year (probably on the Day of Atonement). The Israelites receive strict instructions not to duplicate the particular mix of spices used in the incense for the tabernacle; neither may they copy the recipe for the anointing oil used to consecrate the tent, its furnishings, and the priests. One additional furnishing - a bronze washbasin - would hold water for Aaron and his sons to cleanse themselves for priestly service (cf. 29:4). God would require each Israelite of at least 20 years of age to make a monetary contribution as "atonement money" to cover the costs of the tabernacle service. Rich and poor must pay the same amount, since each individual stands equally guilty before God.
31 Moses Receives the Stone Tablets
Moses' meeting with God on Mount Sinai ends with an affirmation that God, through his spirit, has already equipped craftsmen among the Israelites with the skills necessary to carry out his commands. God reminds the Israelites that they must pay special heed to their covenant with him through observance of the Sabbath (cf. 20:8-11), whereby they mirror his image and activity most closely (cf. Gen. 2:2-3). Finally, Moses receives two stone tablets inscribed "by the finger of God" with the "testimony" (the commandments contained in 20:2-17).
32 The Golden Calf
It does not take long for the Israelites to lose faith during Moses' 40-day absence from them. The people think not of God but of Moses as their deliverer, and their need for a visual symbol of the divine presence prompts them to ask Aaron to make gods for them (v. 1). Either fearing the crowd or having himself lost faith, Aaron complies by fashioning a young bull from the Israelites' golden jewelry and identifying it as the God who brought them out of Egypt - exactly what God prohibited in the Ten Commandments (20:4). (The bull-calf represented Baal, the storm-god and god of fertility in Canaanite religion.) The forgetful Israelites celebrate by feasting and worshipping the idol with offerings.
God sees how little time it has taken the Israelites to forsake him; he determines to annihilate the descendants of the patriarchs and make a great nation of Moses instead. Unselfishly, Moses ignores the offer and intercedes for the Israelites. Moses first points out the negative testimony God's destruction of his people would produce among the Egyptians. He also reminds God of his promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. God changes his mind and spares the Israelites from total destruction; however, God will indeed punish them for this sin in the days to come (v. 34).
Moses carries the stone tablets as he and Joshua descend from the mountain. When Moses sees the disorderly way in which the Israelites are carrying on, he becomes so angry that he dashes the tablets to the ground - an act that symbolizes the Israelites' breaking of their covenant with God. Moses grinds the golden calf into powder and scatters the powder over the water, which he then forces the Israelites to drink. He holds Aaron accountable for the people's sin, but Aaron tries to deflect responsibility much as Adam and Eve did for their sin (Gen. 3:12-13).
To restore order, Moses then takes punitive action against the people. The Levites (Moses' own tribe, but Aaron's too) rally with Moses to the Lord's side and kill 3000 Israelites - presumably those found worshipping the golden bull-calf. But the next day, Moses shows solidarity with those still living by asking God to include him among the Israelites whom God will blot out of his book if God will not forgive them (cf. God's "book of life" in Rev. 3:5; 13:8; 21:27). God refuses; for the present, he holds each individual accountable for his or her sin by "smiting" (perhaps with a plague) those who broke the covenant. Yet God also charges Moses to continue his mission of leading the Israelites to the promised land.
33 Moses Seeks God's Will
God's holy nature requires that he punish sin. In an act of grace toward the deliberately sinful Israelites, God announces that he will not live in their midst after all, lest he destroy them. God commands the people not to wear their remaining "ornaments," or jewelry, with which he had blessed them through the Egyptians but which they have used in breaking the covenant. But God reaffirms to Moses that despite their obstinacy the patriarchs' descendants will inherit the land "flowing with milk and honey" - the land of God's promise - with the help of one of his angels.
Verses 7ff. describe how Moses used to meet with God personally in a tent pitched outside the Israelites' camp. (This "tent of meeting" preceded the tabernacle, also called by that name.) Once again, Moses entreats God to change his mind and accompany the Israelites on their journey (cf. 32:11-13). He also seeks the ability to discern God's will, and God rewards Moses' earnestness by granting his request: God will indeed go with his people and even allows Moses to see him, but only from the back, lest Moses die by looking at God's face (cf. 3:6). No matter how much Moses pleases God, he still carries with him the taint of human sin.
34 The Covenant Renewed
In God's infinite mercy and patience, he accepts Moses' repentance on behalf of the Israelites and renews his covenant with them. But God also stresses that his forgiveness will not prevent the guilty from escaping the consequences of their sin. Moses again spends 40 days and nights meeting with God on Mount Sinai, where God repeats the terms of the covenant. God places special emphasis on his command that the Israelites destroy the trappings of Canaanite religion and form no alliances with pagan peoples when they arrive in Canaan, lest they follow other gods. God will not tolerate any rivals for his people's worship.
Moses descends the mountain equipped with a second set of stone tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments. His face appears illuminated from his audience with God, and he dons a veil in an attempt to prevent the reflection of God's glory from fading (cf. 2 Cor. 3:12-18), perhaps so the Israelites will remain convinced of the divine origin and authority of his words.
35-40 Moses Sets Up the Tabernacle
Moses and the Israelites follow to the letter the instructions God gave for making, furnishing, and serving in his house (chs. 25-31). But before the Israelites begin work on the tabernacle, Moses reemphasizes God's command that they observe the Sabbath. The Israelites must observe a day of rest even while undertaking the important task of building a house for God.
The Israelites contribute generously of their labor and their material possessions for the project. Their freewill donations amount to so much, in fact, that Moses must call a halt to all offerings. Bezalel, of the tribe of Judah, supervises the project with the assistance of Oholiab, of the tribe of Dan (31:2, 6); the two train others in the skills needed to complete the task, and together the Israelites make everything according to God's instructions. The account here includes details such as the specific types of precious and semiprecious stones used for the priestly vestments and the amounts of gold, silver, and bronze donated for the project. After Moses inspects and approves all the work, he blesses the people and then receives instructions from God to set up and consecrate the tabernacle and to clothe, anoint, and consecrate the priests. This must occur on the first day of the first month, the first anniversary of the Israelites' deliverance from Egypt.
After Moses prepares the tabernacle for use and the priests for service, God descends on his house in a cloud and occupies it. He now lives among his people, his presence visible in the cloud over the tent by day and in its firelike
appearance by night (cf. Num. 9:15). As long as the cloud remains over the tent, the Israelites remain encamped. When the cloud lifts, they move on toward the promised land. The tabernacle will serve as God's house and as the focal point of Israelite worship for the next 300 years, until Solomon builds the first temple. (The 480 years indicated in 1 Kgs. 6:1 are thought to be an ideal number suggesting construction of the temple at the midpoint between the exodus and the return from exile or perhaps representing one generation [40 years] for each of the 12 tribes.)