The Church and Paul's Message
In general, Paul's letters to churches (Romans through 2 Thessalonians) appear in descending order of length without regard to the likely order in which the apostle wrote them. The same holds true for the letters to individuals (1 Timothy through Philemon). Paul probably composed Romans from the Greek city of Corinth ca. A.D. 57 or 58, before starting the return trip to Palestine during his third missionary journey (cf. Acts 20:1-3).
The Church and Paul's Message
Most of Paul's letters address specific situations of churches he established on his evangelistic tours of the Roman Empire. Though at the time Paul writes Romans he has not yet visited the imperial capital, much less established the church there, his letter to the Christians of Rome shows his awareness of tensions between the city's Jewish and Gentile believers (chs. ii, 14), paralleled in the relationship between the church in Jerusalem and the predominantly Gentile congregations established by Paul (see Acts 15). The importance of Christian unity leads Paul to highlight the sinfulness of all humanity as the universal leveler that necessitates for Jew and Gentile alike justification by God's grace (ill-deserved favor) through faith in Jesus Christ and that precludes judgmentalism within the church (ch. 14).
While the genesis of the Roman church remains uncertain, it could well have originated with Jews and Gentile converts returned to Rome after having made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem at Pentecost, when they heard and believed the gospel (Acts 2:1-11). Having expressed his desire to visit the Christians in Rome (Acts 19:21; cf. 23:11), Paul reveals his plan for a layover there on his way to Spain. The epistle alerts the congregation to his upcoming visit, provides a firsthand introduction to his theology, and offers a taste of how in person he will further strengthen them in their faith.
1:1-17 Paul's Mission and Message
In ancient Palestine, freed slaves became bondslaves by voluntarily submitting to a lifetime of servanthood to the master who had released them. Paul calls himself a "bondservant" of Christ, whom he serves as an apostle ("one sent") bearing the message of the gospel (vv. 2-5). His greeting to the Christians in Rome acknowledges the Jewish roots of Christianity and its relevance for all people. By using both the Greek and Hebrew words of greeting - "grace" and "peace" - Paul suggests that Gentile and Jewish "saints" (Christians) enjoy equal standing in the church. "Grace" reminds his audience of the ill-deserved favor God grants to sinners who trust in Christ. "Peace" is not merely the absence of strife but the active enjoyment of divine blessing.
Though Paul has yet to visit Rome, he knows by reputation the faithful Christian community there. He reveals two reasons for his longstanding desire to meet them in person: their mutual enlightenment in the Christian faith, and his desire to collect from them financial support for his mission to Spain.
In verses 16-17, Paul states his theme: salvation through faith. The priority of Jews over "Greeks" (= Gentiles) concerns who first heard the message, not their spiritual quality. Jesus commanded proclaiming the gospel to the Jews first and then to the Gentiles, and the book of Acts illustrates the outworking of this principle (Matt. 10:5-15, 16-42). The quotation from Hab. 2:4, "the righteous will live by faith;" does not command how to live one's earthly life; rather, Paul is asserting that one gains eternal life by exercising faith in the message of the gospel (cf. 3:30).
Paul's Gospel
Paul understood his vocation as an apostle to be, above everything else, a call to preach what he called the gospel of God" (Rom. 1:1; 1 Thess. 2:2, 8-9; cf. 1 Tim. 1:11) or the gospel of Christ" (Rom. 15:19; 1 Cor. 9:12; 2 Cor. 9:13; Gal. 1:7; Phil. 1:27; 1 Thess. 3:2; cf. 2 Thess. 1:8). The proclamation of this gospel was to Paul a compulsion prompted by God, and to be deprived of the ability to carry out this calling would be worse than death (1 Cor. 9:16). Paul's life was bound so tightly to the gospel that to speak of his own affairs was inevitably to speak of the advancement of the gospel in those affairs (Phil. 1:12). When Paul spoke of "my gospel" (Rom. 2:16; 16:25; 2 Tim. 2:8), therefore, he did not mean that his gospel differed from that of other Christians, but that he felt an enormous personal responsibility for promoting the gospel.
What was this gospel? The noun "gospel" (Gk. euangelion) referred essentially to "good news" of any sort, and the verb "preach the gospel" (euangelizo) meant telling this good news to others (1 Thess. 3:6). The ancient Greek translators of Isaiah used the verb to refer to the future proclamation in Judah of the "glad tidings" that the punishment of God's people for their sins had ended and that God would rescue Judah from exile (Isa. 4o:9; cf. 52:7; 61:1-2). Jesus understood his ministry to be the fulfillment of such prophecies (Luke 4:16-21), and so it was
natural for early Christians such as Paul to think of their proclamation of Jesus as the "good news of God, which he promised beforehand through his prophets in the holy scriptures" (Rom. 1:1-2; cf. 10:15-16).
More specifically, Paul understood the gospel to be the account of Jesus, the Messiah, Son of David, and Son of God (Rom. 1:1-3) who died to atone for a sinful people (1 Cor. 15:1-3; cf. 1:18) and who was raised from the dead (Rom.1:4;1 Cor. 15:4-8; cf. 2 Tim. 2:8). Paul's gospel also included many theological and ethical applications derived from these fundamental historical truths (e.g., 2 Cor. 9:13; Gal. 2:14). As a result, his preaching of the gospel to a single group might extend over a long period of time (1 Thess. 2:9) and, after his absence, require the additional efforts of one of his co-workers (1 Thess. 3:2).
The fullest exposition of Paul's gospel appears in his letter to the Romans, and this letter's thematic statement (1:16-17) sums up Paul's gospel. Echoing Ps. 98:2-3, he describes the gospel as the ultimate revelation of God's "righteousness" or saving power for everyone who believes, not only Jews but non-Jews also. Receiving God's powerful, saving righteousness is not a matter of belonging to the right nation but of faith.
The rest of the letter clarifies that "faith" does not mean a vague trust in something transcendent. It refers specifically to the convic
tion that God atoned for human sin through the sacrificial death of his Son on the cross and, by this death, reconciled a rebellious people to himself (Rom. 3:25; 5:611; 8:3; cf.1 Cor. 1:17-18). To use the language of the courtroom, God justified, or acquitted, the ungodly on the basis of Christ's death (Rom. 3:24). This was an act of God's free grace, unprompted by any deserving conduct or attractive quality in the ungodly people who received it (1:18-3:20; 4:4-8; 5:6-8; 11:6; cf.1 Cor. 1:26-31).
Paul's letter to Rome also demonstrates that for Paul the gospel had ethical implications. Paul tells the Roman Christians that he is eager to come to Rome to reap some fruit among them by the proclamation of the gospel there (Rom. 1:13-15). Although his readers are already believers (1:12; 15:14), they need to hear the gospel again. Their church is divided along ethnic lines (14:1-15:13), but the gospel's offer of salvation to everyone who believes implies that such divisions are inappropriate (1:16; 3:29-30; 4:11-12; 10:12-13; 15:7-12).
Paul drew this same ethical conclusion from the gospel in his letter to the Galatian churches. Here he describes how he once accused Cephas, certain people from James, and Barnabas of not "acting consistently with the truth of the gospel" because they were excluding Gentile Christians from table fellowship in Antioch (Gal. 2:11-14; cf. v. 5). If all are sinners and all who have faith in Christ will stand acquitted in God's eschatological court, Paul reasoned, then the question of whether one would or would not follow the Jewish food laws should be irrelevant to Christian fellowship (2:15-21).
To believe the gospel, therefore, was to embrace it not merely with the head but also with the heart. It was not simply to be rescued from final judgment but also to live in the present in "a manner worthy of the gospel of Christ" (Phil. 1:27).
The gospel was not, however, a fixed body of doctrinal and ethical principles. Paul believed that it was alive with God's gracious, saving power (Rom. 1:16) - that it was the instrument through which Christ Jesus "abolished death and brought life and immortality to light" (2 Tim. 1:1o). When Paul preached the gospel, he did not simply speak common words but delivered a message that was accompanied by power and by the presence of the Holy Spirit (1 Thess.1:5; Rom. 15:19). This power was evident in the change that the gospel brought to those who heard and responded to it (1 Thess. 1:6-10). Despite the unsophisticated rhetoric of the preacher (1 Cor. 2:34), the unimpressive social status
of those who heard the message (1:26-31), and the socially unacceptable content of the message itself (w. 17-25; 2:6-16), God called out a people for himself through the preaching of the gospel (1:26a).
Paul could speak with conviction about the gospel's power because he had personally experienced its power. Outside the gates of Damascus God had overwhelmed him with the truth of the gospel by revealing Jesus to him (Gal. 1:11-12). There he saw the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God" (2 Cor. 4:4) and received God's commission to preach this gospel among the nations (Gal. 1:16). From that point, Paul was consumed with the pursuit of this divine vocation (1 Cor. 9:16). He considered the gospel a God-given trust (Gal. 2:7; 1 Thess. 2:4; 1 Tim. 1:11) - a precious treasure (2 Cor. 4:7) that he should defend, confirm, and strenuously contend for in adversity (Phil. 1:7,16, 27; 4:3; cf. 2 Cor. 4:8-12). Above all, it was something that he should preach as far and wide as he could, whether in Jerusalem, Illyricum, Rome, or Spain, whether in plenty or famine, in honor or dishonor (Rom. 15:19, 24, 28; Phil. 4:12;
2 Cor. 6:8). Famine and dishonor predominated (1 Cor. 4:9-13; 2 Cor. 6:4-10; 11:23-33), and Paul had a profound sense of his own insufficiency in the face of the task God had given him (2:16). Even so, Paul considered his call to preach this gospel an act of God's mercy and did not lose heart despite his sufferings, for through his preaching he saw God's Spirit give people life, remove the veil of spiritual blindness from their eyes, and begin to transform them into God's image (2 Cor. 3:6,16-18; 4:1, 12).
For Further Reading
Barnett, Paul. Paul. Missionary of Jesus. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008.
FRANK THIELMAN
1:18-3:20 Salvation Open to All
To establish the necessity of the gospel for salvation, Paul indicts humanity for its inexcusable corruption, caused by the deliberate suppression of God's obvious self-revelation through the human conscience and the natural order. Verses 26-31 spell out the consequences of disregarding God. On God's "giving up" the unrighteous to their depravity (v 24), compare his hardening the heart of Pharaoh for refusing to obey God's commands through Moses (Exodus 4-14).
Paul cautions against "judging" fellow humans, that is, writing them off as eternally damned. To do so is to condemn one's own, equally sinful self (2:1; itemized for the Jew in W. 17-23). Just as the eternal benefits of the gospel apply to Jews and Gentiles alike, so also do the eternal consequences of stubborn unrepentance. For the Jew, the Mosaic law sets the standard of measurement for righteousness of the heart. The Gentile displays righteousness not by obeying the Law's peculiarly Jewish features (circumcision, food laws, sacrifices) but by obeying its universal moral principles (2:29; cf. 1 Sam. 15:22; Ps. 40:6-8; Isa. 1:11-20). Both Jews and Gentiles must meet the requirement of righteousness, but the means of their demonstrating it and of God's evaluation differ.
Beginning with Abraham God made circumcision a sign of membership in the covenantal community (Gen. 17:10-14). But Israel's history illustrates that physical circumcision apart from obedience to the Law does not guarantee salvation; otherwise, Christ need not have died on the cross. Conversely, righteousness dem onstrated by obedience to God's fundamental laws does obtain salvation for the physically uncircumcised. The gospel defines "Jewishness" and "circumcision" - indicators of election by God for salvation - in terms that go beyond physicality, namely, as attitudes of the heart.
Nevertheless, the availability of salvation to Gentiles does not cancel the historically privileged relationship with God enjoyed by the Jews. Their covenantal failures may contrast with the faithfulness of God, but this neither legitimates continued sinning nor renders Jews morally superior, despite their unique role in salvation history.
3:21-5:21 Becoming Right with God through Faith
Paul announces the good news, the manifestation of God's righteousness "apart from law." The prophesied Christ embodies the perfect righteousness of God, gained through faith by the sinner, whose "justification" (restoration to a right relationship with God) results from God's free gift of grace. The idea of "redemption, which Christ achieves for sinners, recalls the substitutionary "buying back" of a person or item set apart for a particular purpose (cf. Exod. 13:1-16). The sin of humankind evokes the righteous anger of God and sets humanity apart for eternal death. On behalf of doomed humanity, Christ "propitiates" (appeases the anger of) God by dying on the cross. By dying as a substitute for sinful humans, Christ pays for their redemption. But sinners cannot claim this redemption by working for it; rather, they become redeemed only by exercising faith in the work of Christ on the cross. The continuing value of the Law lies in its use as a vehicle for expressing the fundamental requirements of righteousness (cf. Matt. 5:17-48).
Panoramic view of the interior of the Colosseum, or Flavian Ampitheater, at Rome. (Wikimedia Commons)
Jews and Gentiles in the Church
Acts 1o is the first recorded conversion to Christ of a "fullblooded" Gentile, Cornelius. That the Jewish believers in Jerusalem debated their response to this event (Acts 11:1-18; cf. 15:1-29) is hardly surprising. Judaism had always encompassed contradictory and competing attitudes toward Gentiles. The opposing attractions of universalism and exclusivism, of approach and avoidance, repeatedly pulled Israel toward and then away from the Gentile world. Both unfavorable and favorable views of Gentiles are amply represented in the Hebrew Bible. The conquest narratives commend the wholesale elimination of the native Canaanite populations (note the frequent use of the phrase "utterly destroy" in Josh. 2:10; 8:26; 10:1; 11:21), while passages such as Exod. 22:21; Lev. 19:10; Deut.1o:19 demand the fair, even compassionate treatment of "resident aliens."
Particularly instructive are the nearly opposite responses to the trauma of the exile. Prominent Jewish leaders reacted to the deportation of their ancestors to Babylon as punishment, especially for idolatry, by calling for strict separation. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah require, among other things, that Jewish men divorce their non-Jewish wives. Many intertestamental writings reinforce the demand for segregation, not only in marriage (Tob. 4:12-13) but also in matters such as eating and hospitality (e.g., 1:1o-11; Sir. 11:34). An entirely different response is
evident in Ruth and Jonah, which encourage a more inclusive attitude toward Gentiles. Undoubtedly, the most important "pro-Gentile" voice was that of Isaiah, who saw Israel not as a walled-off sanctuary but as a "light to the nations" (Isa. 42:6; 49:6; 60:3). Several passages speak of God's universal salvation (42:1-9; 49:1-26; 60:1-22). The expectation is that postexilic Israel would be restored, and that this faithful people would include believing Gentiles (2:2-4; 11:1-16; 55:1-5; 66:18-23). One implication is that the Messiah, through whom God would renew Israel, is also the one through whom the Gentiles would be brought to faith (9:1-7; 11:10-16).
At the time of the founding of the Christian church, the admission of Gentiles was already realized as a Jewish impulse, especially in the context of a messianic community that believed in the present dawning of God's reign on earth. Gentile inclusion, then, was less an "if" than a "when" and a "how." How much had already changed because of Christ, and how much remained to be changed? At one end of the spectrum were those who thought that little had altered in the human situation; Gentiles would enter Israel as they always had, through proselytism into Judaism (e.g., the position of the "false believers"; Gal. 2:4). At the other end stood Paul, who believed that God had already created a new people without distinction between Jew and
Gentile (Gal. 3:28). This meant, practically, that the laws that had once separated the two groups (e.g., those compelling circumcision and regulating food) were now optional, even for Jews (1 Cor. 9:19-23). In between were perhaps the majority of Jewish Christian leaders, such as Peter and James (and quite likely Barnabas), who accepted uncircumcised Gentiles into the church but who did not believe that such acceptance signaled the end of the present age and its Law. After all, Israel itself had not yet been restored; therefore, while the reign of God might be anticipated by the presence of believing Gentiles, it is not yet fully realized. Paul got around this difficulty by arguing that Jewish unbelief had necessitated a reversal of the prophetic timetable. Now is the moment of Gentile ingathering, after which all Israel will be saved" (Rom. 11:25-32; cf. Acts 1:6-7). The present mission to the Gentiles is not foreshadow; it is substance, fueled for Paul by Gen. 12:3 and Isaiah (cf. Rom. 15:12, 21).
Gentile inclusion was neither a uniquely Christian innovation nor the dominant controversy within 1st-century Christianity. The more persistent Christian dispute concerned Jewish - not Gentile - legal obedience (e.g., the eating of certain foods by Jews; Gal. 2:11-14; cf. Matt. 15:1-20; Mark 7:1-20). Paul was accused not of preaching Christ to Gentiles, but of teaching disobedience to Jews (Acts 21:17- 26). In short, it appears that Jewish Christians could agree to admit uncircumcised Gentiles while still disagreeing as to the meaning and implications of that action. Practically, the phenomenon of shared meals in mixed churches required a decision: either Jews had to disobey the Law, or Gentiles had, at least on these occasions, to eat kosher.
Early Christianity should not be viewed in terms of the "Gentile question," nor should Judaism be regarded primarily as an obstacle overcome by true 1st-century believers. Controversy over Gentiles (and, as a consequence, over the Law) in the 1st-century church
developed only gradually and never included a wholesale repudiation of Judaism, even by Paul. The decisive event was the Jerusalem Council (ca. A.D. 50, 20 years after the founding of the church; Acts 15:1-29; Gal. 2:1-10), at which the leaders in Jerusalem agreed formally to the admission of uncircumcised Gentiles. For his part, Paul continued, however grudgingly, to recognize the validity and authority of the Jerusalem apostles (even in Galatians, e.g., 2:2).
Overtime, the Christian mission to the Gentiles succeeded, while the Jewish mission faltered (Rom. 9:1-13). With the destruction of Jerusalem in 70, the
center of Jewish Christianity was forever lost. The church was well on its way to becoming a Gentile institution. This earthshaking shift moved Christianity at least part way off its Jewish foundations, encouraging it to see Christianity as superseding Judaism, and opening it increasingly to anti-Jewish theological perspectives (e.g., Marcion and other gnostics). Ironically, it was Gentile - especially Gentile Christian - attitudes toward Judaism, and not the reverse, that soon would become the more historically important and morally urgent question.
CRAIG C. HILL
In cementing the case for justification by faith apart from works, Paul goes back to Abraham - long before the time of Moses and the Law. God reckoned Abraham righteous on the basis of his belief in God's promises. That he first exercised this faith before he became circumcised (as the sign of the covenant; Genesis 17) makes him the spiritual ancestor of the Gentiles. That he continued to exercise this faith by and after becoming circumcised makes him not only the physical ancestor of the Jews but their spiritual ancestor too. Just as Abraham's exercise of faith made him "right with God" before he received the sign of the covenant and before the Mosaic law even existed, so now does the exercise of faith in Jesus justify Jews and Gentiles alike after the giving of the Law and apart from obedience to it.
Paul now lists the benefits of justification: peace with God, hope (expectation) in God's glory (the second coming), and joy in persecution. Paul proclaims the wonder of Christ's dying - not for friends (John 15:13), nor even for good people - but for sinners. His ultimate sacrifice for them guarantees salvation (eternal life) for the justified - those who receive reconciliation with God through Christ's death on the cross.
In 5:12-21 Paul compares and contrasts the responsibility for initiating sin and righteousness through Adam and Christ, respectively. The sin of one man, Adam, morally tainted all humanity; the death of one man, Christ, justifies all people. Adam's initial act of sin inaugurated the reign of death and earned condemnation for humanity; Christ's one act of grace justifies multitudinous transgressors and initiates the reign of eternal life. The more sin, the greater God's grace.
6 Dying to Sin, Rising to Righteousness
Paul rejects the argument that a believer ought to continue sinning to multiply the grace of God (cf. 3:1-8; 5:19-21). Identifying with Christ through baptism means dying to sin, which he conquered through his death, and then rising to eternal life, symbolized by submersion and rising out of the baptismal water. The Christian should use one's mortal body as an "instrument of righteousness" rather than obeying bodily "lusts" - a warning no doubt clear to those living in morally decadent Rome.
The apostle also contradicts the argument that believers need not worry about sinning since God's grace will cover any penalty earned by unrighteous conduct. Emancipation from sin does not allow the believer to do whatever he or she pleases. Rather, slavery to sin (which earns eternal death) is exchanged for slavery to righteousness (with the free gift of eternal life and "sanctification" - being made godly).
7-8 Freed for Obedience
Christ's death also releases believers from the obligations of the Law, just as the death of a marital partner releases the surviving spouse from the bond of marriage. Paul attributes to the Law responsibility for arousing the fleshly passions that lead to sin. He distinguishes the Law from sin, defends the inherent goodness of the Law, and explains its noble function, namely, of awakening human beings to their sinfulness (through failure to follow the Law perfectly) and to the realization that they must rely on God's grace for salvation. Paul's selfanalysis in 7:9-11 parallels the account of the fall of Adam and Eve (Gen. 2:15-17; 3).
To illustrate that the Law itself is not sin but creates the opportunity for sin, Paul cites his personal struggles. He wants to obey God's law - which amounts to a confession of its goodness - but in fact does the opposite, so demonstrating his enslavement to sin against his will. Paul does not place the blame else where (7:17), nor does he consider the flesh inherently evil, as do the Greeks. Rather, he highlights the tyrannical nature of sin's rule over his body. His helpless, hopeless plight makes his and all humanity's moral emancipation by Christ all the greater cause for celebration. That in the flesh Christ defeated the ruler over the flesh seals the decisiveness of his victory and renders irreversible the condemnation of Tyrant Sin. Identifying with Christ transforms a condemned prisoner of sin into a fellow victor over sin (8:1). The believer's dwelling "in Christ" combines with indwelling by the Holy Spirit to enable "walking" in ways that bring the mortal body back to moral life (cf. John 14-15).
Paul enhances the attractiveness of exchanging slavery to sin for slavery to righteousness (cf. 6:15-23) by observing that believers, though still slaves, do not receive a "spirit of slavery;" which results in relating to God from an attitude of fear. Rather, they obtain a "spirit of adoption," which prompts relating to God as Abba" ("Father"). Unlike slaves, children enjoy inheritance rights, and the "glorification" willed by God to believers/heirs promises an eternal life so wondrous as to render their earthly sufferings a paltry price to pay. All creation, which suffers the fallout of human sinfulness, aches for the birth of redeemed humanity - which will also free creation from corruption (8:18-25).
Paul encourages believers by observing that the Holy Spirit represents (intercedes for) them before God the Father, that God "works all things together for good to those who love him," and that his elect can rest assured of their resurrection and eternal life (8:26-30). Verses 29-30 summarize the doctrine of "predestination," God's foreordination of individuals for eternity. Chapter 8 closes by celebrating the unbounded love of God, whose holiness uniquely qualifies him to condemn sinful humanity but who instead sacrificed his own Son to redeem it. No circumstance, no power, no distance can ever separate us from a love so great (cf. Ps. 139:7-12).
Panoramic view of the Roman Forum, the oldest of Rome's public squares, a complex of open spaces and government buildings, temples, and shops. (Wikimedia Commons)
9-11 The Inscrutable Ways of God
Paul laments the broken relationship between God and the Hebrew people, God's first elect. But he acknowledges that physical descent from Abraham does not guarantee salvation. That the line of Esau (the Edomites) legitimately claims Abraham as a forefather but falls outside the covenantal promises, reserved for the descendants of Esau's twin brother Jacob, illustrates Paul's point. It is not for humans to question their Creator's fairness in designating some for election but not others, for none deserve his mercy - neither the Jewish "remnant" nor Gentiles. As a nation the Hebrews sought to earn salvation by obedience to the Law instead of fulfilling its mandated works of righteousness through faith in God's redemptive promises. Christ's victory over sin and death releases Jews from the obligations of the Law and makes salvation available to Jews and Gentiles on the same terms: faith alone. People need to know of the availability of salvation, so Paul stresses the urgency of proclaiming the gospel (cf. Matt. 28:19-20).
Lest his audience think that God's enabling salvation for the Gentiles indicates his rejection of the Jews, Paul offers himself as proof that God has saved a Hebrew remnant. The offer of salvation by faith to the Gentiles instills jealousy in the Jews, which leads some of them to salvation by faith, too. For Paul, the Jewish apostle to the Gentiles, the prospect of indirectly leading some of his kinsmen to saving faith lends even greater significance to his ministry.
Nevertheless, Paul warns Gentiles against arrogance toward the Jews, whose role in the history of redemption functions as the root system supporting the salvation of those "grafted" on. If God cut off the natural branches from the tree (the unbelieving Jews from the promises of the covenant), he will not hesitate to cut off wild ingrafts. Nor is he unable to reintroduce the natural branches into the tree. In fact, he plans to do just this. The Jews' partial "hardening" (rejection of the gospel) buys time to ensure the salvation of all the Gentile elect (11:25). But in the end God will purify the Jews, too, according to his promise. In closing (vv. 32-36), Paul recognizes God's ultimately merciful purpose in allowing human sinfulness in order that he might show his faithfulness.
12:1-15:13 Practicing the Christian Faith
12 Relating to Friends and Foes Here Paul gives specific exhortations for the practical outworking of the Christian faith. The admonition to present one's body as a living sacrifice (12:1) flows from his discussion of dying to sin and rising to righteousness (ch. 6), his personal battle with mind over matter (7:14-25), and the victory won by Christ over sin. This victory enables the Christian's renewed mind to govern the behavior of the body and frees the flesh from imitating the sinful actions of nonbelievers (conformity to "the world").
Humility and mutual regard must characterize relationships among Christians, with believers exercising their varied gifts to support the functioning of the church, the "body" of Christ. Sincere love, abhorrence of evil, mutual devotion and respect, diligence in service, joy, perseverance, prayer, charitable support of fellow Christians, and hospitality comprise the particulars of Paul's prescription for relationships within the church. Toward non-Christians - even persecutors - believers must demonstrate a forgiving spirit, empathy, sympathy, nonvindictiveness, even hospitality, so that good gets the upper hand. Leaving vengeance to God prevents the Christian from being consumed by evil.
13 The Christian and Law When Paul exhorts Christians to obey the "governing authorities," put in place by God, he assumes the proper exercise of justice by those authorities - praising citizens for right conduct, punishing people for evil actions - and their devotion to serving God as rulers (vv. 3-4, 6). Insofar as they pursue these goals, they deserve financial support for their administrations, obedience to their laws, and moral support for their policies (cf. Matt. 22:15-22; Luke 20:21-25). The principle of love sums up the obligations of the Mosaic law and governs Christian conduct. The Law's prohibitions against harming others get intensified by Jesus, who prescribes taking neighborly initiative to ensure the welfare of anyone in need (cf. Luke 10:25-37). The surprising nearness of Jesus' return (= "salvation," v. 11) should rouse Christians to proper behavior, characterized by sobriety, sexual discipline, and relational harmony. The admonition to "owe nothing to anyone" does not prohibit taking out a loan or borrowing from a friend; rather, it prohibits defaulting on one's debts (v. 8).
14:1-15:13 Freedom and Responsibility Loving one's neighbor (13:10) may require the Christian to forgo personally acceptable practices to avoid influencing a fellow believer in ways that go against his conscience and thus for him constitute sin. When Paul discusses eating "anything" versus eating "only vegetables," and regarding "one day to be better than another," he appears aware of dissension between Jewish and Gentile Christians over the obligation to observe food laws and the Sabbath. That in large measure meat for sale in the Roman market came from animals sacrificed to pagan gods doubtless complicated for many Christians the question of acceptable fare (cf. 1 Corinthians 8). In the interest of harmony within the church, Paul prescribes gracious self-denial for Christians who can relax Mosaic rules without violating their consciences, and he forbids judgmentalism by all parties. In other words, follow your conscience, but unselfishly adjust your behavior to build up the faith of others, not tear it down; and leave the judging to God. Paul holds up Christ as the ultimate example of self-denial for
the sake of others (15:1-13). His was a complete self-sacrifice for the sake of all.
15:14-33 Paul's Calling
In closing, Paul notes that he has preached the gospel from Jerusalem all the way to Illyricum (on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea opposite Italy), reiterates his plans to visit the Roman church on his next intended missionary journey (to Spain), and talks ominously of his immediate trip to Jerusalem to deliver to its povertystricken church relief aid from the Christians of Greece (Macedonia and Achaia). Acts 21-28 tell how Paul got to Rome in a way unforeseen at the time he wrote Romans.
16 Greetings and Benediction
Phoebe, who may have carried Paul's letter to Italy, hails from the port city servicing Corinth, where Paul is composing his letter. His commendation of Phoebe to the Roman church suggests that she is moving to the imperial capital or visiting it. Paul met and worked with fellow tentmakers Prisca (short for Priscilla) and her husband Aquila during the apostle's second missionary journey (Acts 18). They had settled in Corinth after Claudius ousted Christians from Rome, but evidently they returned after the emperor's death. Paul's extensive missionary journeys throughout Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece brought him into contact with residents and no doubt fellow travelers from all over the empire, perhaps including some or all of the other Christians of Rome to whom he sends greetings.
Paul inserts a final exhortation to ignore wily troublemakers who try to disrupt Christian unity. He also conveys greetings from Timothy, the beloved coworker who joined Paul during his second journey (Acts 16:1-3; cf. the apostle's mentoring relationship with Timothy as indicated in 1-2 Timothy). Tertius identifies himself as the "writer" of Romans - not the author but the secretary (v 22). A closing benediction returns the reader's attention to glorifying the eternal, revealed, and only wise God.