Basic Terms
Basic Terms
Day and Watch The Hebrew word yom can be used to express "time" in general, but it was regularly used to mean "day" in the sense of a period of light and darkness, or the time of light alone. It is probable that a day in the Old Testament was the period of time from evening to evening (e.g., Passover, Exod. 12:6, 8,10,18; and the Day of Atonement, Lev. 23:32). A day was divided into four watches, each constituting a three-hour period (first watch from 6 to 9 a.m.). Finally, the Old Testament is clear that from early times a week equaled seven days. Six days were days in which work could be performed, but on the final day of the week labor was forbidden (Exod. 34:21; Lev. 23:3; Deut. 5:12-15). The seventh day was the only day that received a name, the Sabbath; in the New Testament the day before the Sabbath is called the day of Preparation (Matt. 27:62; Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54; John 19:31, 42). In some places the Hebrew word "week" actually refers to a period of seven years (e.g., Lev. 25:8; Dan. 9:24-27).
Month The Hebrew year was divided into 12 months, but their names are not consistent throughout the Old Testament. Some scholars argue that three distinct systems of month names are recorded in the Bible. (1) Some Canaanite months are named in the Bible: Abib, the first month (Exod. 13:4); Ziv, the second month (1 Kgs. 6:1, 37); Ethanim, the seventh month (1 Kgs. 8:2); and Bul, the eighth month (1 Kgs. 6:38). (2) In the parts of the Old Testament describing the schedule of festivals, usually only the number of the month is used. For example, Passover is on the 14th day of the first month (Exodus 12; Lev. 23:5; Num. 9:1-5) and the Festival of Tabernacles occurs from the 15th to the 21st of the seventh month (Num. 29:12-38). (3) The Hebrew equivalents of Babylonian months are named, once in Ezra, as well as in Nehemiah, Esther, and Zechariah. All these books were written after the Babylonian exile, and the Jews brought these names back from Babylon. The Babylonian months were lunar, and each new year began in the spring.
Year The basic year in the Old Testament did not consist of 365 days. Our present calen dar is based on a solar cycle, but the Old Testament calendar follows a lunar cycle. The Old Testament does not record how long a year lasted, and the date for the beginning of the year is difficult to determine. Scholars have argued from different sets of facts that the year began in either spring or autumn. It may be that the northern kingdom (Israel) began its year in the spring while the southern kingdom (Judah) began its year in autumn. By the time of Jesus, Jews were following a 364-day calendar, which was a combination of both lunar and solar cycles. This had made dating difficult at times. For example, the Last Supper occurs at sundown on Friday in Matthew, Mark, and Luke, but on Thursday evening in John; in John, Jesus was crucified at the time when the Passover lambs were being slaughtered.
Israel's Calendar
Jubilee The Year of Jubilee always began in the fall. It occurred every 50 years, and was considered a year of restoration. Hebrew slaves were to be released, debts were to be forgiven, and there was to be no planting or harvesting of crops. The Israelites were normally prevented from planting and harvesting every seven years, but the 5oth year was considered special - the end of a period of seven seven-year periods.
Special Measurements of Time
Occasionally in the Bible, certain numbers or methods, when used as a means of measuring time, are significant.
Forty Forty appears to have special significance in the measurement of time, and many important biblical events revolve around it. In general, 40 is the Bible's figurative way of saying "a lot" (1) Days. During the flood it rains for 4o days and 4o nights (Gen. 7:4, 12, 17; 8:6). Moses is on the mountain for 4o days and nights (Exod. 24:18; 34:28; Deuteronomy 9). The spies spend 4o days in the land of Canaan (Num. 13:25;1434). The prophet Elijah takes 4o days and nights to reach the mountain of God in Sinai (1 Kgs. 19:8). Jesus fasts 4o days and nights in the wilderness (Matt. 4:2; Mark 1:13; Luke 4:2). Jesus spends 4o days with his disciples prior to his ascension (Acts 1:3). (2) Years. Both Isaac and Esau marry at the age of 40 (Gen. 25:20; 26:34). The Israelites eat manna in the wilderness for 40 years (Exod. 16:35), the time of the entire wandering in the wilderness (Num. 14:33-34; 32:13; Deut. 2:7; 8:2; 29:5; Josh. 5:6). The Israelites are subject to the Philistines for 40 years because of their sinfulness (Judg. 13:1). Many of the kings are said to have reigned for 40 years (David, 2 Sam. 5:4; Solomon, 1 Kgs. 11:42; Jehoash/Joash, 2 Kgs. 12:1; 2 Chr. 24:1; Saul, Acts 13:21).
Three The third day appears to have been understood as a day of deliverance. Isaac is saved from death at Abraham's hand on the third day (Gen. 22:4). Jonah is delivered from the belly of the fish on the third day (Jonah 1:17). Paul's sight is restored after three days (Acts 9:9), and Jesus was raised on the third day (Matt. 16:21; Mark 8:31; 1 Cor. 15:4). Other instances of the third day are also important. The Lord appears at Sinai to deliver the commandments on the third day (Exod. 19:11, 16). Jesus feeds 4000 on the third day (Matt. 15:32). In general, three represents completeness (e.g., Gen. 40:13, 20; 42:18; Exod. 15:22; Josh. 1:11; 2:16; Ezra 6:15; Esth. 5:1; Hos. 6:2; Matt. 12:40; Mark 8:2; Luke 9:22; Acts 27:19).
Luke Unlike some other Gospels, Luke appears to be especially interested in measuring time. Luke is the only Gospel that gives Jesus' age at the beginning of his ministry (Luke 3:23). In addition to the traditional ways of measuring time in the Bible, Luke reckons time according to the method used by the Roman government. For example, we are told that the census was conducted during the reign of the Emperor Augustus and the governorship of Quirinius (2:1-2). Again, in the 15th year of the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, John began his ministry (3:1-3).
Indeterminate and Eschatological Time
Periodically, indefinite measures of time are important. For example, the word "immediately" is important to the narrative of Mark (e.g., 1:12,18, 20; 5:30; 6:25, 27, 45; 8:1o; 9:24; 14:43). It is less important in the other gospels. Likewise, the phrase "the next day" is used 53 times in the Bible to measure time's passage.
Eschatology is the doctrine regarding the end of time. With respect to this way of measuring time, the Bible uses several phrases. (1) Many scholars associate the day of the Lord (or Yahweh) with the religious practice of the re-enthronement of the king. Others say that this day has only to do with the end of time. In the prophets, the day of the Lord is seen as a day of judgment and deliverance (Isa. 13:6; Jer. 46:10; Ezek. 13:5; 30:3; Joel 2:1-2, 11, 31; Obad. 1:15; Zeph. 1:14; Mal. 4:5). In the New Testament this day is associated with the second coming of Christ (1 Cor. 5:5;1 Thess. 5:2; 2 Pet. 3:10). (2) An aeon is a long, distant, uninterrupted period of time, either in the past (Luke 1:70) or the future (John 4:14). As a Greek adjective, it means "eternal" (2 Cor. 4:18; Heb. 9:12,15), but nowhere is a clear distinction made between a limited and unlimited duration of time. The time between Easter and the second coming acquires importance as the aeon between "no longer" (Gal. 3:25) and "not yet" (Phil. 3:13). (3) Kairos is the decisive point of time, also known as the fullness of time (Gal. 4:4). It can also be used as a technical term (Luke 21:8; Rev. 1:3; 22:10).
FOR FURTHER READING
Marsh, John. The Fulness of Time. London: Nisbet, 1952.
Thiele, Edwin R. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. Rev ed. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1994.
MICHAEL JOSEPH BROWN AND CALVIN L. MARION