Weights, Measures, Money
The biblical text swarms with life. Goats, trees, bees, and bears form part of the background against which prose narrative tells stories and poetic passages draw inspiration. Occasionally, the created order occupies a more central role: a lion mauls, an oak tree snares, a donkey speaks! Such moments are brief, though, and nature returns to a more comfortable functionary or descriptive position: familiar images are pressed.
Hundreds of different words in the Bible refer to plants and animals. These are named and ordered along lines that appear ancient, pastoral, descriptive, and utilitarian. No modern ranking system of genus and species is found here. Animal life is conceived between the poles of domesticated and wild, the clean and the unclean. The ordering of plant life is less obvious but may be surmised; Gen. 1:11 contrasts the low-lying grasses (Heb.deshe) and herbs ('eseb) with the overarching trees (ets). Elsewhere, edible grains are contrasted with undesirable thorns and thistles (e.g., job 31:40; Heb. 6:7-8). Other categorical terms include the wild (nepesh hayyah), the creeping (remes), and the swarming (sherets) creatures of the creation account, or herds of sheep and goats (behemah), unfortunately translated by some as small cattle, (e.g., Eccl. 2:7). The term "beasts" (Heb. hayyah; Gk. therion, theriomacheo) metaphorically describes persons or forces hostile to God (e.g., Dan. 7:i-12; 1 Cor. 15:32; Rev. 11:7).
Some fairly specific terms are also found. Examples include the turtle-dove (Lev. 5:7), whose name in Hebrew (tor) possibly resembles the sound it makes, the eerie howler (tannim), believed to be the jackal, or the almond tree, literally, the waker (Jer.1:11), whose early blossoms announce the coming of spring. No classification of fish may be discerned, yet eight different Hebrew terms are translated as snake. Words that appear only once and without description are often very difficult to identify, although occasionally, as with the liwyatan (Job 41:1-34), additional description only adds to the mystery.
A Necessary but Challenging Study
These examples suggest why it is a challenging task to draw links between the text world of the Bible and the natural world to which it refers. It is a necessary study because it reveals how ancient people viewed, organized, and interacted with their natural en vironment. Interpreting and applying the text in a fair manner demands it. Yet it is a challenging study for several reasons. First, the natural world is enormous. Biblical texts address a space that sprawls from Spain to India, a distance of more than 4000 miles. Not surprisingly, an extraordinary range of habitats may be encountered. Second, habitats and populations change with time: urbanization, extinction, cultivation, and denudation limit the view from the present to the past. Third, until recently, archaeological excavation has often ignored material remains that help reconstruct past patterns of flora and fauna. This challenge is being met by new archaeological approaches that are more landscape-oriented and take into account ecofacts (seed, pollen, and bone) as well as artifacts. Finally, barriers of language and culture hinder hasty links and force confrontation with issues of local dialect and classification, poetic usage, and slang. As these challenges are met through personal experience, scientific research, and linguistic study, the identification of many plants and animals appearing in the Bible may be approached.
Four Biomes
Scientists classify into "biomes," ecological areas where climate, soils, plants, and animals are relatively uniform. While many distinct or blended biomes may be identified within the lands where biblical events occurred, these may be broadly organized into four groups for discussion: highland forests, Mediterranean shrublands, short grasslands, and warm deserts. A brief survey of these four biomes reveals not only a startling diversity of climate and landform, but also a departure point for identifying some of the more prominent plants and animals mentioned in the Bible.
Highland Forests Needle-leafed forests extend the length of Northern Europe and Asia. In the lands of the Bible, however, parallel conditions exist in subalpine areas of high ranges (e.g., Lebanon, Troodos, Pontic, and Zagros Mountains). The climate here is damp and cool to cold, with distinctive floral and faunal communities.
Climax vegetation in these forests includes coniferous trees of pine, fir, cedar, and juniper. In many cases, these were cleared in antiquity; only limited stands remain today. Biblical references allude to the height, strength, and value of the cedars of Lebanon (Cedrus libani; Heb.'erez), while the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and the highland juniper (Juniperus phoenicia) have yet to be positively identified in the Bible. At lower elevations these needle-leafed forests mix with and give way to broad-leafed forests.
Mixed broad-leafed forests exist in areas of southern Europe and press southward into the Levant as well as the Italian, Balkan, and Anatolian peninsulas. These regions resemble areas of eastern North America; temperatures and rainfall fluctuate and give rise to a biome rich in life. Climax vegetation includes the maple, beech, and oak. The latter (Quercus; Heb. 'elon), is noted in the Bible as a specimen or landmark tree (e.g., Gen. 13:18; 35:8) or part of a dense forest (2 Sam. 18:8, 9).
Wild animals of these needle-leafed and broad-leafed forests mentioned in the Bible include carnivores such as the bear (Ursus syriacus; Heb. dob), leopard (Panthera pardus; Heb. namer), and wolf (Canis lupus; Heb. ze'eb). Herbivores such as the chamois or ibex (Capra ibex; Heb. aqqo?) and wild sheep (Ovis musimon; Heb. zemer?) are also found and have been prey for humans and beasts alike.
Mediterranean Shrublands Mediterranean shrublands ring the Mediterranean seaboard from the Levant to Spain and create the most familiar landscape to the reader of the Bible. Here winters are short, mild, and wet, while summers are long, dry, and hot. These conditions both foster and isolate an enormous variety of life forms and encourage the dynamics of localization, or endemism, that complicate the task of identification. But these forces also offer enormous opportunities for food production and help explain the attraction and intensity of human settlement.
Apart from the high oaks that continue intermittently from the highlands, trees and shrubs found here tend to grow in dense thickets or maquis. These often include the pistachio or terebinth (Pistacia palaestine; Heb.'elah, 'allah), carob (Ceratonia siliquia; Gk. keration), myrtle (Myrtus communis; Heb. hadas), fig (Ficus carica; Heb. te'enah; Gk. sykon, syke), pomegranate (Punica granatum; Heb. rimmon), fig-sycamore (Ficus sycomorus; Heb. sigma; Gk. sykomorea), and other companion species, often with droughtresistant features. Prickly thorns, thistles, nettles, and brambles also grow readily but are difficult to identify with certainty. Some 70 species have been identified within the borders of modern Israel alone.
Mediterranean shrublands have been regularly occupied and cultivated. Many vegetables, herbs, and fruits thrive here and are mentioned in the Bible. Lentils and beans are attested (Heb. 'adashim, pol, and possibly 'edom; Gk. keration), as are onions (Heb. batsal), garlic (Heb. shumim), melons (Heb.'abattihim), cumin (Heb. kammon; Gk. kyminon), dill (Heb. qetsah; Gk. anethon), and mint (Gk. hedyosmon). Beyond these, the olive (Olea europeae; Heb. zayit; Gk. elaia) and grape (Vitis vinifera; Heb. `enab; Gk. staphyle) have been intensely propagated and exploited. The wood, fruit, and oil obtained from olive trees are key products for understanding human ways of life in Mediterranean shrublands. Similarly, the grape was domesticated at an early date and eaten directly or processed as raisins, vinegar, and wine. Oil and wine were viewed as blessings from God (Deut. 7:13) and formed an integral part of sacrificial and celebratory activities.
Animals facilitated trade, traction, and transport and supplemented diet in Mediterranean shrublands. The donkey is well known (Equus asinus; Heb. hamor, atop), as are the horse (Equus caballus; Heb. sus), or mule (Heb. pered, pirdah), ox (Bos taurus; Heb. shor), pig (Sus scrofa; Heb. hazir), sheep (Ovis orientalis; Heb. kebes) , and goat (Capra hircus; Heb. `ez). Camels (Camelus dromedarius; Heb. gamal) also moved across the land in packed caravans.
Wild animals explicitly associated with Mediterranean shrublands include the fox (Vulpes palaestinus; Heb. shual), the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena; Heb. tsabua), the dog (Canusfamiliaris; Heb. keleb; Gk. kyon), and the lion (Panthera leo; Heb. 'ari). The crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus; Heb. tahash?) may also be mentioned here as part of a unique wetland community.
Short Grasslands Short grasslands are temperate zones dominated by short-grass prairie, steppe, or veld. These areas are transitional, positioned between Mediterranean shrublands and warm deserts. Short grasslands are found in stretches of modern Jordan, Israel, Syria, central Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. Here soil moisture in the dry season is insufficient to support a high canopy; hence, trees are widely scattered or focused in drainage systems. Despite the challenging climate, however, flora in the short grasslands is extremely diverse.
From a biblical perspective, wheat (Triticum; Heb. hittah) and barley (Hordeum; Heb. se'orah) are most significant. Winter grasses were domesticated at an early date and regularly planted, harvested, and eaten throughout the biblical period. Kernels of wheat and barley were used for bread, gruel, or beer.
Many flowers are found in short grasslands but are difficult to identify precisely in the Bible. Hebrew shoshan, literally whiteness, is translated lily (e.g., 1 Kgs. 7:26; Song 2:2) but may refer to any number of plants, including the narcissus (Narcissus tazetta) or the daisylike chamomile (Anthemis nobilis). Interestingly, a good candidate for the rose of Sharon (Heb. habatstselet) may actually be the tulip (Tulipa sharonesis).
Nubian Ibex (Ester Inbar, Wikimedia Commons)
If Mediterranean shrublands are characterized by the presence of farmers, short grasslands may be characterized by the presence of herders. Here flocks of sheep and goats moved regularly in season, plying the edges of this zone of possibility. Flocks devoured the stubble of harvested grain fields and left valuable fertilizer in their wake. Undoubtedly, other grazers and browsers also took advantage of these grasses, including deer (Cervus capreolus; Heb. 'ayyal) and gazelle (Gazella gazella; Heb. tsebi). The cheetah (Acinonyxjubatus) is also home to this area but is not clearly identified in the Bible.
Warm Deserts Semidesert or desert regions of the Bible lands extend across North Africa and the Arabian peninsula and include broad areas of Jordan, Iraq, and Iran. Extremely and conditions limit resources and encourage competition that may challenge or eliminate life in this unique biome.
Few large animals are found here, with the notable exception of the camel and perhaps the ostrich (Struthio camelus; Heb. bat ya`anah). More common are small creatures like the jerboa (Heb. `akbar), the hyrax (Procavia capensis; Heb. shapan), or a variety of lizards and snakes (cf. Lev. 11:29-30).
As with fauna, adaptive strategies allow flora to survive in the harsh desert environment. Water management techniques and the ability to tolerate saline soils allow the date palm tree (Phoenix dactylifera; Heb. tamar; Gk. phoinix) to grow abundantly and produce shade and fruit. Branches and leaves from this tree were used for building booths (Lev. 23:40) and were waved by the people when Jesus entered Jerusalem (John 12:13). The acacia tree (Heb. shittim) is another hardy desert plant; acacia wood was used in constructing the tabernacle and other sacred objects (Exodus 25-26). Finally, gum resin trees (Boswellia sacra and Commiphora myrrha) of the dry heights of South Arabia were carefully harvested for frankincense (Heb. lebonah) and myrrh (Heb. mor; Gk. murra, smyrna).
Conclusion
Biblical writers demonstrate a keen awareness of the natural world and view it as a wonder of creation (cf. Psalm 104). Flora and fauna are regularly mentioned and integrated into the text. Exotic and imported items, such as peacocks or baboons (1 Kgs. 10:22), the "balm of Gilead" (Gen. 37:25), or cinnamon (Exod. 30:23) from the Far East, testify to far-flung trade connections and demonstrate the continuing challenge of this necessary study.
FOR FURTHER READING
Borowski, Oded. Agriculture in Iron Age Israel. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1987.
Every Living Thing: Daily Use of Animals in Ancient Israel. Walnut Creek: Altamira, 1998.
Hareuveni, Nogah. Nature in Our Biblical Heritage. Kiryat Ono: Neot Kedumim,1980.
MARK ZIESE