1 and 2 Kings

1 and 2 Kings

1 and 2 Samuel take their name from the eminent prophet, not because he authored them but because he represents the first of the books' three main characters to appear. Indeed, the figure of Samuel dominates the first dozen chapters of this originally one-volume work. The Septuagint (the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible) first separated Samuel and Kings into two books each and called the resulting four volumes the "Books of the Kingdoms." 1 and 2 Samuel are considered part of the Deuteronomistic History, which extends through 1 and 2 Kings. The books of Chronicles offer another version of the history recounted in Samuel and Kings (see "The Two Histories" [229-30]).

1 Samuel

The events of 1 Samuel take place from about midway through the 11th century to 1000 B.C. The book includes the familiar accounts that describe Hannah's impassioned prayer for a son; Eli's recognition of God's nighttime call to the boy Samuel; David's slaying of Goliath; the friendship between David and Jonathan; Saul's hostility toward his rival, David; and Saul's tragic suicide on Mount Gilboa. Beginning with Samuel's anointing of Saul as king and then of David,1 Samuel traces the early years of monarchy in Israel.

Chapters 1-12 develop Samuel's rise to national, spiritual leadership to replace the wayward priests of Eli's household. Chapters 13-31 center on Saul's rise and fall while weaving in accounts of David's military skill and its psychological effect on the king. Saul's disobedience in ch. 15 results in his ultimate inability to do any right in God's eyes, while David can do no wrong. The overarching theological theme of the book thus contrasts the results of disobedience, which leads to disaster, and obedience, which leads to blessing.

2 Samuel

2 Samuel focuses on the career of David, the "man after God's own heart" (cf. 1 Chronicles 11-29). The book takes the shepherd-champion from self-imposed exile among the Philistines to kingship, first over Judah and then over all the tribes at the beginning of the loth century. It shows how David centralizes Israel's government and religion in the strategically located city of Jerusalem, but it also details Absalom's rebellion, which temporarily forces the king out of the capital.

During David's reign, a united kingdom of Israel pushes its boundaries to their farthest extent in the nation's history. God's covenant with the king includes the promise of a Davidic dynasty, which gives birth to prophecies concerning the Messiah and which finds its ultimate fulfillment in Jesus. 2 Samuel also shows David's sinful side, most notably in his adultery and treachery involving Bathsheba and her husband Uriah. Yet this king's humble, contrite heart and his willingness to accept God's punishment both distinguish him from his predecessor, Saul, and preserve his favored status in God's eyes.

The final chapters include two of David's psalms. Chapter 24 recounts David's purchase of land that will later become the site for Solomon's temple.

Authorship

While the author-editor of the books remains anonymous, he may have incorporated some of Samuel's own writings (i Sam. 10:25) along with material from other prophetic sources (2 Sam. 1:18; 1 Chr. 29:29), as well as the poems David quotes in 2 Sam. 1:19-27; 22:2-51; 23:2-7. 1 Samuel 27:6 suggests that the work was composed after the monarchy had divided (after goo). Although some scholars argue for a late, 6th- century date, a consensus suggests two or more stages of editing, with completion likely in King Josiah's day (late 7th century). Further additions may have come during the Babylonian exile.

Text

Difficulties exist in establishing the original Hebrew text of certain passages. Differences between the Hebrew (Masoretic) text and the Septuagint contribute to the problem, and the Greek sometimes agrees with the text of a much older (and therefore presumably more original) Hebrew manuscript of portions of 1 Samuel found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (iooo years earlier than the Masoretic Text). Nevertheless, many of the differences are minor. Despite the textual questions, the message of 1 and 2 Samuel - God's activity in accomplishing the ultimate purposes of his kingdom, despite Israel's desire for a monarchy "like the nations" - remains clear and intact.

1 Samuel

1 Hannah Prays for a Son

In her childlessness, Hannah keeps company with women who figure prominently for eventually bearing sons who fulfill important roles in Israel's covenantal history. Sarah, Rebekah, and Rachel - the mothers of Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph - all wanted God to reverse their barrenness to remove the social stigma attached to childless wives. Like Sarah, who became the object of Hagar's contempt (Gen. 16:5), Hannah must endure the taunts of her husband's other wife, Peninnah, who, though apparently less loved than Hannah, nevertheless has achieved respectability through bearing children (cf. Leah, Gen. 29:30-35). But Hannah's willingness to commit her son to lifelong service of God in a location that affords her only annual contact with him shows that her desire for a son is far greater.

Hannah utters her petition and vow silently at God's tent shrine in Shiloh, unaccompanied by her husband Elkanah but within earshot of the high priest Eli. Because Israelite worshippers normally prayed out loud, and because Eli sees Hannah's lips moving but hears no sound, he mistakes her prayerful abandon for drunken stupor. In explaining her purpose to Eli, how ever, Hannah does not reveal the substance of her petition, and only she knows about her promise.

God honors Hannah's prayer for a son; and, after nursing him for three years, she honors her vow to dedicate the boy, Samuel, to God's service by leaving him in Eli's care at the Shiloh sanctuary. Elkanah demonstrates both his love for Hannah and his own personal piety by supporting his wife in her resolve to fulfill the vow (v. 23). From the time he first learns of Hannah's pledge, Elkanah recognizes that God's claim on Samuel is greater than his own.

2:1-10 Hannah's Song of Praise

Before leaving for home without her young son, Hannah acknowledges God's goodness to her. Behind Hannah's poetic expression lies her struggle with Peninnah (esp. v. 5; on the blessing of "seven" children, cf. Ruth 4:15), yet Hannah's thoughts extend far beyond her own circumstances to praise God for his holiness and stability (v 2), knowledge (v 3), power (vv. 9-10), and his reversal of the fortunes of the weak and the poor (vv. 4, 7-8). The reference to "his king" in v. 1o probably reflects a later editorial hand.

2:11-36 The Fate of Eli's House

The opening verses set the ministerial activities of "the boy" Samuel in stark contrast to Eli's corrupt and spiritually ignorant "sons of Belial" (= "worthless men"). Hophni and Phinehas make a mockery of the priesthood and the sacrificial system by disregarding the laws that regulate their right to a share of the offerings made to God (Num. 18:8-20; Deut. 18:1-5) and by using their position and power to satisfy their own selfish desires (esp. vv. 16, 22). Their ritual transgressions go far beyond those of Aaron's sons, and God will punish them in the same way (cf. Lev. 10:1-2).

Hannah and Elkanah remain involved in the life of their son Samuel (vv 18-21), who performs his ministerial duties properly (v. 26). This account contrasts their influence on Samuel and the lack of authority Eli wielded over his sons. Verse 25 attributes Hophni's and Phinehas's ignoring their father's reproach to God's determination to do away with them for their continued sin (cf. God's hardening of Pharaoh's heart; Exod. 4:21; 7:3).

An unnamed prophet ("man of God," V. 27) reveals to Eli that God will hold him responsible for the midsirected priesthood of his sons. In foretelling the massacre at Nob (ch. 22), V. 31 harks back to the theme of the divine reversal of people's fortunes displayed in Hannah's song. While v. 35 appears to refer to Samuel as the "faithful priest" whose "house" God will establish to replace Eli's line, it is actually the high priest Zadok who embodies the fulfillment of this prophecy during David's reign (2 Sam. 8:17). "My anointed" N. 35) refers to the Davidic line of kings.

3 Samuel Becomes God's Prophet

At this time in Israel's history God rarely communicated directly with his people, so neither Samuel nor Eli immediately understands when God summons Samuel's attention. The young boy's call to prophetic office occurs just before dawn while he dutifully attends his watch over the sanctuary lamp, which will soon need refilling after burning all night (Lev. 24:1-4). God informs Samuel of his plans for Eli's uncontrolled

priestly house, and when the boy relays God's words the aged priest resigns himself to God's promised judgment (v. 18; cf. 1:23). Remarkably, Eli neither attempts to change God's mind by forcing change on his sons nor apologizes for his own failure. Though the priestly power remains for a time with Eli and his sons, Samuel's reputation as a prophet of the Lord spreads throughout Canaan. Samuel's prophecies reach fulfillment because of God's presence with him (v. 19).

4 The Philistines Capture the Ark

The powerful Philistines, who controlled Canaan's southern coast and monopolized the iron industry, engage the Israelites in battle in the territory of Ephraim (cf. Judges 1). The Philistines' decided victory puzzles the Israelite leadership and prompts them to send for the ark of the covenant, God's symbolic throne normally housed in the tabernacle, for they believe God's presence in their camp will ensure victory in a coming confrontation with the Philistines (cf. the arks presence at the battle of Jericho; Joshua 6).

That Eli's evil sons accompany the ark on the 20-mile journey from Shiloh to the Israelites' war camp is an omen of disaster. Not only do the Philistines again emerge victorious, they also capture the ark. The accompanying deaths of Hophni and Phinehas fulfill God's foretelling in 2:34, and Eli's fatal fall from Shiloh's city gate upon hearing of the ark's capture completes the fulfillment of God's judgment on this family. Verse 18 places Eli in the line of judges who ruled Israel.

Phinehas's widow becomes an indirect casualty of the curse on Eli's house, for she dies in childbirth brought on by the devastating news about her family and the ark. Her parting words lay greater emphasis on her grief over the removal of God's presence from Israel than on the death of her husband, and she does not even find comfort in the birth of her son, whom she names to commemorate the disastrous day (Ichabod, "Where is the glory?"). Her recognition of God's "departure" contrasts with the Israelites' assumption that God would fight for his people regardless of their faithlessness.

5 God Among the Philistines

Lest the the Philistines' capture of the ark be seen as a sign of God's weakened power, ch. 5 reveals the opposite. The Philistines' initial fears about the might of Israel's God are realized in the form of sickness and death similar to the plagues God inflicted on the Egyptians (cf. the golden mice in 6:4, which suggest bubonic plague). Their powerless idol, Dagon, whom they undoubtedly credited for their victory over the Israelites, cannot even stand in God's presence (vv. 3-4). Offering the ark in worship at Dagon's feet results first in the statue's falling prostrate before God's throne and then in the "mutilation" of Dagon in a manner similar to the fate of a captured king (cf. Judg. 1:6-7). Thus the Philistines' apparent victory in capturing the ark turns into a curse and creates in them great fear and dread.

6:1-7:2 The Ark Returns to Israel

The Philistines take seven months to circulate the ark between their five cities before they decide to send it back to the Israelites. Still wondering whether the disasters outlined in ch. 5 represent coincidences or judgments by Israel's God, the Philistines devise a plan to determine the answer. Their religion allows them to recognize gods other than their own, so their leaders advise offering before the ark golden representations of the plagues the Philistines have suffered since the ark's arrival among them. The offering both acknowledges to God the Philistines' guilt in dishonoring him and pays him valuable tribute. So the Philistines send God away with riches in an attempt to escape further punishment (cf. Exod. 12:35-36).

The Philistines hoist the ark onto a cart hitched to two cows that have never been yoked. The direction the cows take while listening to the cries of their new calves will resolve the Philistines' question concerning the cause of their affliction. God's overruling the cows' natural instinct to return to their young by instead returning his throne to the Israelites would prove his hand in the recent catastrophes. The removal of the golden objects that represent the Philistines' suffering would end the plagues through a form of sympathetic magic.

The ark's unguided arrival in Israel's Levitical town of Beth-shemesh confirms for the Philistines that indeed God had caused the disastrous events of the previous seven months. The people of Beth-shemesh welcome the ark's return and sacrifice to God the cows that brought it. But some curious Beth-shemites peek into the sacred covenant box and pay with their lives. God will tolerate neither the paganism of the Philistines nor the covenantal transgressions of his own chosen people. Fearing further divine judgment, the Beth-shemites pass the ark off to a sister town, Kiriath-jearim, a few miles north. The ark remains in Kiriathjearim and never returns to Shiloh.

7:3-17 Samuel's Leadership Effects National Change

Eli's death left a 20-year leadership vacuum in Israel and cleared the way for Samuel's emergence as the nation's new spiritual shepherd and her last judge (vv. 6, 15-17). Samuel does not hesitate to call the Israelites to repentance and fidelity to God alone, and the people respond by deserting their adopted foreign gods on the promise of deliverance from Philistine oppression. Samuel's prophetic words receive fulfillment in the Philistines' military challenge of Israel at Mizpah, when God again acts on his people's behalf, even without the ark. Samuel sets the Israelites' current conquest at Mizpah over against their past defeat by naming a commemorative victory monument after the site of their previous slaughter by the Philistines (Ebenezer, "stone of help"). Israel benefits from God's covenantal faithfulness throughout Samuel's life (which includes most of Saul's reign), presumably because he continues to keep them on the path of obedience to God. Israel regains possession of its border towns between the two inland Philistine cities of Ekron and Gath, and Samuel exercises regular, judicial authority on his annual circuit of Israel's four sanctuary towns, which include Samuel's ancestral home of Ramah.

Judges and Kings of Israel and Judah

Leadership in Israel was exercised by different people in different offices performing different functions. The major leadership positions were those of prophet, priest, king, and judge. Prophets were mouthpieces for God, speaking directly for him about conditions in the present and in the future. Priests were spiritual intermediaries between God and the people, offering sacrifices on their behalf and providing spiritual leadership and direction.

Moses was the first judge recorded in the Scriptures (Exodus 18). He helped to resolve all the people's disputes, providing judicial opinions based on God's laws, but this was an inefficient model, as his father-in-law Jethro pointed out to him. He urged Moses to set up representative judges who would handle most cases. Moses instructed them in God's laws, and he decided the most difficult cases himself.

Later, judges were primarily military-style leaders raised up on an "as-needed" basis during the centuries immediately following Israel's entry into the land of Canaan under Joshua. Most did not normally hold court, listen to complaints, or make legal decisions in the manner of Moses or modern-day jurists. The typical judge was primarily a leader who delivered the nation from foreign threats or oppression. God raised up successive judges in response to the people's distressed cries for help. Judges 2:16 provides a key

to understanding who they were: And the Lord raised up judges, who delivered them from the hand of those who plundered them." Deborah was a significant exception to this, because, in addition to the military role she played (Judges 4), she did render judicial verdicts under the "palm of Deborah" (Judg. 4:4-5). Samuel was the last of the judges, and he also performed both roles (1 Samuel 7).

Many scholars have seen a distinction in the roles or offices of judge. The "major" judges are seen as charismatic, military leaders, whose primary function was to deliver Israel (Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson), and the "minor" judges (Tola, Jair, lbzan, Elon, Abdon) are seen mainly as juridical leaders, whose major function was to dispense justice.

The case is not as clear as many would have it, however. The Scriptures themselves do not mention such a distinction. Also, the account of Jephthah occurs in the midst of those of the so-called "minor" judges, carrying many features of these short reports, and yet he is clearly a "major" judge by virtue of his activity. Also, both Othniel (Judg. 3:9-10) and Tola (10:1-2) not only "judged" but also "delivered" Israel, as did Deborah and Samuel. The terms "major" and "minor" are useful primarily in describing the length and style of the narratives that inform us about each judge, not in distinguishing between functions they performed.

Israel's kings came after the judges. God had promised the patriarchs that kings would be part of their heritage (Gen. 17:6, 16; 35:11; 49:10), but the first kings did not appear until centuries later. They were to be models of spiritual devotion as they led the nation. Gideon's son Abimelech set himself up as "king" by killing 70 of his brothers in an abortive grab for power (Judges 9), but the first recognized king in Israel was Saul. He disqualified himself by his actions (1 Sam. 13:13-14; 15:26-29), leading to the anointing of David. God promised David that a descendant of his would always remain on the throne (2 Samuel 7).

The model for royal leadership is found in Deut. 17:14-20. Here God instructed Israel to appoint as king someone whom he would choose, who was an Israelite (not a foreigner). The king was not to accumulate horses (i.e., military power) for himself, wealth, or many wives, in order that his heart should be properly oriented to God rather than to these things. The key to success for the king was that he should write for himself a copy of the Law and obey it himself. In this way, the king would model for the people how to live.

When Israel did ask for a king, the great irony is that it was for a king to "judge" them (1 Sam. 8:5). In other words, they were asking for a king to do for them what the judges did: deliver them militarily. This is confirmed by their words later, when they repeated their request for a king to judge us and to go out before us and fight our battles" (1 Sam. 8:20). Of course, the people had already known military deliverance under the judges. But the judges were raised up by God to fight on an as-needed basis, while in asking for a king the people were requesting a standing army ("like the nations") and a large bureaucracy, as Samuel warned them (1 Sam. 8:11-18). This would prove to be a heavy burden and tempt the people to trust in the king, rather than in God. Up to this point, God's people had been regularly delivered by the leaders whom he chose, whether they were the judges or individuals such as Moses or Joshua. Now, however, they desired to look to the kings for their deliverance.

The kings certainly were to have military responsibilities, as seen, for example, in the successes of such good kings as David (e.g., 1 Sam. 18:14; 30:6; 2 Sam. 5:19, 25; 8:6,14) and Hezekiah (2 Kgs. 18:7-8), but their military successes

ultimately came from the hand of God. When the Israelites asked for a military-style king, they were "deposing" God as their king and warrior. The institution of kingship was something that God certainly favored, in the right time, but the type of king that Israel asked for - one that flew directly in the face of the instructions given in Deuteronomy - made their request wrong and constituted a rejection of God himself (1 Sam. 8:7).

The united kingdom established under Saul was relatively shortlived: it lasted only 120 years and then was divided into two because of Solomon's disobedience (1 Kings 11-14). The northern kingdom, Israel, had 19 kings, all of whom were wicked, and God eventually allowed this kingdom to perish (2 Kings 17). The southern kingdom, Judah, lasted longer, was more stable politically, and consisted entirely of descendants of David. It had 20 kings, 12 of whom were wicked, eight of whom were good.

Judah survived many political

ups and downs, and even exile, because of God's promises to David, typified by this one: "Nevertheless, for the sake of his servant David, the Lord was not willing to destroy Judah. He had promised to maintain a lamp for David and his descendants forever" (2 Kgs. 8:19 N IV). After the exile, there were no more kings sitting on a political throne in Jerusalem, but the line of David was still alive, in the person of Zerubbabel (Ezra 3:2; Matt. 1:12). The hope of the restoration of the Davidic house is a theme found in the Old Testament prophetic books as well (e.g., Amos 9:11-15; Isa. 11:1), and it is brought to fruition with the coming of the ultimate Davidic king, 'Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham" (Matt. 1:1). The royal promises first given to the patriarchs were now completed.

DAVID M. HOWARD, JR.

8 The People Demand a King

The text now skips to the latter years of Samuel's life. Samuel's sons have perverted the judicial system as Eli's sons did the priesthood, and the people use the current corruption in Beer-sheba as an excuse to demand a human king. Behind their demand lay the continued Philistine threat, and their rejection of God's kingship demonstrates an unwarranted lack of faith in God's ability to prosper or even sustain them as a nation.

God sees his people's rejection for what it is, but he resigns himself to giving them what they think they want. Before appointing a king, however, God through Samuel gives Israel a chance to change its national mind-set by spelling out the consequences of a centralized government for the individual Israelite: military draft, forced labor, taxation, and tyranny (all of which conse

quences came about under Solomon). In effect, the Israelites' own human king will become their oppressor.

Despite the warning, the people insist on a king, and now they express the real reason behind their demand: they want to "be like all the nations." The Israelites' idea of a human king as judge and military leader contrasts sharply with the ideal God emphasizes in Deut. 17:14-20, yet he decides to grant their wish. The people still recognize God's authority enough to demand that his prophet Samuel appoint a king over them rather than acting completely independently of God's direction.

9:1-10:16 Samuel Anoints Saul Privately

The account of Saul's appointment as Israel's first king demonstrates that God remains in control of his people's affairs and that, in answering their demands, he does things his way. God chooses as king a man who will embody his people's ideal for a leader, yet whose ancestry and personality make him a surprising choice. Saul appears ignorant of his countrymen's demand for a king and of Samuel's identity (9:18-19). When the prophet ("seer"; 9:11) hints at Saul's political future, Saul reacts with surprise by acknowledging his humble position not only in relation to the Israelite nation but even within his own tribe (9:20-21).

Saul's seemingly childlike innocence highlights the dramatic change that comes over him when Samuel's prediction of Saul's prophetic, spirit-filled experience comes true in the kingdesignate's hometown of Gibeah (10:5-11). Saul's fellow townspeople notice the surprising transformation and find it so hard to believe that they crack sarcastic jokes about him (10:11-12).

All the while, God is working behind the scenes. He directs events to ensure that Saul and Samuel will meet. Samuel's typical Near Eastern hospitality includes boarding Saul in his spare room - the flat roof of his house (9:2526). Through Samuel, God gradually reveals his plans for Saul's future. Finally, God confirms the legitimacy of Samuel's private anointing of Saul as ruler over "his [God's] inheritance" (1o:1) by bringing to pass Samuel's predictions concerning Saul's future (10:9). The account reveals that Samuel's leadership includes priestly activities, which he performs at "the high place," one of the open-air shrines that preceded the temple (9:12; 10:13).

Saul's private anointing complete and confirmed, his public anointing remains, and this will signal the formal beginning of his duties in delivering Israel from Philistine oppression and in governing God's people (9:16-17; cf. David's public and private anointings, 16:1-13; 2 Sam. 2:4). For now, Saul keeps his political future to himself (10:16).

10:17-27 Saul's Public Appointment as King

Samuel indicts the Israelites for rejecting God's direct rule and announces the imminent fulfillment of their demand for a human king. Lots are cast, and Saul is publicly appointed ruler over Israel. Saul's physical stature, commonly viewed as a qualification for leadership, outweighs his timidity, evident by his hiding among the military baggage to avoid detection. By choosing Saul, God appears to be mocking his people for their foolishness in choosing human frailty and foibles over divine power and faithfulness. Yet God has already begun to engender the Israelites' sincere and active loyalty to Saul (vv 24, 26). Samuel's briefing in V. 25 initiates the Israelites into their contractual relationship with the man who will rule them as king.

11 Saul's First Military Test

The first test of Saul's leadership comes in an Ammonite military threat against Jabesh-gilead in the Transjordanian territory of Manasseh. Deflated from fear, the Jabesh-gileadites offer to break their covenant with God by making a treaty with the Ammonites. But the Ammonites' terms involve mutilation, and their potential victims are reluctant to comply. Foolishly the overconfident Ammonites allow passage through their lines to the besieged city's messengers, who cross the Jordan to seek military backup from their kin.

The messengers find their Saul doing manual labor, but God's spirit again transforms the timid, gentle giant, this time into a fiery general. Saul summons a pan-Israel fighting force by distributing the cut-up bodies of two oxen (cf. Judges 19). On the surprisingly large number of troops that Saul musters, cf. Exod. 12:37-13:16.

Saul and his men realize success in delivering the Jabesh-gileadites, in part because the latter lead the Ammonites to believe they are about to surrender (v. 1o). The victory confirms in the Israelites' minds Saul's fitness to serve as king, and Saul justifies his generosity toward those who doubted him earlier by attributing the military accomplishment to God. The Jabesh-gileadites later demonstrate their undying gratitude by honoring Saul's dead body (31:11-13).

Gilgal, site of Israel's first camp after crossing into the promised land and a town on Samuel's annual judicial circuit, provides the setting for Saul's public inauguration. Yet the entire episode portrays Saul more as a judge than a king.

12 Samuel's Final Address

Samuel's stern speech marks his final public appearance in the narrative, which will afterward focus on Saul's activities as king. Samuel speaks against kingship, not against Saul, and the foundation for his criticism of the Israelites' demand for a monarch rests in their rejection of God as their king (v. 12).

Samuel first establishes his own upright behavior with respect to his leadership of Israel (vv 3-5; contrast 8:11-18). He then emphasizes God's past provision of leaders to deliver Israel from oppression: Jerubbaal (= Gideon), Barak, Jephthah, and Samson.

Israel's disobedience in serving the Canaanite fertility gods (v. 10) is the reason God has sold them into oppression by foreigners. Samuel warns that having a king will not save them from future subjection if they continue their sinful, idolatrous ways. The Israelites may have a monarch, but God retains absolute control over their destiny.

Samuel's message receives dramatic confirmation through an unseasonable thunderstorm, which he calls on God to produce as a sign of the validity of his prophetic words (cf. v. 17). The downpour convinces the Israelites to repent of their request for a human king, but their change of heart will not reverse the political course on which they have already embarked. Samuel pledges his continued intercession for the Israelites and reassures them of God's abiding faithfulness, but he ends by repeating the devastating consequences of faithlessness (vv. 22-25). Verse 20 echoes the encouragement to heartfelt service of God prevalent throughout Deuteronomy (e.g., Deut. 10:12).

13:144 Saul Oversteps his Bounds

Chapter 13 pictures a permanently changed Saul. Instead of pursuing pastoral chores, he now spends his time battling the Philistines with the help of his officer-son, Jonathan. After an initial defeat, the Philistines muster a substantial and well-equipped fighting force ("thousand" may indicate a military unit, rather than a number), and the Israelites begin to wilt. Behind the scenes, Samuel still appears to aid God's direct ing of Saul's military engagements. But Samuel's tardiness in bringing God's counsel regarding Saul's current efforts against the Philistines prompts the desperate king to substitute for the prophet by offering sacrifices in an attempt to bolster the courage of his dwindling forces, who flee to hiding places. Saul's presumptuous ritual act betrays a disregard for Samuel's divinelybestowed authority over him and dooms any dynastic dreams Saul might have entertained. David will be the "man after [God's] own heart" alluded to in v. 14 (cf. Acts 13:22).

Gibeah, Saul's hometown and the headquarters of his monarchy. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

These events take place in the hill country of Benjamin presumably toward the beginning of Saul's kingship. Control of Gibeah and the strategic Michmash pass meant control of the entire Aijalon Valley to the west via the trade routes. The Hebrew text of verse 1 is incomplete regarding Saul's age and the years he reigned as king.

13:15-14:52 Jonathan's Victory at Michmash

Saul neither repents nor retreats for overstepping the bounds of his authority, and he continues to prepare for war with the Philistines.

The Philistines' monopoly on iron-working supplies them with superior weaponry and puts the Israelites at a military disadvantage (cf. Judg. 1:19), but Saul unites his fighting contingent with Jonathan's at Gibeah to generate strength in numbers. Unbeknownst to Saul, Jonathan and his armor-bearer sneak out of camp to confront the Philistines at the Michmash pass. Jonathan anticipates victory over their "uncircumcised" enemies (14:6). His great faith in God despite being outnumbered 10 to 1 (14:14) and the test he applies to discern God's will (14:8-13) recall Gideon's exploits against the Midianites and Amalekites (Judg. 6:36-7:23).

Puzzled by the confusion and havoc his watchmen observe in the Philistine camp, Saul discovers Jonathan's absence and summons Ahijah to help discern the meaning of the situation by using the priestly "ephod" that contained the Urim and Thummim for casting lots (following the Greek text; cf. 14:3). But Saul stops Ahijah short and sends his troops in pursuit of the fleeing Philistines.

The troops eagerly eat the meat of their spoils without draining the blood, thus violating the commandment in Lev. 17:10-14. Yet it is Jonathan's unwitting sin of eating before evening that transgresses the oath under which Saul had earlier in the day put his troops and prevents God's communication with Saul when the king finally gets around to discerning the Lord's will (14:24, 27,37-38). The casting of lots determines Jonathan as the sinner, and the Israelites must intervene to save their human deliverer-of-the-day from his own father's determination to put him to death for violating the oath, albeit involuntarily. The troops' hailing of Jonathan's heroism over his father's military accomplishments and Saul's resolve to kill his son foreshadow the tense relationship that will develop between Saul and David. The parallel that develops between Saul's heir, Jonathan, and Jonathan's replacement, David, underscores God's denial of dynastic succession for Saul as punishment for his disobedience in 13:8-14 (cf. 18:6-9;19:1).

Chapter 14 ends by summing up Saul's military exploits over Israel's neighbors in Transjordan (Moab, Ammon, and Edom) as well as the Philistines in Canaan and the desert-dwelling Amalekites. A brief genealogy names the members of Saul's nuclear family, including his son Ishvi (short for Ishbosheth), whom Saul's army captain, Abner, later sets up as king to rival David (2 Sam. 2:8-10); and Saul's daughter

Michal, whom he gives in marriage to David (18:20-29).

15 God Rejects Saul as King

By disregarding the ban (cf. Joshua 6) applied to the battle with the menacing Amalekites (v 3), Saul loses God's confirmation as Israel's king. God announces his rejection of Saul to Samuel, who grieves over the reversal of Saul's fortunes and whose duty it becomes to confront Saul with the news. Saul protests his own compliance with God's command regarding the ban (vv. 13, 20) and deflects responsibility for sparing the best of the spoils on his troops, to whom he attributes righteous motives for doing so (vv. 15, 21). Only after Samuel challenges Saul with God's preference of obedience over sacrifice does Saul confess his sin, brought on by his weakness under pressure from "the people" (v 24).

But Saul's admission offers too little too late, and his reluctance to repent from willful disobedience to God's clear command stands in sharp contrast to Jonathan's ready acceptance of responsibility for unknowingly violating an unreasonable oath imposed in his absence by his father (14:24-30, 43). With divine approval withdrawn, Saul seeks honor from his fellow humans (v. 30). Samuel symbolically completes the ban by "hewing to pieces" the spared Amalekite king Agag before the prophet and the alienated king return to their respective homes, never to meet again in public.

16:1-13 Samuel Anoints David

With Saul still functioning as king, God selects a successor to please not the people but himself. The text reveals a number of parallels between Saul and David: both lack social power; both are found tending their fathers' animals; both appear handsome; both are initially anointed in private; both are empowered by the spirit of the Lord following their anointing (cf. 9:1-10:16; Judg. 3:10). But God's choice of David ignores both his outward advantages and disadvantages and instead considers the state of David's heart, which parallels God's own (v 7; cf. 13:14; Deut. 10:12-16). This initial ritual of setting David apart signals the beginning of his divine preparation for national leadership. Once again, a youngest son is elevated to a divinely-favored position (cf. Abel, Jacob, and Joseph).

16:14-23 David Enters Saul's Court

When the spirit of the Lord empowers David, that same spirit departs from Saul, and God causes an evil, terrorizing spirit to take its place. The switch occasions the beginning of a personal relationship between Saul and David in which David endears himself to Saul through his calming music, played on the harp. Verse 18 also extols David's valor as a warrior, undoubtedly as part of Israelite efforts against the Philistines (ch. 17), and foreshadows his future military successes, which far exceed Saul's own and which unintentionally undermine his relationship with the current king (18:7).

17 David Defeats Goliath

The well-known account of David's confrontation with Goliath pictures David as the classic embodiment of faith in God and zeal for his honor. David's past exercise of superior strength in defending his father's sheep (vv. 34-36) undergirds his confidence that God will empower him to defend the name of "the living God" by doing to Goliath what the insulting giant vows to do to him (vv. 44 and 46). David's faith contrasts sharply with the nation's general forgetfulness of God's mighty acts on their behalf, and his faithfulness prompts God to trust him for the task.

Relief from the main temple of Ramses III at Thebes showing a captured Philistine warrior. (Erich Lessing / Art Resource, NY)

Sent by his father to deliver lunch to his three eldest brothers, the youthful David publicly expresses his disgust at Goliath's taunts and so earns the rebuke of his siblings. Against all human odds and to the dismay of the trembling Israelite king and army, the comparatively unarmed David approaches the metal-clad giant and announces his impending doom. David's opening proclamation of faith underscores that his seemingly impossible victory belongs to God.

Saul's query regarding David's family heritage seems odd here in light of 16:18-19 and in view of David's already established role as Saul's personal musician and armor-bearer. Suggested solutions consider the possible use of different sources for chapters 16 and 17 and the likelihood that Saul wanted to confirm his intended son-in-law's support.

18 David's Success Breeds Saul's Jealousy

Jonathan fosters with David a friendship so deep that he, in effect, voluntarily hands over to David his place as crown prince in the symbolic act of giving David his robe, armor, and weapons. Recent attempts to see David's and Jonathan's intimate friendship as a homosexual relationship lack an accurate cultural understanding of male-to-male relationships in the ancient or modern Near East.

David's military success, with the accompanying acclaim of the people, breeds the opposite reaction in Saul, and the divinely rejected king becomes uncontrollably jealous. Saul's attempts to spear David fail completely, and the king's further plots to ensure David's death in battle against the Philistines only further strengthen David's military position and public popularity. Saul even offers his daughters in marriage to David as a means to ensure David's eventual death in military service against the Philistines. Not only does David realize twice the success required by Saul to win Michal's hand, he also enjoys Michal's love (vv 25-28). Added to Jonathan's affection for David, Michal's love for him further fuels Saul's intensifying jealousy, and Saul finally recognizes God's presence with his eventual replacement (v. 28).

That Saul can only fear David for his success (esp. vv 8-9), rather than embrace him for it as the people and Saul's family do, shows the king's attempt to deny God's rejection of him (13:13-14; 15:26-29). Saul's continued, desperate grasping for power cannot thwart God's continued tearing of the kingdom from him - a certain eventuality symbolized in Saul's own tearing of Samuel's robe (15:27).

19-20 David and Jonathan Part

Both Jonathan and Michal show their devotion to David in acts that protect him from their murder-bent father. Jonathan twice tries to reason with the king. His initial success in convincing Saul not only of David's innocence but also of his faithful service turns sour when Saul's black mood returns and causes him to make another attempt on David's life (19:1-10). Using the household idol as David's bedridden double, Michal helps her husband escape through a window. David finds temporary refuge in Ramah in the company of Samuel and his school of prophets, whose infectious prophesying foils the mission of three sets of Saul's henchmen before the pursuing king himself falls into ecstatic frenzy (19:18-24; cf. 10:11).

David secretly seeks from Jonathan a reason for Saul's rage (20:1). The friends agree on a means to confirm Saul's posture toward David: Saul's reaction to David's absence from the dinner table for the feast day that marked the beginning of the new month (20:5) would reveal the king's true intentions. Jonathan also devises an archery signal to communicate the answer to David (20:18-22), and the two make a solemn covenant that honors their binding friendship by keeping both their "houses" from using political power and military might against each other (20:16-17; cf. 18:3).

Saul rejects Jonathan's explanation for David's empty seat and immediately suspects his son of foolishly forsaking him for the fugitive (20:27-30). In his rage, Saul turns his spear on his own son. Jonathan communicates the bad news to David by the previously agreedupon sign, and the fast friends grieve their good-byes (20:35-42). Ironically, Saul's desperate efforts to strengthen royal power and preserve public popularity secure only increasing alienation from his closest family members, his most faithful supporter, the prophet who first anointed him, and ultimately God himself (esp. 22:6-19).

21:1-22:5 David on the Run

David loses no time in fleeing from Saul. The defenseless fugitive heads for Nob, probable successor to Shiloh as the site of Israel's central sanctuary. Ahimelech, chief priest at Nob, accepts David's story about Saul's having hastily sent him and his companions on a secret mission (21:2, 8). In good faith, Ahimelech supplies the needy band with food from the sanctuary normally only allowed to the priests (Lev. 24:5-9), assuming that David and his men have kept themselves ritually pure for holy war by abstaining from sexual intercourse. Ahimelech also gives David a weapon that the renowned warrior has used before - the sword of Goliath (17:51). But Doeg, a servant of Saul, overhears and will later make Ahimelech pay for his unintended treason against the king (21:7; cf. 22:18-19).

The southern coast of Canaan, controlled by the Philistines in the 12th-13th centuries B.C. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

David hastens west out of Israelite territory in hopes of avoiding recognition among the Philistines of Gath. But David's high military profile has gained him the reputation of "king of the land" (21:11), and only his feigned insanity leads the local king, Achish, to discount the apparent madman's potential threat (cf. the Hebrew title of Psalm 34).

Heading east once again, David enters his native Judahite territory. There he gathers his father's household and a sizeable group of sympathizers before proceeding across the Jordan into Moab (home of his ancestress, Ruth; Ruth 4:13-17; Matt. 1:5-6) to deposit his parents in relative safety beyond Saul's reach. At the prophet Gad's prompting, David returns to Canaan, where the obsessed Saul continues his relentless pursuit.

22:6-23 Saul's "Ban" against Nob

Saul's personal insecurity turns into full-blown paranoia, and his fears of isolation become self-fulfilling prophecies as he becomes increasingly blind to reality. The king imagines David lying in ambush and suspects his servants and son of conspiracy (vv. 8,13). Doeg resurfaces by tattling on the priest Ahimelech (21:7; cf. the heading of Psalm 52), whose protestations of innocence fail to save him or his fellow priests from the sword. In contrast to Saul's disobeying God's earlier command to destroy the Amalekites totally (15:3, 24), the king here orders his own "ban" against the priests and inhabitants of Nob and thereby fulfills the prophecy against Eli's house foretold in 2:27-36. By carrying out the slaughter of priests through Doeg, Saul has now cut himself off from God's counsel and has provided David with a personal line of communication to God in the form of Ahimelech's son Abiathar, the sole surviving escapee, who seeks refuge with the guilt-ridden David.

23 David Keeps Moving

Saul's attack on Nob, a city that he is dutybound to protect, contrasts with David's assuming the royal task of delivering the Keilahites from the Philistines. But David does not take this initiative without first seeking God's

advice, presumably through Abiathar and the ephod (vv 9-12). Though the Keilahites surely felt grateful to David, their fear of Saul's wrath would have sidelined their gratitude when Saul's army arrived at the city to capture their deliverer (v. 12). Kept on the move, David and his growing band of mercenaries (v. 13; cf. 22:2) seek safe haven in the southern wilderness of Judah, where Jonathan has no trouble finding his fugitive friend, in contrast to the futile efforts of his father. Jonathan's encouragement reveals his conviction that David's destiny consists in succeeding Saul as king. That Saul also shares this knowledge makes his pursuit of God's chosen heir to the throne all the more desperate and vain (v. 17).

Perhaps to protect their scarce sources of food and water in the wilderness, the Ziphites pledge to hand over David and his 6oo-strong militia to Saul, who sits in state at Gibeah. But again God thwarts Saul's efforts to capture his prey, this time by diverting the king's military attention to a timely Philistine raid (vv. 26-27).

24 David Spares Saul's Life

The mountainous region of En-gedi, which rises steeply from the western shores of the Dead Sea at its north-south midpoint, provided ample hiding space for David and his band. Seemingly by coincidence, Saul stops in the exact cave where his intended targets have holed up (v. 3). Resisting the urging of his men to take revenge on the king, David discreetly cuts off a corner of the unsuspecting Saul's robe as the king relieves himself in the darkness (v. 4). Even this minor act against "God's anointed" disturbs David's conscience, however, and he feels compelled to reveal himself to Saul after the king's departure from the cave puts some distance between them (vv. 5-8).

David's words and actions acknowledge Saul's authority. He calls Saul "my lord;' "the king, "the Lord's anointed," and "my father," and falls facedown on the ground in total submission (vv. 8-11). By revealing his exact whereabouts, David also makes himself completely vulnerable to potential attack by Saul's army. But David also holds up the severed corner of the robe as evidence of his righteous intentions toward Saul (v. 11), and, for the moment, David's words convince the king both of David's innocence and of his morally superior right to the throne (vv. 17-20). Deeply moved, Saul abandons his current pursuit of David, whom he even calls "my son" (v. 16), but not before exacting a pledge to preserve the lives of Saul's descendants (vv. 21-22), who will carry on the family name.

25 Abigail Intervenes

The tension between David and Saul at least temporarily relieved, the text makes a surprisingly brief mention of Samuel's death (v. 1) and quickly moves on to picture David's continued independence from Saul even in the absence of support from the high-profile prophet. David's men have voluntarily guarded the shepherds and flocks of the wealthy Calebite Nabal, the apt meaning of whose name ("fool") soon becomes evident. Since the sheep-shearing season has arrived, Nabal's stocks are up, and David requests from Nabal payment in goods (food) for protective services rendered. Though Nabal spurns David's request, the "worthless man['s]" (vv 17, 25) wife Abigail recognizes David's destiny (v 28) and secretly sends a generous repast. By dismissing Nabal as an insignificant fool and assuming the blame for the ingrate's stingy behavior, Abigail affords David opportunity to save face for failing to punish her husband by generously bestowing on her his forgiveness of Nabal's house N. 35). Abigail's gift, humility, and words of blessing defuse David's hostile intentions so completely that he eagerly marries Abigail after God himself takes vengeance on Nabal by punishing him with untimely death N. 39).

Abigail's intelligent intervention prevents David from initiating a blood feud with his fellow countrymen (vv. 26, 31) and so ruling out important alliances with Judahite clans that could provide David with military and political support. Instead, by taking Abigail and Ahinoam in marriage, David seals such alliances with his tribesmen - alliances made all the more essential by Saul's dissolving the marriage between David and the royal daughter Michal, presumably to remove any trace of

his rival's rightful inheritance of Saul's throne (v. 44).

26 David Spares Saul Again

For a second time, the Ziphites betray David's whereabouts to Saul, whose renewed jealousy sparks another hunt for the renegade band in the Judean wilderness (cf. 23:19-20; heading of Psalm 54). David sneaks into the camp of Saul and his army, who slumber in a "deep sleep from the Lord" (vv. 7,12), accompanied by Abishai, son of David's stepsister Zeruiah.

In resisting Abishai's urging to slay "the Lord's anointed" (v. 9; cf. 24:6), David reserves for God any righteous vengeance on Saul (v. io). But again David takes evidence of his opportunity to do Saul in (vv. 12, 15-16). Again he reveals his position in confronting Saul with his innocence (vv. 17-20). Again he acknowledges Saul's authority by addressing him as "my lord," "the king," and "the Lord's anointed" (vv. 17, 20, 23). Again Saul repents of his evil intentions toward his "son" (vv. 17, 21, 25), whom he blesses and whose ultimate success he predicts (v. 25). Saul even calls himself a "fool" (v 21), possibly foreseeing a fate like that of Nabal (ch. 25).

27:1-28:2 David Returns to Gath

David accuses Saul of driving him out from Israel's landed inheritance (26:19). He acts on this conviction by departing for Philistine territory, where he, his men, and their families receive the welcome of none other than Achish of Gath (27:1-2), who once before underestimated David (21:10-15). Achish must know that Saul considers David his enemy, so David again easily dupes the Philistine king by pretending to be a traitor to Israel, whose king has sought to kill him. From Ziklag, just west of the southern Judahite frontier and bordering on its south enemies of both Israel and the Philistines, David destroys cities and tribes that threaten the Judahites. But he convinces the gullible Achish that he is raiding his own native nation and her allies. David continues to indebt himself to his Judahite countrymen by carrying out bans that even Saul has failed to enforce (27:9).

28:3-25 Saul Consults a Medium

Having given up his hunt for David, Saul leads his army to the northernmost end of the hill country, opposite which the Philistines have gathered to prepare for battle on the Jezreel plain, where their chariots would give them a military advantage N. 4). God's final rejection of Saul as king becomes evident in his complete silence toward Saul's inquiries concerning the impending confrontation. In desperation, Saul ventures incognito perilously close to the Philistine camp to consult a medium (vv. 7-8), whose reluctance to grant her unrecognized king's request stems from his earlier having outlawed such practices (v. 9). But conjure she does, and the apparition of Samuel betrays Saul's identity to the astonished medium (v. 12). Perturbed at the disturbance of his afterlife, Samuel chastises Saul (vv. 16-18) before prophesying Saul's death and the Israelites' defeat the next morning (v. 19). The medium kills her fatted calf and forces a symbolic last meal on the totally deflated king before he departs to face his own slaughter (vv. 23-25).

29 David Relieved from Duty

The note that the Philistines muster at Aphek, in the Ephraimite lowlands well south of the Philistine army's current objective at Shunem, just north of Jezreel, indicates that the events of this chapter occurred prior to those in chapter 28. Because the Philistine king Achish trusts David so completely, he includes the presumed defector and his men in the military contingent he contributes to the impending battle against Saul. But the other Philistine commanders display more justified suspicion regarding David's potential to turn against them in the fray, and they pressure Achish into sending David back home to Ziklag before continuing their northbound march (v 4; cf. 27:6). In this way, David avoids even the slightest hint of responsibility for Saul's death in the coming battle. He can also keep up his pretense with Achish without having to oppose his own countrymen militarily.

30 David Raids the Raiders

David returns to Ziklag to find it plundered and burned by the Amalekites. At God's word and with the help of an abandoned Egyptian slave, whom the Amalekites left to die, David and his men catch the celebrating raiders off guard, slaughter the lot, and repossess their stolen families, flocks, and goods. David gives some of the livestock captured as battle spoils to his increasingly indebted Judean countrymen, who also suffered in the Amalekites' raid (v 26; cf. 1, 14). The Amalekites, who became a stumbling block for Saul (28:18), serve as David's alibi in denying potential accusations of his involvement in the death of Israel's king during the simultaneous battle between Saul and the Philistines (ch. 31).

31 Saul's Suicide on Mount Gilboa

Cf. 1 Chronicles 10.

Despite the serious character flaws that Saul increasingly displays, the king's heart never appears despicably wicked to the core; therefore, his defeat (v. 1), suicide (v 4), and the humiliating treatment by the Philistines of his decapitated body (vv. 9-10) seem all the more tragic. Saul's sole honor in death comes at the hands of the Jabesh-gileadites, who bravely demonstrate their gratitude for Saul's first act of deliverance as God's anointed king (ch. 11). Though David had promised not to wipe out Saul's house (24:21-22), the Philistines jeopardize the preservation of Saul's name by slaying three of his sons, including the brave and faithful Jonathan (v 2).

2 Samuel

1 David Laments Saul and Jonathan

The focus now turns back to David, who has returned to Ziklag after destroying his Amalekite enemies while the Israelite-Philistine battle takes place in the north. In 1 Samuel Saul's and David's treatment of the Amalekites contrasts the two leaders (compare 1 Samuel 15 with 30), but here an Amalekite ties the men together by making the ioo-mile journey from Mount Gilboa to Ziklag to bring news of Saul's death to his successor. Apparently a resident alien in Israel (v. 13), this foreign messenger claims ultimate responsibility for Saul's death as an act of mercy (vv. 9-10; contrast 1 Sam. 31:4-5). Perhaps his less-thanhonest story represented an attempt to endear himself to the expected successor to the throne by demonstrating loyalty to David over his former oppressor, Saul. Whatever the Amalekite's reason, David's grief over the loss turns to anger at the man's claimed presumption to destroy "the Lord's anointed" (vv. 11-14; contrast 1 Sam. 24:6; 26:11), and, already assuming a kingly posture, David orders the Amalekite's execution (v. 15).

The national lament that David chants mourns the divinely rejected King Saul. It seeks to preserve respect for Saul by keeping from his Philistine enemies the news of his death in battle (v 20). The song curses Canaan's Mount Gilboa, where Saul died and where his leather shield was not even "anointed" with oil to keep it from drying out and cracking (v 21). It also remembers the intimate, brotherly relationship between David and Jonathan (v 26; cf. 18:1ff.). The poem was included in the book of Jashar, a lost collection of songs honoring Israel's war heroes (cf. Josh. 10:13).

The pool of Gibeon, focal point of the civil war following the death of Saul. (www.HolyLandPhotos.com)

2 The Beginning of Civil War

With Ziklag destroyed and Saul dead, David sees his opportunity to return to his native Judah, but he does so only at God's direction (v. 1; cf 1 Sam. 23:9-12). David's careful cultivation of his tribe's support even during his self-imposed exile (1 Sam. 30:26-31) now pays off as Judah (which by now probably incorporated Simeon) immediately makes David its king (v. 4; cf. Samuel's private anointing in 1 Sam. 16:13). David's official expression of gratitude to the Transjordanian Jabeshgileadites for their rescue and burial of Saul's body shows that David believes himself the rightful heir to the throne over all the tribes (vv. 5-7).

But probably in an attempt to retain his military power, Saul's army commander, Abner, whisks off Saul's surviving son, Ishbosheth (substituted for his actual name, Ishbaal, "man of Baal") to the Transjordanian city of Mahanaim and sets him up as an easily manipulated pawnking over the northern and Transjordanian tribes (vv. 8-9; cf. 3:6-11). (Because "baal" refers to the Canaanite fertility-god, later scribes substituted "bosheth;" "shame"; cf. Eshbaal/ Ishbosheth, Meribbaal/Mephibosheth.) The inevitable struggle for total control of the country begins in Gibeon near the Benjamite-Judahite border by agreement between Ishbosheth's and David's power-brokering army commanders. Twelve each of Abner's and Joab's soldiers face off at the "pool of Gibeon" (a 37 ft. wide, 35 ft. deep cistern, attested archaeologically) to engage in representative, hand-to-hand combat to determine the undisputed king. But because all 24 combatants kill each other, the conflict fails to decide the winner. Joab's men gain the upper hand in the fighting that follows (vv. 12-17).

Painted jug with characteristic Philistine artistic motifs; from a tomb at Tell el-Farah (Sharuhen), 12th century B.C. (Israel Antiquities Authority)

Forced to flee, Abner pleads with Asahel, Joab's brother and David's nephew, to cease his personal pursuit (vv 21-22). The request reflects Abner's desire to avoid initiating a blood feud with his countryman and military counterpart Joab, as does Abner's later encouragement of Joab to restrain his army from further fighting (v. 26). Asahel's refusal to let up leads to Abner's unintended killing (suggested by his use of the butt end rather than pointed end of his spear; V. 23) of the son of David's stepsister Zeruiah.

With Asahel slain, the fight becomes personal, and the third brother, Abishai, joins Joab in pursuing Abner. The uniting of the Benjamites with Abner's retreating but now well-positioned army produces a formidable fighting force, and Joab ultimately agrees to quit the present conflict while he is ahead (vv. 25-28, 30-31). He will soon seize another opportunity to avenge his brother's death (3:2027). While Joab and his forces return to David at his first capital in Hebron, one of the cities of refuge, Abner and his men march through the Jordan Valley (the "Arabah" here) and back to Ishbosheth, but a two-year civil war will follow (vv 29, 32).

3 Abner's Defection and Murder

Abner surely senses his waning power against Judah (v. 1), and Ishbosheth's challenge concerning Abner's alleged claim on a concubine the puppet-king inherited as part of his father's harem N. 7) pushes the army commander over the emotional edge. Abner may have orchestrated this opportunity to pick a fight with the weaker Ishbosheth (cf. v. ii) and provide an excuse to defect to David ("a dog's head for Judah" in v. 8 means "a contemptible supporter of David"). Abner vows to deliver the nonJudahite tribes to the southern king. David's only possibility for making a covenant with Abner is to regain Saul's remarried daughter, Michal, as his wife (cf. VV. 2-5; 1 Sam. 18:20-29; 25:44). Marriage to Michal will have politically symbolic value in validating David's kingship over the northern tribes. David and Abner seal their agreement by sharing a covenantal meal in Hebron (v. 20).

When Joab learns of the occasion, he accuses Abner of spying. Joab orders the surrendering soldier brought back and then kills him to avenge Asahel's blood (vv. 26-27, 30). Unaware of the plot until Joab had carried out his murderous plan, David again avoids responsibility for spilling the blood of a countryman (v. 28; cf. 1 Sam. 25:26ff.). His sincere words and deeds counter any possible rumors that he had ordered his commander to carry out the vicious crime.

David's curse on the house of Joab includes conditions that rendered a person ritually unclean (discharges and skin diseases) and the charge of "women's work" (= "holds a spindle"; V. 29). He requires Joab and his contingent to join him in mourning Abner and in giving the fallen commander a proper burial. The Judahite king's honoring of his former opponent wins the respect of the northern and Transjordanian tribes (vv. 36-37). David leaves the punishment of his nephew Joab to God (v 39), but he resents Joab's actions for years to come (cf. 1 Kgs. 2:5).

4 Ishbosheth's Assassination

Abner's death initiates a ripple effect that first causes Ishbosheth to lose his nerve and then grows into national dismay (v. 1). Two unit commanders seize the chance to assassinate the pitiful northern king with the expectation that their revenge on the house of Saul will gain reward from David, the obvious successor to the northern throne (v. 8). David despises their deed, however, and "rewards" them with execution (vv 9-12). He honors his "righteous" rival Ishbosheth by burying his severed head in the still fresh grave of the late king's murdered commander, Abner (cf. 3:27, 32).

5 David Unites His Nation

Cf. 1 Chr. 11:1-9, 14.

The northern tribes voluntarily unite with Judah under David (vv. 1-3). Five years after Ishbosheth's death, David moves his capital to a more central location between the northern and southern tribes by defeating the Jebusites of Jerusalem's seemingly invincible stronghold. They taunt that even their blind and lame could successfully defend it (vv. 6-9; Millo, "filling;" is the steeply sloped area that the Jebusites terraced to build their city). Jerusalem ("Zion;' v. 7; the "City of David," v. 9) lay on the border of Judah and Benjamin, and this Canaanite prize remained under Judah's control for the next four centuries. Verse 8 suggests that David's soldiers mounted a surprise attack by sneaking into the city through a shaft that extended from Jerusalem's water source, which lay outside its fortifications, to a pool within the city walls.

The Phoenician king Hiram, who reigned 979-945 B.C. from his seaport capital Tyre, formally recognizes Israel as a new regional superpower (v. 11; cf. ch. 8). He will later contribute valuable goods and services to help build Solomon's temple (1 Kings 5-7). The Phi

listines, however, remain determined to defeat their formerly presumed ally. David continues to acknowledge God as the source of his success (v. 12; cf. V. io) and to seek divine direction in his confrontations with his most pressing enemies (vv. 19, 23; cf. 2:1; 1 Sam. 23:9-12). He further strengthens his kingdom by sealing additional alliances through marriage to Jerusalemite women (v. 13), though the rivalry that develops between his sons by multiple mothers will cause him constant grief (cf. ch. 13).

6 Jerusalem Becomes Israel's Religious Center

Cf. 1 Chronicles 13, 15-16.

Having established Jerusalem as his nation's political capital, David now moves to make the city Israel's religious center as well. He first moves to the new capital the ark of the covenant, which remained in Kiriath-jearim (called Baale-judah in v. 2; cf. Josh. 15:9) after its brief sojourn among the Philistines (i Sam. 4:1-7:1). In fear and anger, however, David temporarily abandons his plan when God strikes dead one of the guardians of the ark (v. 3) for touching the sacred box in an attempt to protect it (vv. 6-9). Significantly, David does not appear to consult God about the move, and the resulting death of Uzzah shows that God will not blindly bless David's every action.

Eventually, David brings the ark to Jerusalem amid much fanfare and celebration. In his wife Michal's eyes, the scantily clad king humiliates himself in his public display of joyful abandon (v 20). That both God and David reject her rebuke becomes evident in her lifelong barrenness (v. 23), which keeps her from providing a Saulide heir to the Davidic throne and thus feeds the future rivalry between David's sons by his other wives.

David's centralizing of Israel's government and religion distinguish him as a king in the true, ancient Near Eastern sense. Saul, though called a king, functioned more as an Israelite judge. Solomon, who fails to inherit his father's ability to compromise for the sake of his nation, will emerge as more of a tyrant.

7 The Davidic Covenant

Cf. 1 Chronicles 17.

Having spent many years freeing his country from outside military threats, David now finds time to ponder domestic issues. Through the prophet Nathan, God cancels David's plan to replace the mere tent that houses God's throne with what David considers a proper home. David's dream house for the divine appears unimportant to God N. 7), but he rewards David's sincere and honorable intentions by establishing a covenant with the well-meaning king. This covenant builds up David's "house" by ensuring the preservation of a Davidic dynasty (esp. vv. 12 and 16; see "Covenants" [141-44]).

David responds in humility (esp. v. i8) with an outpouring of praise on behalf of the nation (vv. 23-24) and full acceptance of God's plan, which indicates that a descendant of David (one who is not a warrior but a man of peace; 1 Chr. 22:7) will build the house the king has envisioned (v. 13). David does not abandon his dream, however, and he later lays the groundwork for the project by providing his successor with materials, architectural plans, and instructions for coordinating temple services, such as music and worship (i Chr. 22:2ff.; 28:iiff.).

God's promise to establish the Davidic dynasty forever does not die with the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar's conquest of Judah in 587/86, for this covenant gives birth to Israel's hope for the Messiah and finds its ultimate fulfillment in Jesus, born in David's hometown of Bethlehem and "of the house and lineage of David" (Luke 2:4).

8 A Summary of David's Victories

Cf. 1 Chronicles 18.

Recorded here are David's victories in securing peaceful borders for Israel (cf. 7:1). The placement of this chapter immediately after God's establishment of the Davidic covenant demonstrates that God had already been fulfilling those promises (esp. vv. 9-11).

David's harsh treatment of the Moabites in Transjordan (v. 2) seems odd since he had

entrusted them with the safety of his parents when Saul was seeking his life (1 Sam. 22:3-4).

Verses 3-10 mention kingdoms north of Israel as far as the Euphrates River. David recognizes the divine origin of his victories (v. 6; cf. v. 14) by dedicating the valuable war spoils and tribute to the Lord (vv. 11-12). Verse 12 summarizes the king's victories geographically before vv. 13-14 return south to Edom and the Valley of Salt (probably the area south of the Dead Sea).

Verses i5-i8 list David's military and religious officials (cf. 20:23-26). Ahimelech, son of Abiathar, the lone priest of Nob to escape Saul's slaughter, has inherited his father's priestly position and shares the office with Aaron's descendant, Zadok (v. 17). By appointing both a northern descendant of Moses and a southern Aaronide as chief priests, David wisely unites the nation religiously as well as politically. The Cherethites and Pelethites (v. 18) are Philistine mercenaries. Though David's sons may have performed some priestly functions, the parallel verse in i Chr. 18:17 focuses on their political role as "chiefs" or "heads."

9 David Restores Mephibosheth

Seeking a way to honor his close friend Jonathan in death, David summons Jonathan's lame son Mephibosheth (Merib-baal), whose nurse had saved him from those who killed his uncle, King Ishbosheth (4:4). David goes beyond his promise not to wipe out Saul's descendants and name (1 Sam. 24:21-22) by restoring the late king's family property (in Benjamin) to this sole-surviving male descendant, thus ensuring the unbroken participation of the "house" of Saul in the promised covenantal inheritance. David essentially adopts Mephibosheth by providing for him a permanent place at the palace table.

David may have brought Mephibosheth to Jerusalem to keep a watchful eye on this potential heir to the kingship. The emphasis here, however, is David's generosity toward the late Jonathan. Mephibosheth's physical limitation makes him a highly unlikely rival to the throne.

10 Israel Defeats the Ammonite/ Syrian Alliance

Cf. 1 Chronicles 19.

Misunderstanding of David's offer of support for the new Ammonite king Hanun results in full-scale war against an AmmoniteSyrian alliance. Joab and his brother Abishai successfully rout both foreign armies, but the Syrians regroup for another battle. Defeated again, the Syrians make peace with Israel and resist future Ammonite calls for military aid. This second battle may represent the conflict in 8:3-5.

Whether David had other motives in sending his ambassadors to Hanun (maintaining a peace treaty with the Ammonites or spying, as Hanun's advisers suspect), the text portrays David as the offended party whom God ultimately avenges against his enemies. This chapter provides the background for David's adultery with Bathsheba.

11 David's Sin against Uriah

While his army was battling the Ammonites, David was resting in Jerusalem (vv 1-2). From his perch on the palace roof, David spies the temptingly beautiful Bathsheba as she bathes in her walled but unroofed courtyard. The king's visual lust finds physical opportunity afforded by the absence of her husband Uriah, one of David's elite military guard, and a one-night palace affair ordered by the most powerful man in the land follows (v. 4; on Bathsheba's need for ritual purification after menstruation, cf. Lev. 15:19-24). Bathsheba becomes pregnant (v. 5).

David tries to cover up the moral breach by summoning the unwitting husband from the battlefield and encouraging him to visit his wife's bed ("wash your feet;' an expression for sexual intercourse; v. 8). David's goal is to make Uriah appear to be the father of Bathsheba's baby (vv. 6-10). In his sexual restraint even while forcibly intoxicated, however, Uriah conducts himself more honorably than the king (v. 13; the laws of holy war prohibited active soldiers from engaging in sex;1 Sam. 21:4-5). David must find another plan.

By Uriah's own hand, David sends word to Joab instructing the commander to leave Uriah without backup on the most precarious frontline position possible. There the honorable Hittite meets his death along with several other innocent bystanders to the potential royal scandal (vv. 14-17), and David becomes responsible for the death of his countrymen even though he did not shoot the arrows that slew them. Joab's battle report to David (vv. 1821) refers to the death of Abimelech, the judge Gideon's son (Judg. 9:50-57).

To all appearances, David's marriage to the widowed Bathsheba seems legitimate, but God knows what the people do not (v 27; contrast v. 25). Thus David, at the height of his political career, takes a moral nosedive - one that produces bittersweet fruit (ch. 12) and charts a course for future heartache.

12:1-25 The Consequences of David's Sin

After hearing the prophet Nathan's cleverly veiled rebuke, David pronounces judgment on himself. God's anger against David seems to center less on his illicit sex with Bathsheba than on the wealthy and successful king's having robbed a commoner of what little he had and then killed him (v. 9). Yet while David unwittingly condemned himself to death - the prescribed punishment for adultery (Deut. 22:22) - God will spare his life (vv. 5, 13). The consequences of the king's sin, however, will break his heart, beginning with the death of his firstborn son by Bathsheba (vv. 14,18) and extending to fatal strife among his other sons (v. 11). God also vows that the punishment for David's secret sin will include the king's public humiliation (v. 11; cf. 16:21-22). There is no one left whom David can compensate for his sin against Uriah (v. 6) and therefore no way to soothe his guilty conscience.

To David's credit, he does not hesitate in confessing his sin (v. 13). As he must, David relies solely on God's mercy and forgiveness. He does not abandon petitioning God to defray his punishment (vv. 16-17, 22), but he accepts the consequences of his sin when they come, and he worships rather than rejects the righteous God who punishes him (v 20).

When Solomon is born to David and Bathsheba, Nathan gives the future king a second name, Jedidiah, whose meaning, "Beloved of the Lord;" reassures the parents that their child will live (vv. 24-25). That David's initial lust for Bathsheba turns to love appears evident in his comforting her after the death of their firstborn son and in his continued intimacy with his newest wife (v 24).

12:26-31 Victory at Rabbah

Cf. 1 Chr. 20:1-3.

Chapter 12 flashes forward to the battle at the Ammonite capital, Rabbah (modern Amman), where the loyal Joab has reserved the final victory for his uncle, the king. David's defeat of the royal city dramatically demonstrates God's forgiveness of the flawed monarch and signals his continued presence with David. David takes as a prize the 75-pound crown from the statue of the Ammonite god Milcom.

13 Amnon Rapes His Sister

Sexual lust triggers another murderous plot that produces heartache for David. David's firstborn son, Amnon, commits both rape and incest with his virgin half-sister Tamar (vv. ii14). Tamar's pre-rape plea that Amnon appeal to the king to support a marriage between the half-siblings (v. 13) may represent an attempt to buy time so David could halt her otherwise certain disgrace. David probably would have denied the marriage request, for though Israelite law permitted the wedding of cousins, it prohibited brother-sister sexual relations (Lev. 18:9, 11).

Amnon's frustration over the difficulty of "doing anything" to Tamar (v. a; overseers strictly guarded virgins and therefore marriageable daughters) foreshadows his selfish purpose early in the account. That Amnon simply desires Tamar, but does not truly love her as he protests (v. 4), becomes evident in his casting her off in disgust immediately after having satisfied his sexual urge (vv. 15, 17). Tamar mourns her disgrace by heaping ashes (or dust) on her head and tearing her clothes (v. 19).

At home Tamar finds a sympathetic but calculating defender of her honor in her full brother Absalom (vv. 20-22, 32). David's inaction after learning of the incident, which angers him greatly, fails to resolve the domestic discord, inspire paternal trust and respect on Absalom's part, or at least curb the lurking violence and rebellion (v 21). Perhaps David believes his own sexual indiscretion with Bathsheba has weakened his moral voice in such matters. Or perhaps his bravery on the battlefield simply gives way to meekness on the home front (cf. 1 Kgs. 1:6).

Absalom's hatred for Amnon brews for two years before he avenges his sister by murder, carried out by Absalom's servants at his express order (vv. 23, 28-29). No doubt caught off guard after the long interval between the nearly forgotten crime and the surprise punishment, Amnon has no chance.

The consequences for Absalom include a self-imposed, three-year exile in his maternal grandfather's kingdom to escape capital punishment for murder. The results of Absalom's actions also adversely affect others, not the least David (vv. 37, 39).

14 Absalom's Return to Jerusalem

David's softening toward Absalom suggests to Joab that the king might allow Absalom as crown prince to return to Jerusalem (v. 1). The message that Joab places in the "wise woman's" mouth reveals the army commander's interest in a smooth transition of royal power after David's death, for through her words he couches Absalom's return in terms that place the welfare of the nation over the punishment of a single individual (vv. 13-14).

As with Nathan's parable (12:1-4), the current story summons David's self-judgment. As king, David overrules the law that prescribes the death penalty for his murdering son, but as a father he withholds full forgiveness. Absalom returns from exile but remains banished from the royal court (vv. 23-24). After two years, Absalom will no longer tolerate this humiliation N. 32), which contrasts with the praise afforded him by nearly everyone else (vv 25-27). It takes another destructive act to get Joab's attention and an audience with the king (vv. 30-31). But David's fatherly affection will prove too little too late N. 33).

15 David's Flight from Absalom

For a second time, Absalom successfully deceives his father to gain permission for an evil-bent trip (vv. 7-9; cf. 13:23-27), but now David himself is his son's target. As David fled from his predecessor at the beginning of his public career, he now finds himself fleeing his would-be successor. The king's Transjordanian flight from Jerusalem when Absalom bids for the throne - launched from David's first capital of Hebron (v. 1o) - again contrasts David's and Saul's approaches to divine intervention. While Saul attempted to retain power through aggression against his perceived enemy, David steps aside and awaits a further sign from God (vv. 25-26).

The king has good reason to flee Jerusalem, for Absalom's personal cultivation of popular affection and his shrewd undermining of support for David, coupled with his gathering necessary military personnel and machinery, positioned him well for takeover (vv. i-6). David's reaction, however, shows his humble acceptance of the promised punishment for his sin involving Uriah and Bathsheba (cf. 12:10- ii). He even calls Absalom the "king" when urging his loyal military commander Ittai to defect (v. 19). David's decision to vacate the capital saves it from large-scale destruction in an inevitable siege by Absalom.

Still, the king remains hopeful and does not slink passively out of the picture. His 6oo-strong force of Philistine mercenaries (v. 18; cf. 1 Sam. 23:13) accompany him in his retreat. David also commissions trusted loyalists to remain in Jerusalem as informants, including his respected "friend" (an official title for a counselor) Hushai, as well as the chief priests Zadok and Abiathar, whose sons will act as secret couriers between the royal court and the king. Hushai is also to serve as a double agent by thwarting the advice that Ahithophel, David's adviser-turned-traitor (cf. 16:23) and Bathsheba's grandfather, gives Absalom. Hushai accomplishes his goal and so answers David's current prayer N. 31; cf. 17:1-14).

16 Absalom Claims Jerusalem

As David leaves Jerusalem, he encounters opposite reactions from two former supporters of Saul. Ziba, whom David previously appointed to work the land he restored to Saul's lame grandson, Mephibosheth (9:9-13), provides the king with transportation and refreshing sustenance. Ziba convinces David that Mephibosheth has remained in the capital in hopes of taking David's place N. 3). David then encounters a relative of Saul who, recognizing the king's politically weakening state, hurls verbal and physical abuse, thus enraging the loyal Abishai (v. 9); but David's restraint defers the revenge (vv 10-12).

Meanwhile, Absalom claims the throne in Jerusalem. As instructed by David, Hushai feigns defection to Absalom by declaring steadfast loyalty to the people's choice for king. Convinced by Hushai's pledge of support, Absalom takes Ahithophel's advice that he publicly display his takeover of David's abandoned concubines, a sign of claiming the throne, thereby proclaiming his permanent break from his father and fulfilling the forewarned consequences of David's sin against the house of Uriah (12:11). By eliminating any possibility of father-son reconciliation, the act frees Absalom's supporters to cast their lot openly with the rebel.

17 Absalom's Fateful Choice

Ahithophel proposes swift action that will protect the challenger to the throne, ensure his succession, and avoid civil war. Ahithophel wants to pursue the king quickly and kill only him, while putting David's mercenaries in Absalom's service (vv. 1-4). Hushai cleverly counsels a delay, which will allow David time to escape. Because Hushai appeals to Absalom's pride in advising him personally to lead a united Israelite force to pursue David, his counsel ultimately wins out - evidence that God remains on David's side (vv. 5-14). After near discovery by Absalom's servants, the priests' sons Ahimaaz and Jonathan bring word to David to stay one step ahead of Absalom by quickly crossing into Transjordan (vv. 15-21). While David and his men receive aid in the late Ishbosheths fortified capital of Mahanaim, Absalom pursues them across the Jordan, with Amasa filling his cousin Joab's role as the rebel's army commander (vv 24-29). Ahithophel realizes the inevitably devastating consequences for Absalom of following Hushai's advice, and he commits suicide (v. 23).

18:1-19:8 The Death of Absalom

David organizes his troops to win, but he publicly charges his three commanders to "deal gently" with Absalom. The troops insist that David remain in the city rather than accompany them into battle (18:1-5). The rebel force proves no match for David's veteran army, and the forest setting of the battle causes further difficulties for the contenders (18:6-8). Absalom's mount leaves him dangling from a tree branch, perhaps by his previously enviable hair (cf. 14:26), and Joab, knowing that only the death of either David or Absalom can resolve the current unrest, disregards David's compassionate orders by seizing the opportunity to spear the now vulnerable threat to the throne (18:9-15).

Knowing that the sight of the priest's son, Ahimaaz, will cause David to expect good news, Joab sends a Cushite (Ethiopian/Nubian) slave to deliver the bittersweet battle report (18:1921). Ahimaaz takes the longer but easier Jordan Valley route to Mahanaim and arrives first, but he holds his tongue concerning Absalom (18:22-30). David's hopeful anticipation turns to bitterest grief when he learns of his son's death (18:31-33).

The king is paralyzed by Absalom's death, thus demoralizing David's faithful troops, who have just won a most important battle in restoring him to the throne (19:3). Only the coldly rational Joab can compose the king so he does not lose the political ground his army has just regained for him on the battlefield (19:5-8).

19:9-39 David Returns to Judah

David wins back his tribesmen's loyalty by replacing his own commander, Joab, with Ab

salom's officer, Amasa, in effect punishing Joab for his faithfulness and foresight and rewarding Amasa for his treason (vv. 11-14).

On the less-than-triumphal return, previously questionable characters scramble to explain themselves to the restored monarch. Shimei, the Benjamite who cursed David on his retreat from Jerusalem (16:5-8,13), begs for forgiveness. Though David pledges not to kill him (again, against the wishes of Abishai), the king's last words to Solomon order Shimei's death (cf. 1 Kgs. 2:8-9). Mephibosheth's explanation for remaining in Jerusalem during the revolt seems plausible, if not likely, in view of his lameness, but his servant Ziba is rewarded for his supposed loyalty (vv 24-30). Preferring his independence, Barzillai respectfully declines his royal reward (vv 33-38).

19:40-20:26 Sheba's Revolt

The quelling of Absalom's rebellion did not restore complete tribal harmony. Though the Judah-based revolt failed, it nevertheless watered the seeds of national division, which eventually sprouted into the split of the kingdom after Solomon's death. The northern and Transjordanian tribes may have expected David to reward them for their support by transferring his capital to their territory, and they blame the Judahites for stealing back the king (19:41-43).

In response to David's move home, another Benjamite, Sheba, stirs up rebellion against David (20:1-2). Amasa delays in carrying out David's command to muster a posse, and the king falls back on Abishai to stamp out this new revolt before it gets out of hand (20:4-6). Joab again seizes the opportunity to strike down a challenger - his rival, Amasa (cf. Joab's murder of Abner; 3:26-27).

Having forcibly reclaimed his position as military commander, Joab takes over the lead in tracking down Sheba, whom he finds in the far north near Dan. The pursuers build an earthen ramp up the hill where lies the walled city harboring Sheba (20:14-15). When the city's inhabitants see Joab's powerful army, they toss Sheba's severed head over the wall to Joab to stop the siege (20:16-22). Again Joab has defended David's political career, but David never forgives his commander for his brutal methods (cf. 1 Kgs. 2:5-6).

The list of David's cabinet includes a director of forced labor (= Adoram, W. 23-26). This issue will eventually break up the united kingdom, and Adoram will pay with his life for the people's anger over this heavy burden (1 Kgs. 12:18).

21-23 Reviewing David's Career

These chapters represent a break in the generally chronological record of David's reign. Most of the accounts flash back to events recorded before ch. 20.

21:1-14 Blood Revenge for Gibeon This is the first mention of Saul's attempt to wipe out the Gibeonites, Canaanites with whom Israel had earlier made a covenant (Joshua 9). The text explains a three-year famine as God's punishment for Saul's breaking the pact (v. 1). The Gibeonites require blood revenge on Saul's house, and David hands over two sons of Saul's concubine Rizpah and five sons of Saul's daughter Merab (cf. 1 Sam. 18:17-19). The Gibeonites kill the men, but their main interest is to display their dead bodies instead of burying them, thus adding insult to injury.

Rizpah lessens the humiliation by covering the victims' corpses and for six months protects them from consumption by wild animals. Her action shames David into gathering the remains of Saul and his dead descendants and burying them in the family tomb. That the Gibeonites' revenge does indeed "bless the heritage of the Lord" N. 3) becomes evident in the eventual return of rain, which will end the famine (v. 1o).

21:15-22 Past Triumphs These verses recap some of David's past victories over the Philistines. Verses 16-17 provide background for the Israelites' objection to David's going into battle in 18:2-4.

Verse 19 appears to contradict the account of David's slaying of Goliath (1 Sam. 17:31-52). Some scholars take 1 Chr. 20:5 as indicating that Elhanan killed not Goliath but his brother Lah

mi. Others suggest that "Elhanan" represents David's personal name, whereas "David" was his throne name.

22 David's Song of Praise Psalm 18 repeats this poem with only minor variations. Both passages introduce imagery that likens God to a rock (vv. 2-3, 32) and picture his deliverance as a mighty act of nature (vv. 8-17). David's declaration of his own righteousness reflects the king as portrayed before the Uriah-Bathsheba episode (vv. 21-25). Within the structure of 1-2 Samuel, this psalm parallels Hannah's song of praise in 1 Samuel 2.

23:1-7 David's "Last Words" The heading "last words" (v. 1) likely identifies this poem as the last psalm David penned. (His final instructions to Solomon appear in 1 Kgs. 2:1-12.) At first, this song may appear self-exalting, but David's purpose is to emphasize the abundant blessings of the covenant God made with "his anointed" David professes that he has ruled over Israel "in the fear of God:" The king, therefore, confidently anticipates God's continued fulfillment of his covenant by establishing the promised Davidic dynasty (v. 5).

23:8-39 David's Mighty Men David's elite guard receives special mention, for they helped David win the victories that catapulted him to the throne and kept him there. "The Three" (vv. 8-12) were David's most distinguished warriors. The mention of David's craving for a drink from the well at his hometown Bethlehem relates to the Philistine campaign in 5:17-25. "The thirty chiefs" refers to the group listed in vv. 24-39. Abishai was the best of this corps and therefore its commander. Benaiah's exploits earn him command of David's Philistine mercenaries. The individual listing of "the thirty" actually includes 37 names. Undoubtedly, David replaced those who died in the line of duty, including Joab's and Abishai's brother Asahel (cf. 2:18-23) and Uriah the Hittite, whose name appears last.

24 The Census and the Plague

Cf. 1 Chronicles 21.

The text does not explain God's anger against his people, nor is it clear that David's census-taking was sinful - merely that David thinks it was (v io) and that God allows him to believe so by offering him a choice of punishments through the prophet Gad (vv. 12-13; compare the census totals in v. 9 with Numbers 1). The choices make clear that the punishment will befall the nation as a whole, not the king in particular. David relies on divine mercy in leaving the decision to God, and a plague claims the lives of 70 thousand Israelites (vv. 14-15).

David persists in assuming the blame (v. 17), and he buys the threshing floor of Araunah on which to make sacrifices so God will stop the plague (v. 21). The conscience-stricken king insists that the act should cost him something (v 24), and he proceeds with the offering without seeming to know that God has already ordered the end of the plague (v. i6). The site of David's offering lay close to the place of Abraham's near sacrifice of Isaac and would later become the foundation for the first temple, built by Solomon (Gen. 22:2; 2 Chr. 3:1).

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