For Further Reading
The Old Testament, especially the books of Isaiah, Deuteronomy, Psalms, and Zechariah, resonates throughout the pages of the New Testament. The citations can serve to validate an event (Matt. 4:15-16) or discussion (Rom. 3:10-18), provide an example or an illustration (Gal. 4:21ff.), or they may simply be included because the words are familiar and part of the language of early Christianity. There are two key elements to understanding early Christian Old Testament interpretation. First, what God accomplished in Jesus was decisive in salvation history and served to mark a shift in the ages. The mystery hidden from the beginning of time had been revealed in the coming of the long-awaited messianic redeemer, and salvation history had reached its culmination in him. Second, the early Christians firmly believed that they were now living in the end of times.
The citations are of two general types: explicit quotations and allusions. Quotations, whether word for word or a paraphrase, are often preceded by a formula and break into and disrupt the text (e.g., Mark 1:2). Allusions to the Old Testament can be more difficult to trace (e.g., Revelation 1) as they do not generally disrupt the text. An allusion is a reference to a text that may occur without explicitly quoting it or the source. It is assumed that the audience will pick up on the allusion, although this depends upon the individual's familiarity with the sources. One ought not polarize these two categories, but instead consider them as two points on a continuum.
The context in which to understand the use of the Old Testament in the New Testament begins with ancient Judaism. The Scriptures, as the divine Word, were central to Jewish life, and midrash (exegesis) was key to understanding the Scriptures. As such, Scripture played a crucial role in shaping the Jewish identity, belief system, theology, eschatology, and ethics. Furthermore, the public reading of Scripture and its use in liturgy and the synagogue ensured that the language and imagery found therein was familiar to most Jews and Gentile sympathizers. Yet the shared Scriptures also became the locus for disagreements. Divergent movements within Judaism sought to validate beliefs and ideologies through the "correct" interpretation of the text. A variety of approaches and exegetical methods were employed (literalist, midrashic, allegorical, and pesher) which prevented interpretation from becoming purely arbitrary and subjective.
A careful comparison of the New Testament and ancient Jewish usage of the Old Testament reveals a fundamental continuity. The authors of the New Testament also viewed the Scriptures as divine revelation and maintained that they were applicable to life's present circumstances. They employed the same exegetical methods. Particular similarities exist between the New Testament authors and the Qumran community. Both embraced a revelational model of interpretation and had a strong eschatological orientation. And both had a leader whose interpretation of the Old Testament shaped their respective movements - the Teacher of Righteousness in Qumran and Jesus in early Christianity. Jesus was himself engaged in the interpretation of the Old Testament, often in conversation with the Jewish religious leadership over issues related to the Law. His fresh, authoritative teaching was grounded in his eschatological and revelational approach to the text.
Early Christian exegesis seems to have gained impetus as followers of Jesus were confronted by the need to understand and explain the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, the Messiah, in the light of Jewish expectations and the broader scope of salvation history. It is difficult to say whether the exegetical enterprise began as part of a defensive apologetic, an aggressive evangelistic/missions campaign, or out of a need to shore up inner support within their community. Certainly, it was part of the process of legitimation, similar to that which occurred in Qumran, as the early Christians first struggled and then parted ways with Judaism. During this process there would have been the need to reformulate numerous issues pertinent to their communities. A reconsideration of issues such as the role of the Law, identity of the people of God, means of salvation, Christology, theology, ethics, and eschatology was ultimately validated by Old Testament texts.
The text-form of the Old Testament quotations offers further clues for understanding its use in the New. The text-form in Judaism was somewhat fluid during the period of the composition of the New Testament documents, and adjustments were made to the Old Testament text in light of the usage. While it is somewhat true that the Bible of the early Christians was the Septuagint, there is evidence that some authors of the New Testament used additional Hebrew or mixed text-form manuscripts. Employing Jewish exegetical models, translators and interpreters would make slight adjustments to the text to support their argument. Thus the theology of the scribe/community is at times encoded within the text itself (e.g., Matt. 4:15-16; 12:18-21).
The enigma of and fascination with the use of the Old Testament in the New Testament lies in attempting to describe each occurrence. There are numerous theories. It has been argued that the New Testament authors are proof-texting, meaning that a passage is removed from its context and employed with a different meaning in a new context. While there appear to be some examples of this in the New Testament (e.g., Matt. 2:15 = Hos. 112), this explanation is considered too simplistic to account for the majority of Old Testament uses. Other scholars have countered that there is a demonstrated concern for the original context. Some have argued that there is evidence of a typological usage, in which historical events in Israel's past are thought to prefigure the greater event in the New Testament. More recently, an emphasis has been placed upon the exegetical enterprise within early Christianity, suggesting that the New Testament authors were not merely citing the Old Testament; rather, they were drawing upon exegetical work that was ongoing within the various Christian communities.
In the Old Testament citations in the New Testament, we have a deposit of early Christian exegesis. The sustained emphasis upon various Old Testament passages related to Christology and messiahship (e.g., Isa. 7:14; 9:2-7; ii:1-6; 42:1-4; 53; Psalm 2; Num. 24:17; Zechariah 9-14) found throughout the New Testament and especially in John, Matthew, and Hebrews provides evidence of a much larger enterprise. Similarly, Paul's use of the Old Testament in Romans and Galatians, which together contain half of the Old Testament references of Paul's letters, is diverse both in its usage and content. See, for example, the series of passages in Rom. 3:9-20 used to demonstrate that all humanity is under the power of sin, Paul's midrashic use of the Abraham tradition in Romans 4, and the allegorical treatment of Sarah/Hagar narrative in Galatians 4. Revelation provides another distinctive example. It is shaped by constant interaction with the Old Testament text by way of allusion, not direct quotation. The Old Testament reverberates throughout the New Testament for those who have ears to hear.
FOR FURTHER READING
Beale, G. K., and D. A. Carson. Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007.
RICHARD BEATON