1 Peter
The New Testament canon groups 1 and 2 Peter with the General Epistles, so called because they do not specify individual Christians or particular church congregations as the original addressees. Both letters claim authorship by Peter, the prominent apostle who after Jesus' resurrection took the lead in evangelism among the Jews (Acts 1-12).
1 Peter
In A.D. 64 - during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero and at the outset of his empirewide persecution of Christians - Peter suffered martyrdom in Rome, from where he appears to write 1 Peter (5:13). Since much of the letter addresses Christian persecution from the standpoint of local social harassment, not official political oppression, Peter probably wrote this epistle during the years immediately preceding his death. In it he exhorts believers to righteous conduct for future, eternal salvation despite consequent earthly persecution by unbelievers. Peter's ethical admonitions parallel those of the Apostle Paul, with whose teaching Peter may have become familiar through their common associates Silvanus (Silas) and Mark (5:12-13). Similarities in the teaching of Peter and Paul may also indicate that they drew from a common corpus of oral or written instruction.
2 Peter
2 Peter addresses a different threat to Christian faithfulness: false teachers infecting the
church with heresies. Against false doctrine, Peter affirms true Christian knowledge. He shows particular concern to counter the denial of Christ's return by the heretics, who used their skepticism as an excuse for lack of moral restraint. More than half the Epistle of Jude parallels in whole or in part the wording of 2 Peter.
Authorship
Scholars have questioned Peter's authorship of both letters, and especially 2 Peter. The acceptance of the letters into the New Testament canon by the early church, which applied strict rules for canonicity and excluded books authored pseudonymously, supports the letters' claim to authorship by the apostle. Literary links between 1 and 2 Peter and the sermons of Peter in Acts further support his authorship of both letters, as do 1 Peter's multiple allusions to activities and teachings of Jesus in which Peter figures prominently in the Gospels. The noticeably different vocabulary and style of 2 Peter may stem from its different subject matter or Peter's employment of different secretaries, who according to custom exercised varying degrees of literary freedom in penning dictation. Also, the reference to Paul as "our beloved brother" in 2 Pet. 3:15-16 and the characterization of his teaching as hard to understand sound like contemporary references to an apostolic colleague, not remembrances of a pillar of the faith by a pseudepigrapher.
1 Peter
1:1-2 Greetings
In the style of ancient letters, 1 Peter begins by identifying the author, the Apostle Peter, and intended audience. The "exiles of the Dispersion" (v. i) refers here to Christians scattered throughout the Roman Empire and living as cultural aliens in a society antagonistic to Christian beliefs and practices (cf. Jas. 1:1). The Roman provinces specified here span the northern half of Asia Minor. On the doctrine of election, briefly bridging verses i and 2, see Rom. 8:29-30; 9:i9ff.
The Christian's sprinkling with Jesus' blood to "sanctify" (= make holy) obedience to him parallels the literal dabbing of Hebrew priests with the blood of a sacrificial animal during the ceremony of priestly consecration (Exod. 29:19-21).
1:3-12 Emphasizing Eternity
Opening with praise to God, the letter succinctly summarizes the gospel and focuses on its eternal reward for believers: by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, God's mercy makes possible our "rebirth" for the "imperishable" inheritance of eternal life. The "last time" (v 5) is the return of Jesus, when the final judgment brings salvation (eternal deliverance from oppression) for believers. Although comparatively insignificant (v. 6), earthly trials serve a useful purpose, the purifying of faith, as with precious metals in a refiner's fire N. 7). The letter commends oppressed Christians who believe in Jesus and love him without the benefit of having seen him (v. 8; cf. Thomas in John 20:24-29). Hearing the Spirit-inspired gospel is a uniquely human privilege (vv 10-12).
1:13-25 A Call to Holy Living
The promise of eternal salvation does not relax the requirements of personal morality, as made
clear in the exhortations that dominate the rest of i Peter. The call to Godlike holiness means abandoning "former desires" (sexual, material, social) characteristic of a lifestyle pursued out of ignorance of the gospel (cf. 2:16, 24; Rom. 6:15-23). "Fear of," or reverence for, God (v. 17) and a keen comprehension of the significance of Christ's substitutionary, or redemptive, death - like the atoning sacrifice of an unblemished lamb in Israelite sacrifices - should motivate the Christian for holy living and issue in genuine, active love for fellow Christians born into God's family through the living, imperishable Word of God, Jesus Christ.
2:1-10 Building on the Cornerstone
Christian growth, or "growing into salvation," requires nurturing a newbornlike longing for pure, spiritual sustenance. Prophecies concerning the messianic "cornerstone" provide the framework for the exhortation that Christians join themselves to Jesus by embodying "living stones" comprising the spiritual temple of God (Isa. 28:16; Ps. 118:22). Originally, the texts quoted in verses 9-1o uniquely addressed the chosen Hebrew people, but Peter applies them more universally because of Christ's widening the door of salvation for the Gentiles.
The crucifixion of Peter, upside-down; etching by Jan Luiken (1649-1712).
2:11-4:19 A Righteous Response to Persecution
For the Christian living among unbelievers (generalized as "Gentiles"), excellent behavior characterized by "honorable deeds" invites present slander but will ultimately result in the unbelievers' glorifying God when Christ returns "to judge" (2:11-12). The injunction to obey political authorities assumes their just exercise of power (cf. Rom. 13:1-7). Christian freedom does not release believers from legal obligations; rather, it intensifies their responsibility for ethical behavior by requiring their voluntary servanthood as "servants" to righteousness (2:16).
Peter prescribes for the Christian slave the proper response to unfair treatment: follow the example of Jesus, the epitome of the unjust sufferer (cf. Eph. 6:5-9; Col. 3:22-4:1). The instructions to wives and husbands assume the social hierarchy of ist-century Palestine, characterized by patriarchal authority and power (socially, economically, religiously, politically); however, the commendation of meekness (not weakness or timidity), chasteness, respectfulness, and beauty of character crosses all cultural and temporal boundaries. Husbands must treat their wives as equal heirs of eternal life (3:7). The principles of Christian behavior in the husbandwife relationship also apply communally within the fellowship of believers (3:8-12).
In dealing with people outside the Christian fellowship, gentleness and reverence are the rule, but not timidity. Christians should behave righteously so as to keep a clean conscience, stand up for their good behavior, and refuse to be intimidated from exercising right conduct. Current, temporary suffering for doing right is far better than future, eternal suffering for doing wrong (3:17). The imprisoned spirits who failed to thwart God's redemptive plan in Noah's day learned this truth from Christ, who between his death and resurrection descended to hell in disembodied form and proclaimed his victory over evil (3:19-20). Christ's vindication before those demons previews the final salvation of believers. Demonstrating the genuineness of one's repentance from sin by being baptized ensures ultimate deliverance through the resurrected and ascended Christ, whose exaltation by God the Father makes him sovereign over all heavenly and earthly powers (3:21-22). But the baptismal waters themselves do not wash away sins from the outside; rather, the sinner's inward repentance and faith bring about their remission (3:21).
The sinless Jesus' physical suffering provides the example for his followers, who should expect not praise but persecution by unbelievers for forsaking a sinful life of moral abandon and idolatry (4:1-6). The unbelievers' offense at "feeling judged" foreshadows their real and final judgment by God. Christian martyrs "judged in the flesh" (persecuted to death) by earthly afflicters have already received the reward of heavenly life "in the spirit" (4:5-6). In the meantime, believers must fulfill the law of Christian love by bolstering each other with practical support and nurturing spiritual unity within the Christian fellowship. Peter's exhortation to joy in suffering accords with Paul's attitude toward his persecution as a minister of the gospel (4:12-19; cf. 2 Corinthians 4; Ephesians 3). The Christian must not sin in response to suffering but instead glorify God by persisting in the righteous behavior that spawns the suffering (4:15-16, 19).
5:1-11 Tend the Flock
Peter exhorts Christian leaders to render voluntary, unselfish, and eager service to their "flocks" in an exemplary, nonauthoritarian manner. He prescribes humility for all Christians, anxiety-free trust in the caring Lord (v. 7), alertness to the ever-present danger of spiritual attack, and resistance to the Devil. For the persecuted Christian, comfort comes from recognizing that other believers are suffering, that earthly suffering is temporary, and that suffering ends in eternal reward from God.
5:12-14 Closing Notes
Peter names as courier and/or secretary of this letter his Christian "brother" Silvanus (Latin for the Aramaic "Silas," probably the Silas who accompanied Paul on his second missionary journey; Acts 15:40-18:5). Most likely, "she who is in Babylon" refers to the church in Rome (cf. Rev. 17:5,18). In their heydays, both imperial capitals represented the apex of idolatry, but in New Testament times Babylon lay nearly uninhabited. Peter further characterizes Mark (probably John Mark, former missionary companion of Paul) as his "son" in the faith.
2 Peter
1 Knowledge Necessitates Action
2 Peter opens with a more specific claim to authorship by "Simon Peter" and a less specific identification of the intended addressees. By qualifying as "truth" the divinely imparted knowledge of God, Peter lays the groundwork for his warnings against "false" prophets and teachers in chapter 2. Because the true knowledge of God makes believers partakers of the uncorrupt divine nature, they must conduct themselves uncorruptly. Knowledge must lead to corresponding action (cf. Jas. 2:14-26; Eph. 4:17-5:20). Peter's perception of his imminent death (v. 14) motivates this reminder.
Since it is the incarnate Christ who reveals to humans the knowledge of God, establishing the historical truth of Christ's identity becomes the top priority; so Peter gives firsthand testimony of Jesus' transfiguration, when God's own declaration of the divine sonship of Christ verified his fulfillment of prophecies concerning the Messiah conveyed and interpreted by the Holy Spirit through humans, as with all true prophecy (vv 16-21). Peter alludes to his apostolic companions as fellow witnesses of the transfiguration (v. 18), since both Israelite and Roman law required at least two witnesses to validate testimony (Deut. 19:15).
2 The Fate of False Teachers
Cf. Jude 4-16.
Just as there had always been false prophets, so now there are false teachers, against whose "destructive opinions" (or "heresies") Peter warns (cf. Col. 2:8-23). Peter castigates these self-serving false teachers, who earn divine condemnation in line with the false prophets of former times. Old Testament examples of God's condemnation of the wicked and rescue of the righteous form the basis for Peter's assurances of God's continuing power to exercise judicial control in the world till he judges it finally (vv. 5-9; cf. Genesis 6-10; 13; 18-19). The corrupt defiance of intractable false teachers exposes the untruth of their teaching (vv 10-17; cf. the insincerity of the prophet Balaam, Numbers 22-24; 31:8, 16). In contrast, the morally excellent conduct of true Christians demonstrates the genuineness of their sharing in the divine nature (cf. 1:4-11). The false teachers' suffer wrong as the "wages" of their wrongdoing (v. 13; cf. Rom. 6:23). A person's enslavement by what overcomes him parallels Jesus' teaching on treasure leading the heart and Paul's teaching on freedom from sin for slavery to righteousness (v. 19; cf. Matt. 6:21; Rom. 6:16-20). It is ultimately worse for a Christian teacher to abandon the faith than never to have known the "Way" (W. 20-22).
Heresies
"Heresy" derives from a Greek word meaning "selection, choice." In its first theological sense, "heresy" meant a chosen pattern of belief and practice that differs from that of others in the same religious community. Acts 5:17 refers to the "heresy" of the Sadducees, and 15:5; 26:5 to that of the Pharisees; yet both had their place within Judaism. Christianity, too, appears as a "heresy" within Judaism (Acts 24:5,14; 28:22).
"Heresy" can also refer to divisions seemingly devoid of differences in belief and practice (Gal. 5:20; 1 Cor. 11:19; Cf. 1:10-12; 11:18). But the term can also refer to differences so serious that from the writer's standpoint they rule the heretics out of his religious community (Tit. 3:9-11; 2 Pet. 2:1). Paul pronounces the Judaizing heresy - the false teaching that
Christians, particularly Gentile believers, must keep the law of Moses to maintain their salvation - a "different" or nongospel and designates its proponents as "dogs," evil workers" who should be "accursed" (Gal. 1:6-9; Phil. 3:2). He turns Hymenaeus and Alexander over to Satan because they "rejected conscience" and "suffered shipwreck in the faith" (1 Tim. 1:19-20). Thus "heresy" comes to mean a divergence from correct belief ("orthodoxy") and practice ("orthopraxy"), though these two aspects are so closely linked that the New Testament hardly distinguishes the two. English translations render the Greek term variously with "dissension, division, schism, sect," as well as "heresy."
Zodiac with the sun-god Helios surrounded by astrological symbols; floor mosaic in the synagogue at Sepphoris. (Wikimedia Commons)
2 Peter 2-3 describes heresy of the most serious sort as "destruc
tive" and attributes it to "false teachers" who "deny the Master [Jesus] who bought them" and scoff at his coming again (contrast the erroneous teachings that he had already returned [2 Thess. 2:13] and the resurrection had already taken place [2 Tim. 2:17-18]). They introduce their false teaching sneakily, lure their listeners with deceitful flattery and boastful bombast (cf. Rom. 16:17-18; 2 Tim. 4:3; Jude 16), exploit them financially, tarnish the way of truth with their morally unrestrained behavior (cf. Jude 4,18; contrast the opposite error of asceticism; Col. 2:16-23; cf.1 Tim. 4:1-5), and speak and act as though demonic forces have no power over them. Paul adds that false teachers ("super-apostles") prey on those who already believe in Christ rather than evangelizing unbelievers (2 Corinthians 10-11).
Whereas a denial of Jesus' return in judgment gave a feeling of moral freedom to the heretics attacked in 2 Peter, a claim of superior knowledge did so to those attacked in 1 John. Hence we call them "gnostics," from Greek gnosis, "knowledge." According to their "falsely called knowledge" (1 Tim. 6:20-21), they do not belong to the inferior world of flesh, infected as it is with evil; therefore, they "hate" true believers and claim sinlessness for themselves (1 John 1:8,1o) even though they break Jesus' commandments (2:4). In their view, their bodies do not represent their essential identity, so that the satisfaction of fleshly lusts does not incur guilt. Thus also, they say that Jesus Christ only seemed to have a body of flesh ("Docetism"), or they distinguish a Jesus of flesh from a Christ of spirit and say that the spiritual Christ descended on the fleshly Jesus not till his baptism and ascended from him before his crucifixion ("Cerinthianism"). They deny the incarnation and death (and therefore also the bodily resurrection) of Christ as God's Son.
1 John counters these "antichrists" by affirming a unique Jesus Christ as God's Son, whose body was both seen and touched and not only passed through the water of baptism but also bled in death. The author denies believ
ers' sinlessness but affirms that as believers they cannot practice sin. He demands love of other believers and assures believers that they already have knowledge and therefore do not need to imbibe the gnostic heresy.
The New Testament treats heresy as intolerable and heretics as outlaws (cf. Rev. 2:2, 6,14-15, 20-25). Some scholars think the descriptions of heretics' immorality to be overdrawn, but the temptation of accommodation to immorality in the pagan environment should not be underestimated. Some also think that Christianity started as a potpourri of differing factions without a common core of belief and practice, so that the distinction between heresy and
correct belief/practice did not emerge till one faction became dominant over weaker factions. But at the very earliest, Paul gives the impression of a gospel held in common with Jesus' original disciples and based on tradition (1 Cor. 15:1-11).
For Further Reading
ROBERT H. GUNDRY
3 The Promised Day
Mindful of the nearing end of his earthly life (cf. 1:14), Peter completes this letter with a sermonette on the end times. He briefs his audience about mockers who, believing that the promised return of Christ will never come, pursue moral laxity in the meantime (cf. Jude 17-18). Peter revisits the example of Noah (2:5) to forewarn that the ungodly elements of the postflood world will also and certainly suffer destruction by their Creator, not through water but "fire" (cf. 1 Pet. 3:20). The delay in Christ's return proves the patience of the eternal God in providing ample opportunity for human repentance out of the Father's desire not to condemn.
Nevertheless, the time will come when God does purge the world of evil and inaugurate the reign of righteousness. The unpredictable arrival of Christ's return (the "day of the Lord;" v. io) makes it imperative for Christians to persist in godly living, so that the final judgment brings them salvation rather than condemnation. In support of his teaching, Peter cites the writings of the Apostle Paul and notes the distortion of his doctrine by false teachers (v. 16; cf. 2 Thess. 2:1-12). The falling away of false teachers from orthodox Christianity (2:20-22) forewarns Peter's audience to take seriously his admonition that they guard their own faith against the corruptive influences of "lawless" people. A closing exhortation to grow in the "knowledge" of the Lord returns readers to Peter's opening theme (cf. 1:3-11).