Authorship and Date

Authorship and Date

As the most comprehensive of the synoptic Gospels, Luke is also the longest book in the New Testament. Luke gives a fuller account of the nativity of Jesus than does Matthew; uniquely recounts the birth of John the Baptist; alone describes Jesus' ministry in the Transjordanian region of Perea; records well-known parables of Jesus that appear nowhere else (e.g., the Good Samaritan, Rich Fool, Prodigal Son, Rich Man and Lazarus, Pharisee and Tax Collector); gives more and different details regarding Jesus' resurrection; and supplies the only record of Jesus' ascension to heaven.

In Luke, Jesus associates with all kinds of people, from Pharisees to social outcasts. But whether among the self-righteous or "sinners;" he maintains his moral purity, demonstrates prayerful piety, and consistently abides by both religious and civil law. Other distinctive characteristics of Luke include the frequent mention of the Holy Spirit and the role of women in Jesus' ministry. Thus the universal message of the gospel embodied by Jesus emerges as universally appealing, especially to the cosmopolitan Gentile audience toward which Luke appears slanted.

Authorship and Date

Scholars deduce the authorship of Luke from its literary relationship to the book of Acts and from a comparison of the "we" sections of Acts (which depict the travels of Paul and his missionary companions) with the itineraries of the missionaries as recorded in the New Testament letters of Paul. The conclusion that the same author wrote Luke and Acts stems from the introductory dedication of both books to a man named Theophilus; the reference in Acts 1:1 to the "first account" (the preceding, companion volume); and the similarities of thematic interest and writing style. Luke is singled out as the

author of Luke-Acts because of the impossibility of harmonizing the geographical movements of Paul's other missionary companions, as recorded in his epistles, with the itineraries in the "we" sections of Acts. That Paul calls Luke "the beloved physician" (Col. 4:14) supports his authorship of this Gospel, since at a number of points it pays unique attention to medical detail (e.g., the naming of diseases; cf. 14:2). Support for Luke's authorship from outside the Bible comes from early church tradition and later Christian writers. The linguistic refinement of the Greek text of Luke is paralleled in the New Testament only by the book of Hebrews.

Luke reveals his use of sources to write his account (1:1-4). Since 65 percent of the material in Mark also appears in Luke - sometimes word for word - it seems obvious that Mark was one of Luke's sources. That Luke also includes material found in Matthew but not in Mark has led scholars to suggest a now lost source used by Matthew and Luke and referred to as "Q" (from German Quelle, "source"). The composition of Luke must therefore come after Mark and possibly also Matthew, if only slightly. Luke 21:2o quotes Jesus as referring to the siege of Jerusalem, carried out by the Romans from A.D. 67-70, so either Jesus predicted this event or Luke wrote after it took place. Presumably, Luke wrote Acts after writing his Gospel account. He accompanied the Apostle Paul to Rome and may have written his Gospel there, though early traditions also support its being written in Greece.

1:1-4 Luke's Purpose for Writing

Luke acknowledges the existence of other Gospel accounts written by eyewitnesses to the events of Jesus' life and ministry. The Gospel of Mark, from which Luke draws much of his material, represents one such record. Luke's particular contribution consists in giving a chronologically sensitive history of the Gospel events and demonstrating their historical reliability. His immediate purpose consists in enlightening Theophilus ("loved by God"; perhaps Luke's literary patron or a potential or recent convert) concerning the "truth" of the gospel teaching he has received.

Jesus and History

Attitudes toward the historical reliability of the Gospel narratives have shifted since the early part of the loth century, even among those who do not see the New Testament as inspired. In part, the increased optimism comes with a shift in the way moderns define history. History is a way we arrange the events of the past so that they are meaningful, or memorable, or inspiring, or instructive. History - not just past events, but also what we write about them - is not repeatable in the way a mathematical equation is, and historians sifting the same sources will not construct the same picture of the past. Once we recognize this, we stop looking for certainty and begin looking for what is probable or plausible. With that as our goal, there is much that one can say about Jesus.

The new confidence is also partly the result of a new approach to our sources of information about Jesus. In the past some scholars mostly looked for what was distinctive about Jesus. If material attributed to Jesus was different from what 1st-century Palestinian Jews and early Gentile Christians would have said or done, then they felt it must have come from Jesus (e.g., the saying "let the dead bury their dead"). This approach yields only small amounts of data, and the picture of Jesus that results is of a man disconnected from his environment.

A more profitable approach is first to look for multiple independent testimony to the words

and deeds of Jesus, and second to look for what fits within a 1st-century Palestinian Jewish environment but goes against the grain of the beliefs and practices of early Christians. We have several independent early sources for what Jesus said and did. Most New Testament scholars believe that Matthew and Luke used both Mark and another source commonly called "Q" (from German Quelle, "source"). Most, as well, hold that John was written independently of Mark and Q. Paul also gives independent testimony, although his letters contain only a few sayings of Jesus and no stories about what Jesus did. The 1st-century Jewish historian Josephus included a short paragraph about Jesus in his Jewish Antiquities, and although his text was expanded by Christian copyists, most scholars believe that we can be confident with his description of Jesus as a teacher and a miracle worker who attracted great attention and was crucified by Pilate. Another account is the Gospel of Thomas, written in Greek probably in the 1st century but mostly preserved in Coptic. Some scholars believe this Gospel depends on one or more of the New Testament Gospels; others hold it to be independent of them, making it another valuable source for the historical Jesus.

If three independent witnesses are enough to count something to be a historical "fact," then we can be certain that:

Eleven sayings or parables are triply attested, appearing in Mark, Q, and Thomas. By these rules, we can be certain that:

. Jesus healed and cast out demons;

. he preached and taught about the coming and present kingdom of God;

. he called disciples and appointed 12 of them to special roles;

. he predicted the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem;

We can be certain, also, that Jesus told his disciples that:

. they should let their lights shine;

. they should ask and receive;

. none who blasphemed the Holy Spirit would ever be forgiven;

. the kingdom was like a mustard seed;

. hidden things would be revealed;

The second method looks for what fits within 1st-century Palestinian Judaism but seems at odds with the beliefs and practices of the early church. Many features of Jesus' life and ministry can be demonstrated this way. For example, we can be certain that Jesus was baptized by John. Since the church believed Jesus to be the sinless Son of God, they would not have invented a story that puts him going into the waters as though he were a sinner. Likewise, the episode when Jesus entered the temple and turned over the tables is the single event that makes him look dangerous to the Romans, and it seems unlikely that the church, who believed Jesus died an innocent man, would have invented this.

Most who write about the historical Jesus would agree with most of the "facts" listed above. But history is more than facts; history tries to put facts together into a coherent story and to draw cause-andeffect connections between facts. Here are a few currently influential reconstructions of Jesus.

God's reign began as people gathered into Jesus' new communities. He healed and cast out demons to attract people to hear him, and then he taught them to share their food and their homes and to treat all as equals, no matter what their social status. He acted out his prediction of the temple's destruction because he felt the temple leaders were crushing the poor. They seized him and gave him to the Romans, who crucified him.

Some New Testament scholars suggest that the quest for the historical Jesus has nothing to do with faith or living the Christian life; it is strictly an academic exercise and one Christians should not worry about. It is true that the rules of evidence given above yield

much less than the contents of the canonical Gospels. A story that appears only once and fits well with the teaching of Jesus' followers - e.g., the woman caught in adultery (Matthew) or the birth stories in Luke - cannot be absolutely proven by these rules. Yet they are part of our faith; we believe them, even if we cannot prove them historically. If that be true, why bother with a historical search, since the result can only be a shadow of the composite picture of all four Gospels?

Christians, gratefully, do not have to choose between the reconstructed historical Jesus and the Jesus whom we know through the whole New Testament and the traditions of the Christian church. Believing in the latter does not rule out the search for the former. Careful study of the New Testament will show that the way Matthew describes Jesus is very similar to, but also significantly different from, the way Mark, Luke, and John describe him. Our faith, embodied in hymns and confessions and creeds and catechisms and all sorts of church traditions, blends together all these different elements into one portrait. That is good, because it helps us to center ourselves, to focus our lives on the one Lord the church confesses. But behind the unified picture of the creeds are the diverse portraits of the New Testament. Without the historical Jesus - the one man who lived in a very particular time and place - we have a hard time explaining why the central documents of our faith tell the stories in different ways. Discovering the historical Jesus, then, is a historical-theological task for the church - historical, because it operates by the rules of history, and theological, because it aims at making the Jesus who is respon sible for the diverse portraits of the New Testament available for those who love him now.

For Further Reading

Jewish Peasant. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1991.

Meier, John P. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. 4 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1991-2009.

Sanders, E. P. The Historical Figure of Jesus. New York: Penguin, 1995.

RICHARD B. VINSON

1:5-2:52 The Birth and Childhood of John and Jesus

Only Luke recounts the events surrounding the birth of John the Baptist, and only Luke and Matthew write about the nativity and childhood of Jesus. Luke gives a fuller historical account of Jesus' birth, whereas Matthew concentrates on establishing Jesus' Davidic descent and messiahship (see Matthew 1-2).

1:5-25 A Father-to-Be Struck Speechless Verse 5 dates the events of the nativity to the reign of Herod the Great, an Idumean who under the authority of the Roman government ruled Palestine during the last half of the 1st century B.c. Next Luke introduces the priest Zechariah, who along with the other priests in his division is performing one of his two annual weeks of service at the Jerusalem temple, and his wife Elizabeth, whose ancestry traces back to Aaron, the brother of Moses and first high priest (see Exodus 28). The barrenness of Elizabeth parallels that of the Old Testament matriarchs Sarah, Rebekah, and Rachel, as well as of Hannah, who bore Samuel, and the mother of Samson. The advanced age of the priestly couple recalls the elderly Abram and Sarah and underlines the intervention of God in Elizabeth's ability to conceive.

The ancient Hebrews used lot-casting (simi lar to our drawing of straws) to determine the will of God (e.g., josh. 14:1-2). So when Zechariah gains by lot the honor of burning incense in the temple, it isn't just a lucky break for him. His solitary presence in the sanctuary occasions the appearance of the angel Gabriel (cf. Dan. 8:16; 9:21), who tells Zechariah that he and Elizabeth will become the parents of a son. Gabriel instructs Zechariah to name the boy John, informs the father-to-be that the boy will follow the requirements of a Nazirite vow by abstaining from the consumption of alcohol (Num. 6:1-4; cf. Samson, Judges 13), and describes John's future work in terms that parallel Malachi's prophecy of the returned Elijah (Mal. 4:5-6).

Ancient Near Eastern cultures viewed childlessness as a sign of divine disfavor (v. 25), and Zechariah, no doubt delighted at the angel's news, asks for a sign to dissolve his doubt about the truth of the announcement. Gabriel grants the request, but in a way that disciplines Zechariah for his disbelief: the priest will remain mute till Gabriel's words come to pass. Soon Elizabeth becomes pregnant, but her husband remains tongue-tied till after she gives birth (vv. 57ff.).

1:26-38 Gabriel's Message to Mary With Elizabeth in her sixth month of pregnancy, Gabriel makes an even more surprising announcement to her relative Mary, namely, that the engaged but unwed virgin will conceive a son by the Holy Spirit. Again Gabriel dictates the name of the child - Jesus - and describes him in terms that echo the Old Testament - here God's promise to David of a perpetual dynasty and prophecies foreshadowing the promised Messiah (cf. 2 Sam. 7:1-17; Dan. 7:13-28). Mary expresses her voluntary submission to God's will by calling herself his "servant." Mary's acceptance took courage, since pregnancy out of wedlock invited scandal and jeopardized her impending marriage to Joseph (cf. Matt. 1:1825).

1:39-56 Mary Visits Elizabeth Having learned from Gabriel of Elizabeth's pregnancy (v. 36), Mary travels south, from Nazareth to Judah, and stays with her relative for the last three months before john's birth. Mary's greeting to Elizabeth sparks her baby to leap for joy in the womb and occasions Elizabeth's filling with the Holy Spirit, which leads her to perceive that Mary will become the mother of the Lord. Elizabeth pronounces on Mary a blessing, after which Mary offers a song of praise to God, termed in Latin the "Magnificat" (cf. the song of Hannah,1 Sam. 2:1-10).

1:57-80 Elizabeth Gives Birth and Zechariah Speaks On the eighth day after Elizabeth delivers, she and Zechariah follow the Mosaic law by presenting their baby boy for circumcision (cf. Gen. 17:12-14), at which time his official naming takes place. Much to everyone's dismay, both parents insist on calling their son John, a name nowhere represented in his ancestry. The act of obedience to the angel Gabriel's command loosens the tongue of Zechariah, and the unusual events make the family the talk of the region. Filled with the Holy Spirit, Zechariah utters a prophetic song of praise, known as the "Benedictus." The prophecy exudes hope for the fulfillment of Old Testament promises of divine salvation (= deliverance) from Israel's oppressors. This hope rests on God's promise to Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3) and a continuation of the Davidic dynasty (= "house," v. 69). Zechariah sees his son as the one ordained to "clear" the way for the Lord, as prophesied in Mal. 3:1 (v. 76). John lives in the desert till he begins his adult ministry.

Shepherd with flock. (BiblePlaces.com)

2:1-20 The Birth of Jesus The census ordered by the emperor Caesar Augustus (v. 1) may refer to one taken not for purposes of taxation but for determining allegiance to Rome. The historical record documents well his taxation censuses of Roman citizens in 28 B.c., 8 B.c., and A.D. 14. The Greek of verse 2 may indicate that the census occurred before Quirinius became military governor of Syria in A.D. 6.

Hebrew custom in ist-century Palestine considered engagement to be as binding as marriage; indeed, engaged couples were called husband and wife, though conjugal rights applied only after their official marriage. So when in compliance with the emperor's decree Joseph "goes up" to the Judean hill country from Nazareth (70 mi. north of Bethlehem but far lower in elevation), he takes with him his betrothed, Mary, whose miraculous pregnancy has reached nearly full term. Thus Bethlehem, birthplace of Joseph's royal forefather, becomes the birthplace of Jesus, whose Davidic ancestry through his adoptive, human father legitimates him as the rightful heir to the throne.

Yet the circumstances of Jesus' birth prove far from regal. Overcrowding from the influx of homecomers to Bethlehem has forced Joseph and Mary to take lodging apparently on the lower floor of a private home, where many 1stcentury households kept their livestock. Mary employs the animals' feeding trough (manger) as a bed for her newborn son. Luke records the angelic announcement of Jesus' birth to local shepherds, whose profession parallels that of Jesus' monarchic predecessor David, the shepherd-king. The shepherds visit the stable and thus become eyewitnesses to the truth of the revelation concerning the Savior (see vv. 10-12).

2:21-40 Simeon and Anna Recognize the Messiah Mary and Joseph follow the Mosaic law by having Jesus circumcised on the eighth day after his birth, they officially name him at that time (cf.1:59ff.), dedicate him to God at the temple after the period of ritual purification, and offer the required sacrifice (cf. Leviticus 12; Exod. 13:2,12-13). The Holy Spirit leads the righteous Jerusalemite Simeon to the temple, where as divinely promised he encounters the Christ child. Simeon's prophecy foresees a fundamental change in God's covenantal relationship with humanity. Jesus' ministry will widen the offer of salvation to Gentiles; but salvation for the chosen people of the old covenant, the Jews, will now depend not on their ancestry but on their acceptance or rejection of Jesus as the Messiah. Simeon's ominous words to Mary that a "sword will pierce [her] soul" find fruition in Jesus' crucifixion and burial. The elderly prophetess Anna also recognizes Jesus as the Christ, and her testimony at the temple reinforces the witness of Simeon.

2:41-52 Jesus Stays Behind Luke provides our only window into the childhood of Jesus. Here the 12-year-old Jesus and his family join with relatives and friends in the annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem for the Passover festival (Lev 23:3-8). When the caravan sets out on the return trip to Nazareth, Jesus' parents assume that their son has stayed with the group. But failing to find him at the end of the first day's journey, they go back to Jerusalem, where after three days of searching they finally locate Jesus in the temple. With his reckoning as an adult set to occur within the year (at age 13), Jesus finds himself at home in the house of God, his Father, where his interaction with the teachers of Hebrew religion fosters and furthers his growth in wisdom. By stressing Jesus' continued "obedience" to his parents back in Nazareth and by commenting on his intellectual, physical, spiritual, and social growth, Luke portrays Jesus as the ideal child who develops into an ideally well-rounded adult (v. 52).

3:1-22 The Ministry of John the Baptist

Cf. Matthew 3; Mark 1:2-11.

Luke sets the ministry of John at ca. 27-29, in the reign of Herod Antipas, a son of Herod the Great during whose rule Jesus was born (v. 1). The regions of Galilee, Ituraea, Trachonitis, and Abilene all lay well north of Judea and Jerusalem. During John's ministry, Caiaphas served as high priest (A.D. 18-36), but the lasting influence of his predecessor and father-in-law Annas (A.D. 6-15) leads Luke to mention the priests as a pair (v 2).

Luke's quotation from Isa. 40:3-5 extends the offer of salvation to all humanity (vv. 4-6; cf. Matt. 3:2). Verses 10-14 note practical implications of righteousness: generosity, honesty, justice, and contentment.

In Luke's account of Jesus' baptism, the Holy Spirit descends on the Lord while he prays, and the Spirit alights in the physical form of a dove (cf. "like a dove" in Matthew and Mark).

3:23-38 The Genealogy of Jesus

Cf. Matt. 1:1-16.

In Luke's Gospel, the genealogy of Jesus introduces the account of his public ministry, which he begins at 30 - the age when Hebrew priests assumed their duties (Num. 4:2-3). Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through his human father, Joseph, to establish Jesus as the legitimate heir to the Davidic throne N. 31). That the genealogy extends back to Adam makes Jesus the Savior not just of the Jews but of all humanity (cf. Matt. 1:2, where Jesus' lineage starts with Abraham, forefather of the Hebrew people).

4:1-13 Temptation in the Wilderness

Cf. Matt. 4:1-11; Mark 1:12-13.

Full with the Holy Spirit, Jesus fasts for 40 days. Although "famished;" he resists the Devil's command to turn stones to bread. Luke reverses Matthew's order of the remaining temptations and ends them at Jerusalem, where Jesus' ministry will culminate.

4:14-9:50 Jesus' Ministry in Galilee

4:14-30 Hometown Rejection Cf. Matt. 4:12-17; 13:54-58; Mark 1:14-15; 6:i-6a.

Filled and led by the Holy Spirit, Jesus exits the wilderness and heads home to Galilee, where he begins his public ministry and his reputation grows (cf. V. 23). Though widely praised throughout the region, Jesus prophesies and experiences rejection in his hometown, Nazareth. From his boyhood, Jesus has recognized his sonship to God (cf. 2:49), but his townspeople see him only as the offspring of a familiar carpenter (v 22). At the local synagogue, Jesus declares himself the embodiment of Isa. 61:1-2a - the Spirit-empowered preacher of the gospel, deliverer of the oppressed, and healer of the blind (cf. Matt. 11:2-6). Jesus stops just short of Isaiah's reference to the "day of vengeance of our God," meaning judgment day. From the beginning of his Gospel, Luke emphasizes the offer of salvation to Gentiles and the condemnation of unbelieving Jews (cf. 2:32ff.; 3:4-6). The examples Jesus cites from the ministries of the prophets Elijah and Elisha illustrate this reversal of Jewish expectation and enrage the hometown crowd (1 Kgs. 17:9-16; 2 Kgs. 5:1-14). Expelled from the city by a mob bent on stoning him for blasphemy, Jesus nevertheless escapes unharmed to carry on with his mission.

4:31-44 Favorable Reception Cf. Matt. 7:28-29; 8:14-17; Mark 1:21-38.

The amazement with which the residents of Capernaum receive Jesus' authoritative teaching contrasts with the skepticism of his hometown crowd. The miracles he performs in Capernaum provide tangible reasons for their faith. Jesus' demonstration of authority in the spiritual and physical realms validates the authority of his teaching, and the receptive Galilean multitudes will not let him go (contrast vv. 29 and 42).

5:1-11 Jesus Catches Some Fishermen Cf. Matt. 4:18-22; Mark 1:16-20.

A multitude of eager listeners backs Jesus up to the shores of Lake Gennesaret, another name for the Sea of Galilee. The availability of a fishing boat belonging to Simon Peter affords Jesus the opportunity to continue addressing the crowds while anchored just offshore. He follows up his teaching with another miracle, this time directing Simon Peter toward an unmanageable catch of fish after he and his partners have seen nothing but empty nets all night long. The awesome demonstration of Jesus' power heightens Simon's sense of sinfulness and stirs his fear. Jesus meets the amazement of the fishermen with an irresistible call to discipleship.

5:12-26 Jesus Heals a Leper and a Paralytic Cf. Matt. 8:1-4; 9:1-8; Mark 1:4o-45; 2:1-12.

The advanced disease of the man "full" of leprosy (an unspecified skin disease making him ritually impure and a social outcast) and the immediacy of the paralytic's restoration underline Jesus' unlimited power to heal. Recognizing the latter man's faith, Jesus forgives his sins, believed by his contemporaries to be the cause of his affliction.

By noting Jesus' solitary withdrawal to the wilderness for prayer, Luke shows that Jesus has not let popularity diminish his piety (v. 16; cf. 3:21; 6:12; 9:18, 28; 11:1).

5:27-39 Feasting with Levi and Company Cf. Matt. 9:9-17; Mark 2:13-22.

Jesus enlists an unlikely candidate for discipleship - a tax collector named Levi whose occupation carried the stigma of dishonesty and complicity with the Roman establishment. Levi immediately repents ("leaves everything") to join Jesus' cause. Jesus further alienates the guardians of religious orthodoxy by joining Levi's celebratory banquet, where he mingles with people considered outside the fold.

The question then arises as to why Jesus' followers do not fast, as do the Pharisees and even the disciples of John the Baptist. Jesus answers that a new age is at hand, one marked by repentance and hope and therefore a time for celebration. Pointing ahead to his own death, he remarks that there will yet be plenty of time for mourning and preparation for the final days.

6:1-11 Sabbath Law vs. Legalism Cf. Matt. 12:1-14; Mark 2:23-3:6.

Jesus runs afoul of the Pharisees' interpretation of the Law when his disciples grab handfuls of grain while passing through a field on the Sabbath. Rubbing the heads of wheat between the hands separates the edible grain from the inedible chaff (v. 1), which the religious legalists consider to be labor. In his account of Jesus healing on the Sabbath, Luke notes that the man had a withered right hand - presumably the one whose loss of use caused the greatest handicap (v. 6). Luke also addresses this issue in 14:1-9, where Jesus heals a man with dropsy.

6:12-16 Jesus Appoints Twelve Apostles Cf. Matt. 10:1-4; Mark 3:13-19.

After a night of prayerful consideration, Jesus singles out a dozen of his disciples (followers in general) for the special role of apostle (vv 12-13). These 12 would comprise his authorized representatives in ministry and his closest companions.

Luke reports that it was Jesus who gave Simon the new name Peter (v. 14). Another of the Twelve, also named Simon (v. 15), is called "the Zealot," possibly indicating his religious devotion (cf. Acts 22:3) or perhaps association with a party of Jews opposed to the Roman occupation. Judas Iscariot is identified as the one who would become a "traitor" (v. 16; cf. Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:19, "who betrayed him").

6:17-49 The Sermon on the Plain Cf. Matthew 5-7.

A great throng of listeners and miracleseekers awaits Jesus, accompanied from his mountain retreat by the 12 apostles. Matthew and Mark make general statements similar to W. 17-19, which note the spread of Jesus' reputation and the multitudes who come to him for healing (see Matt. 4:23-25; Mark 3:7-12). Chapter 6 encapsulates much of the teaching in Matthew 5-7, the Sermon on the Mount.

Luke's congratulatory "beatitudes" focus on hardships familiar to Jesus' audience: poverty (of goods, not spirit as in Matthew), hunger, sorrow, and persecution (vv. 20-23; cf. Matt. 5:3-12). The succeeding, antithetical woes ("but woe...") appear only in Luke and warn of future ill fortune for those who lead the good life now, namely, the persecutors of Jesus' disciples (vv. 24-26).

Jesus then teaches his followers how to respond to their lot in life, and particularly to their antagonists: in a nutshell, overcome evil with good. They must go beyond merely fulfilling the requirements of the Law by loving their enemies and exhibiting Godlike mercy. Generally, verses 27-36 parallel Matt. 5:38-48, and verses 37-49 parallel Matt. 7:1-27. As introduction to his warning against judging others, Jesus offers a proverb questioning the blind leading the blind (v. 39). Compare V. 45 with Matt. 12:34-35.

7:1-10 Jesus Heals a Centurion's Slave Cf. Matt. 8:5-13.

In keeping with his emphasis on the inclusion of non-Jews among the elect, Luke details the worthiness and humility of a Roman centurion who requests healing for his slave (vv. 4-5, 7). In Luke's account, the officer sends "Jewish elders" (v 3) and "friends" (v. 6) to intercede with Jesus, who dares to violate Jewish sensitivities by entering the Gentile's house.

7:11-17 A Widow's Son Revived The account of this miracle in Nain (7 mi. southeast of Nazareth) appears only in Luke, who shows particular concern for the poor and oppressed. Already husbandless, the bereaved mother faces certain economic devastation with the death of her only son, since in her society men supported women. Jesus' compassion for the widow leads him to resurrect the young man, and the astounded eyewitnesses recognize God's hand in the event, though they see Jesus himself as only a "great prophet."

7:18-35 Jesus Answers John with Action Cf. Matt. 11:1-19.

When John the Baptist learns of Jesus' miraculous healings, he sends two messengers to investigate. Jesus sends them back to report that these deeds fulfill what had been prophesied by Isaiah and represent what Jesus claims as his mission (cf. Isa. 61:1; Luke 4:16-21). The raising up of the dead (v 22) recalls the immediately preceding episode at Nain (7:11-17).

Jesus' contemporaries fail to understand either John or Jesus or their ministries. Luke emphasizes the difference between those who accept and those who reject John's invitation to baptism (and the underlying call to repentance) and thus their reaction to God's plan of salva tion (vv 29-30). The "children" of wisdom (v 35) are the repentant "tax collectors and sinners" in contrast with those of the religious establishment who resist spiritual renewal.

7:36-50 Gratitude Proportionate to Forgiveness This account describes a separate occasion from the episode recorded in Matt. 26:6-13; Mark 14:3-9. Here an "immoral woman" crashes a dinner party given for Jesus by a Pharisee named Simon. As a matter of courtesy, Simon should have provided his guests with water to wash the dust off their sandaled feet and with anointing oil to make their faces shine with the joy of the occasion. But at least for Jesus the host has done neither. As per custom at the dinner table, Jesus' legs undoubtedly stretched behind him at an angle as he reclined on one side, propped up by an elbow. Thus the uninvited woman gains easy access to his feet, which she washes with tears of repentance, dries with her loose locks of hair (worn in the style of a prostitute), kisses unceasingly, and bathes in expensive perfume. Jesus' holier-than-thou host objects, for if Jesus were really a prophet he would know not to let this sinner touch and thus ritually defile him. Jesus turns the occasion into a lesson on forgiveness. Simon and his self-righteous Pharisee friends feel no need for God's forgiveness, but this woman recognizes the great depth of her sinfulness, and her behavior shows her gratitude. Jesus declares her sins forgiven, but the pronouncement prompts the ever-skeptical Pharisees to wonder just who Jesus thinks he is.

8:1-21 Fruitful Seed and True Family Cf. Matt. 13:123; 12:46-50; Mark 4:1-25; 3:31-35.

Luke uniquely notes the practical support of Jesus' ministry by women and names three who accompanied Jesus and the itinerant Twelve (vv. 1-3). Mary Magdalene (not the woman of 7:3650) and Joanna will witness the empty tomb on the morning of Jesus' resurrection (24:10). Herod in verse 3 is Herod Antipas, ruler of Galilee (3:1).

The women who support Jesus' ministry and the fruitful seed in the parable of the Sower (vv. 4-15) exemplify the true family Jesus claims for himself - those who accept his teaching and willingly commit themselves to God, his Father (v. 21).

8:22-39 Jesus Stills a Storm and Calms a Wild Man Cf. Matt. 8:23-34; Mark 4:35-5:20.

The winds of northern Palestine intensify as they channel through deep gorges opening into the Sea of Galilee, the world's lowest freshwater lake (ca. 680 ft. below sea level), and churn up the waters of this 13 x 7-mile natural bathtub. Jesus encounted just such a storm as he left the pressing crowds and crossed this sea. The fear of Jesus' companions contrasts with his peaceful slumber on board (cf. Jonah 1:4-5). In response to their panic, Jesus calms the storm with a word, and they are awestruck at his power over nature.

Luke's account of the healing of the Gerasene demoniac closely parallels that of Mark 5:1-2o. By exorcising the demons that had long afflicted the man, Jesus again demonstrates power over chaotic forces. Though Lev. 11:7 prohibits Jews from eating pork, the largely Gentile population east of the Sea of Galilee commonly raised swine, and into such a herd Jesus transfers the evil spirits. (The "abyss" of V. 31 denotes the watery chaos under the earth.). Fearing Jesus' divine power, the local people implore him to leave, but the healed demoniac has been spiritually transformed and now proclaims God's mighty acts through Jesus.

8:40-56 A Hemorrhage Healed and a Child Resurrected Cf. Matt. 9:18-26; Mark 5:21-43.

In contrast to the Gerasenes' begging Jesus to leave their area, a welcoming crowd awaits him on the other side of the Sea of Galilee. Jairus, a leader of the synagogue and thus an important person in the religious community, implores him to minister to his dying daughter. But Jesus first attends to a woman chronically afflicted with hemorrhages, a condition that marks her as ritually unclean. Luke's account includes wording that highlights the clairvoyance of Jesus (vv. 46-47a). Jesus then revives Jairus's daughter but instructs the parents not to publicize the miraculous healing.

9:1-17 The Apostles Carry Out Their Mission; Five Thousand Fed Cf. Matt. 10:1-14; 14:1-2, 13-21; Mark 6:6b-16, 30-44; John 6:1-14.

Now the disciples become active agents of Jesus' mission in their own right. Luke pits Herod's puzzlement over this ministry against the power of the apostles, who derive their authority from Jesus. Despite his desire for respite from the crowd, for prayer and reflection with his disciples, Jesus abandons his need for privacy in order to minister to the needy multitudes.

9:18-27 Jesus Clarifies His Mission as Messiah Cf. Matt. 16:13-28; Mark 8:27-9:1.

In a quiet time of prayer with his disciples, Jesus asks who people think him to be. It is Peter who confesses him to be the Messiah. Immediately afterward, Jesus predicts his suffering, death, and resurrection, which for the faithful will effect deliverance from the eternal consequences of sin. Thus Jesus corrects the Jewish expectation of a messianic revolutionary who would bring deliverance from political oppression in the here and now - a notion based on prophecy and postponed by Jesus till his second coming (cf. Isa. 9:1-7).

9:28-45 Jesus Transfigured Cf. Matt. 17:1-8; Mark 9:2-32.

Consistent with Luke's portrayal of a pious Jesus, his transfiguration takes place while he prays (v 29). In contrast to Jesus, the disciples' succumb to slumber, which occurrence points out their comparative weakness but also tempers the obtuseness of Peter's offer to make booths for Jesus, Moses, and Elijah N. 33; cf. 22:39-46). Luke's approximation, "eight days," may reflect a Roman week (v 28).

As Jesus descends from the mountain, a man in the awaiting crowd implores him to exorcise a demon from his only son. Despite the seriousness of the affliction, here graphically described, a mere word from Jesus restores the boy's health, thus testifying to the power of God (vv. 37-43).

9:46-50 Lessons in Humility and Tolerance Cf. Matt. 18:1-5; Mark 9:33-41.

Concerned about rank among themselves, the disciples have failed to understand Jesus' teaching about humility. Giving an object lesson, he proclaims a socially lowest-ranking little child as equal to himself in God's view. Even one as far beyond the bounds of Jesus' circle as an unnamed exorcist (vv. 49-50) might contribute to his mission.

9:51-19:27 Jesus' Journey to Jerusalem

Much of this section contains material unique to Luke's Gospel. Here Jesus' teachings dominate the narrative, punctuated by relatively few accounts of miracles.

9:51-62 Resolve to Carry On Jesus knows that great suffering awaits him in Jerusalem, and it takes determination to head that way (v 51). His rejection en route by Samaritan villagers gives only a hint of worse to come, and the restraint he shows toward them foreshadows his forgiving spirit on the cross (23:34). The region of Samaria, as distinguished from the capital city of the former northern kingdom of Israel, lay between Galilee to the north and Judea to the south. After the Assyrians conquered Israel in the late 8th century B.C., they deported much of its Hebrew population and resettled the area with conquered Gentile foreigners (2 Kings 17). The Samaritans were offspring of marriages between these Gentiles and the remaining Hebrews. Their establishment on Mount Gerizim of a central sanctuary that rivaled the temple in Jerusalem fueled a mutual hatred between the Samaritans and Jews - thus the Samaritan villagers' refusal to host Jesus and his fellow Jewish pilgrims to Jerusalem, and the eagerness of James and John (nicknamed the "Sons of Thunder"; Mark 3:17) for revenge (vv. 53-54).

Although the Samaritan inhospitality left Jesus no choice but to move on, the urgency of proclaiming the gospel "everywhere" required a roving ministry (vv. 57-60; cf. Matt. 8:19-22). Jesus' warning of would-be followers not to "look back' parallels his own resolve to "plow" forward to Jerusalem (v. 62).

10:1-24 The Commissioning of Apostles Cf. Matt. 9:35-10:15, 40; 11:20-27; 13:16-17; Mark 6:6b-13.

As Jesus proceeds toward Jerusalem, where his ministry will culminate, he appoints a team to pave the way for his arrival, which he equates with the arrival of the kingdom of God. The number of messengers - 72 (70 in some ancient manuscripts) - corresponds to the count of nations derived from Genesis io. Thus the mission of the apostolic deputies becomes worldwide evangelization, in accord with Jesus' command in 24:47.

The instructions given to the 72 expand Jesus' directives to the Twelve in 9:1-6. The nearness of the kingdom requires that the apostolic deputies focus intently on their mission without wasting precious time on practical preparations for their journey, small talk along the way, or bettering their food and lodging arrangements at their destinations. Here the standard Hebrew greeting, "Peace"(shalom), conveys not just a casual "hello" but extends wishes for the blessings of God's kingdom (v. 5). Judgment will come on those who reject the messengers and thus reject Jesus and the kingdom (v. i6).

Verse 17 moves directly from the commissioning to "mission accomplished," as the 72 report back to Jesus. Satan's "falling from heaven" refers to the messengers' breaking of his power through their divinely granted authority over the forces of evil. Jesus redirects the missionaries' delight in this power to delight in the joy of their eternal salvation. (On the "heavenly record" of v. 20, cf. Mal. 3:16; Rev. 3:5.) Jesus models his instruction in a prayer of rejoicing that expresses his exclusive relationship to God (vv. 21-22; cf. John 1:14,18). The "wise and intelligent" are the self-reliant religious establishment, learned in the Mosaic law, with the "infants" in learning (the apostles) recalling the humble multitudes who like children acknowledge their spiritual inadequacy (cf. 7:29-30).

10:25-37 Neighborliness and the Good Samaritan The parable of the Good Samaritan, unique to Luke's Gospel, comes in response to the testing of Jesus by an expert in the Mosaic law (vv. 25-27; cf. Matt. 22:34-40). First, Jesus gets the lawyer to answer his own question about how to inherit eternal life - love God and neighbor. Seeking to save face, the lawyer presses Jesus on a technicality: "Who is my neighbor?" Jesus' answer transforms the question into a call to action: "Whom can I be a neighbor to?" That Jesus makes two religious professionals - a priest and a Levite - the bad examples in the story surely surprises the lawyer, but the real shock comes when a Samaritan turns out to be the hero (for the enmity between Jews and Samaritans, cf. 9:51-56). Narrowly focused on following the letter of the Law (avoiding ritual defilement through contact with what might be a corpse), the religious professionals fail to carry out its selfless spirit. Not so with the Samaritan, whose natural love for himself spills over in acts of mercy toward the mugged wayfarer everyone else has left for dead. A manual laborer commonly received one "denarius" (worth 18 cents in silver) at the end of each workday (v. 35). Here the Samaritan advances two denarii to the innkeeper - enough to support a single individual for two weeks.

10:38-42 Mary and Martha When Jesus comes to town, Martha plays the part of a good, ancient Near Eastern hostess, while Mary takes the position of a student - a role traditionally reserved for men. Jesus' word to Martha implies that simple hospitality was sufficient, and by defending Mary's right to learn from him, he shows that women were welcome as his disciples. John 11 reveals that Martha and Mary lived in Bethany (a town several miles southeast of Jerusalem) with their brother Lazarus, whom Jesus raised from the dead.

11:1-13 Jesus Teaches How to Pray Cf. Matt. 6:913; 7:7-11.

The prayerful Jesus portrayed throughout Luke now instructs his disciples on what and how to pray. Luke's summary version of the Lord's Prayer includes the main points of the longer rendering in Matthew: ascribing honor to God's name, which embodies his character; anticipating God's supreme rule on earth; asking for daily sustenance; petitioning for pardon from sins; and requesting resistance to temptation.

The hypothetical situation in verses 5-13 teaches persistence in prayer. The midnight insistence of a host needing to borrow a meal's worth of provisions for an unexpected guest derives from the ancient Near Eastern code of hospitality. The neighbor's getting out of bed and unbolting the door would wake the children, since Palestinian families slept close together in one room. More than any good earthly father, God will certainly grant through the power of the Holy Spirit the valid requests of his earthly "children" (disciples).

11:14-23 The Source of Jesus' Power Cf. Matt. 12:22-30; Mark 3:22-27.

Luke's version of this account has Jesus healing a demon that is mute. The Pharisees insist that his power to exorcise comes from Beelzebul, another name for Satan, the "ruler of the demons." Jesus responds that he is stronger than the evil forces and empowered "by the finger of God" (cf. Exod. 8:19).

11:24-26 The Return of the Unclean Spirits Cf. Matt. 12:43-45.

Jesus warns that God's kingdom requires firm commitment. A person who fails to respond wholeheartedly is like someone who escapes one demon only to fall victim to a whole host of them.

11:27-28 Jesus Passes the Blessing Here as elsewhere in his gospel, Luke shows his unique interest in reporting the response to Jesus of women. When a female from Jesus' crowd of followers calls out to him a blessing, he revises it to say that the truly blessed are the obedient hearers of God's word.

11:29-32 The Sign of Jonah Cf. Matt. 12:38-42; Mark 8:11-13.

Those who continue to question Jesus' role demand a spectacular sign from heaven as proof of his credibility. Luke identifies the sign as Jonah himself and his prophetic message. Jonah's warning of impending judgment led the Ninevites to repent, and Jesus is even greater than Jonah.

11:33-36 The Parable of the Lamp Cf. Matt. 5:15; 6:22-23.

In ancient thought, the eye was the source of light that made seeing possible. Jesus' point calls for repentance and obedience. What is truly important is whether a person is good or bad "inside."

11:37-12:12 Jesus Warns against Hypocrisy Cf. Matt. 15:1-20; 23:1-39; also 10:26-33; 12:31-32.

Invited to dine with Pharisees, Jesus gets grilled for what they consider as his indifference to rituals of purification before eating. He counters by elevating a person's attitude of heart, which governs behavior, over outward rituals (11:39-41). In a series of six "woes" (vv. 42-52) Jesus contrasts concern for social honor and religious status with faithfulness and witness to God's salvific project through compassion and ethical behavior.

He warns his disciples and the larger crowds against hypocrisy. Then, focusing on what lies ahead for himself and his followers, Jesus implores them to remain faithful, even in the face of persecution (vv. 4-12).

12:13-13:9 Urging a Heavenly Perspective Through exhortation and encouragement, Jesus urges his disciples to look beyond the finite world and adopt an eternal outlook on life.

12:13-21 The Rich Fool This parable, which appears only in Luke, illustrates the eternal poverty of the person absorbed in pursuing materialistic goals and living the good life. Compare the account of the rich young ruler seeking to be a disciple and Jesus' comments on the peril of wealth in Matt. 19:16-30.

12:22-34 Stop Worrying, Start Trusting Cf. Matt. 6:19-34.

Recognizing the anxieties of everyday life, Jesus instructs his followers to trust God to meet their basic needs. Just as God cares for the rest of creation, so will he care for humans, made in God's image. Rather than worrying about such mundane matters, as do the Gentiles, Jesus' followers should adjust their priorities and focus on pursuing God's kingdom through righteous living. Unburdened by material pursuits, they can expect God's greater gift.

12:35-48 Alertness and Best Behavior Cf. Matt. 24:42-51.

Jesus cautions his followers to be prepared for his final coming, an event that is certain but whose precise timing cannot be predicted. The literal translation "let your loins be girded" (v. 35) refers to tucking the hem of one's tunic into the belt around the waist to allow the legs greater and more spontaneous freedom of movement (cf. rolling up your sleeves to do a job). The imagery of the wedding feast (v 36) recalls the parable of the Ten Bridesmaids (Matt. 25:1-13). Verse 48b encapsulates the message of the parable of the Talents (Matt. 25:14-30).

12:49-59 Distinguishing Disciples Cf. Matt. 5:25-26; 10:34-36; 16:2-3.

Jesus characterizes his earthly ministry as a fire that will separate disciples from nondisciples (cf. Zech. 13:7-9). The process will require Jesus' own "baptism" of suffering (cf. Mark 10:38-39). His exhortation to "settle out of court" advises repentance and discipleship before one appears before the divine Magistrate, who sentences to debtors' prison (= hell) the morally shortsighted (vv. 58-59).

13:1-9 Nationwide Need for Repentance When Jesus hears about a Roman slaughter of Galilean pilgrims worshipping at the temple in Jerusalem, he quickly corrects any misconception that the victims so suffered because of sinfulness greater than that of their fellow Jews. Neither did the 18 people who died in the collapse of the Siloam tower (in the wall of Jerusalem) receive this awful fate over equally deserving Jerusalemites. Jesus' exhortation to repentance, however, does not promise escape from physical death; rather, the threat of "perishing likewise" warns of dying without having settled up with God before appearing before the divine Magistrate for judgment (cf. 12:58-59). The parable of the fruitless Fig Tree given a date with an axe illustrates the limited time a person has opportunity to repent. By absorbing more than their fair share of nutrients from the soil, fig trees deprive neighboring plants of needed nourishment; thus the owner's unwillingness to let his unproductive tree continue "wasting the soil."

13:10-21 Setting Things Straight on the Sabbath Luke ties Jesus' teaching about the Sabbath to his freeing from the bonds of sickness a woman long doubled-over (cf. 14:1-6; Matt. 12:9-14; Mark 3:1-6). (Current thinking attributed physical diseases to the forces of evil; v. 11.) Jesus answers the protests of the religious legal ists by insisting that their fellow descendant of Abraham deserves at least the standard of care that they themselves give their farm animals.

The short parables of the Mustard Seed and the Leaven encourage the crowd of believers by picturing the rapid growth of the kingdom of God (cf. Matt. 13:31-33; Mark 4:30-32).

13:22-35 Getting into God's Kingdom Cf. Matt. 7:13-14, 21-23; 8:11-12; 23:37-39.

As Luke's travelogue resumes, a follower asks Jesus whether only a few people are gaining salvation. Jesus' indirect response intensifies the seriousness of his appeal that disciples strive to enter the kingdom through the "narrow door" - both hard to find (cf. Matt. 7:14) and, once found, difficult to get through. Since God shuts out "evildoers" (v. 27), the key to gaining entry becomes clear: doing good. But Jesus' response does not teach that a person earns salvation through good works; rather, good works identify the person sincerely striving to enter the kingdom (cf. Phil. 2:12; Jas. 1:22-25; 2:14-26). In the final judgment, faithful obedience will matter more than who comes "last" or "first" in the current world order (cf. Matt. 19:30-20:16).

In an apparent effort to shame Jesus in front of his following, some Pharisees try to scare him into leaving town by telling him that Herod Antipas is out to kill him (as Herod had John the Baptist; 9:9). But Jesus transforms the (false) dilemma into an opportunity to show his bravery (cf. 9:51). He dismisses his supposed assailant as an inconsequential vixen (the Greek word for fox is feminine) and defiantly refuses to budge until he is ready. He will die in Jerusalem, the historic killing ground of the prophets, and will go there on his own timetable.

14:1-24 Humility Earns Honor On the Sabbathday healing of a man with dropsy (a disease that causes swelling and pain from pockets of collecting fluid), cf. another such healing recorded in 13:10-17. Here the miracle takes place during a meal hosted by a prominent Jewish leader - apparently a member of the Jewish court, the Sanhedrin - and attended by his cronies, who "watch" Jesus closely to see how carefully he will follow the Sabbath rules. Rather than being caught in what looks like a setup, Jesus asks the legal experts present whether it is legal to heal on the Sabbath. He knows that they know the Mosaic law nowhere prohibits the practice - only later did the rabbis define healing as work and so make laws that limited its exercise on the Sabbath to life-and-death cases.

After silencing his opponents and exposing their hypocrisy (v. 6), Jesus shames them by pointing out the foolishness of their quest for social status and admiration by others (vv. 7-11). Jesus warns his fellow guests that presuming to grab places of honor (seats nearest the head of the table) only risks humiliation (here a forced, public march to an assigned seat farthest from the host). The real way to ensure honor is to take last place first - from there, the only way to go is up! The tone of Jesus' advice reflects the ancient literary genre called "Wisdom;" epitomized in the Old Testament book of Proverbs, which aims at equipping people for successful, godly living.

By advising his host to throw parties for the destitute, rather than for those who have the means and feel the need to reciprocate, Jesus again counsels selfless behavior that ultimately benefits the benefactor. In Jesus' culture, the offer of hospitality creates a dilemma for the intended guest: refusing the invitation insults and dishonors the hopeful host, but accepting it obligates the guest to return the favor lest he dishonor himself. Jesus' solution to this rotating social debt that traps hosts and guests in a financially draining cycle of alternating roles is to show hospitality to people who cannot repay you. Not only do you look good (earn honor) without incurring unending social or financial debt, but you receive an eternal payback in recognition of your righteousness. Everybody wins.

Jesus brings this teaching home in the parable of the Great Banquet (vv. 15-24; cf. Matt. 22:1-14). Read in light of the preceding three verses, the first-invited guests (the Jews) send their regrets, not just because they are too busy to come, but also because they want to avoid the obligation to reciprocate with the host (God). Their passing up of the invitation (rejection of the old covenant) amounts to slapping the host in the face, and his compelling the poor and handicapped (Gentiles) to fill up the banquet hall (the kingdom of God) both does them a favor and preserves his honor.

14:25-35 Calculating the Cost of Discipleship Cf. Matt. 5:13; 10:37-38; Mark 9:50.

Luke uses stronger language than Matthew in communicating the self-sacrificial requirements of discipleship. Here even one's natural love for family and self must display itself to such a lesser degree than one's love for Jesus so as to seem like "hatred" in comparison.

The parables of the Tower Builder (vv. 28-30) and the Warring King (vv. 31-32) caution that followers should calculate the cost of discipleship and consider the risks involved before committing to the cause. The discarding of the "salt" that degenerates to "tastelessness" metaphorically portends a sorry future for the halfhearted disciple (cf. 9:57-62).

15 Three Parables of the Lost and Found That Jesus associates with unscrupulous governmental employees and religiously lax Jews ("sinners"), just as he does with the religiously meticulous Jewish leaders (cf.14:1-24), catches the critical eye of the Pharisees and scribes. Jesus responds to their grumbling with three parables that illustrate the spontaneity and propriety of unbridled joy over the salvation of the spiritually lost - his mission as stated in 5:29-32.

Jesus uses the parable of the Lost Sheep retrieved by its owner (vv. 4-7) to convey great heavenly rejoicing over the single "lost" sinner who repents and returns to God (cf. Matt. 18:1214). Jesus sarcastically refers to the Pharisees and scribes as the "ninety-nine righteous persons who need no repentance." In fact, they do need repentance but are too self-righteous to see it (cf. 7:29-30 for their refusing the baptism of John).

The parable of the Lost Coin (vv. 8-1o) conveys the joy of God, surrounded by the angels, when a sinner repents. The woman's 1o coins may refer to those that decorate her wedding headdress; so her intense effort to find the lost coin would correspond to a modern woman's scouring the house for a diamond missing from her engagement ring. The joy on finding the coin stems not only or even primarily from its monetary worth (one day's wages), but mainly from its sentimental value. Thus the parable pictures the emotional investment of God in individual human beings. His persistent pursuit of the lost flows not from determined tyranny but from heartfelt attachment.

The longer parable of the Prodigal Son (vv. 11-32) comes even closer to the point by making a person the "lost" element in the story. The impatient second son, who stands to inherit much less than his firstborn elder brother, wants to collect right now. After converting his inheritance to cash (v. 13), he travels abroad, leads a wild life, and runs through his money. A famine in the now penniless prodigal's new country of residence makes food scarce for the scavenger. So he takes a job as a swineherd - an especially detestable job for a Jew (cf. Lev. 11:7) - but still the boy goes hungry. That he longs to eat the carob pods fed to the pigs shows the depths of his destitution. Having hit bottom, he resolves to return home and repentantly throw himself on his father's mercy by forfeiting his sonship and requesting servanthood on his father's estate. But on recognizing the returning prodigal in the distance, the father does the forfeiting - he sheds his dignity as patriarch by running to greet his still-beloved son. The prodigal launches into his confession of sin and acknowledgment of unworthiness, but his father stops him short. He covers the repentant renegade's rags with the best robe available; gives his son a signet ring, a symbol of his restored position in the family; puts sandals on his feet to distinguish him from the barefoot servants; and throws a welcome-home party, at which he even serves meat (not a regular part of meals in ancient Palestine) - the calf he has been fattening up for a special occasion! Such is the father's overwhelming joy on reunion with the son he presumed gone for good (cf. Gen. 46:29-30).

Although this story makes the same essential point as the preceding two parables, here Jesus surprises his audience by inserting them into the story. The dutiful oldest son, who so resents the celebration of his wayward sibling's return that he resists joining the party, represents the exclusivistic scribes and Pharisees miffed about Jesus' mixing with those considered less than holy. The father's reminding his eldest that he stands to inherit the entire estate chides these law-abiding listeners for pouting about the good fortune of their repentant neighbors. Jesus leaves his audience to decide whether they will add to their strict obeying of the Law repentance from the sins they overlook and compassion for the boldly sinful who forsake their wicked ways.

16:1-18 The Shrewd Steward In this parable (vv. 1-13), Jesus goes beyond prescribing compassion for penitent sinners (15:11-32) to advising his disciples (the "children of light;' v 8) to learn lessons from people who are clearly unrighteous. The steward, given notice on suspicion of mismanaging his master's estate, puts his street smarts into action before turning over the balanced books. By giving unauthorized discounts to his master's debtors, the steward indebts them to himself and so stockpiles credits on which he can collect during his impending unemployment. The master discovers the ruse and praises the steward for his shrewdness, though not for his trickery. Then Jesus commends the steward's earthly good thinking as applicable to the eternal sphere. The "dishonest wealth" (v. 9; Greek mammon) means wealth so greatly loved that it leads to unrighteous behavior (cf. 1 Tim. 6:1o, all kinds of evil"). Here Jesus appears to be teaching financial charity toward others as a way to make friends with God, the divine Gatekeeper who in 13:22-30 opens up only to sincere seekers of the kingdom identifiable by their "good deeds." Financial faithfulness (charitable giving) shows a person worthy of the true riches of God's kingdom by demonstrating that person's love of God, not money (vv. 10-13; cf. 12:33-34; Matt. 6:19-24).

The scoffing of the Pharisees leads Jesus to observe that, though they enjoy the admiration of their fellow Jews (for outwardly appearing to follow the Law to the letter), God finds them inwardly detestable. Citing a common practice of the Pharisees - namely, remarriage by and of divorcees, which results in forbidden adultery - Jesus exposes their violation of the very "Law" on which they stake their religious claim to fame (cf. Matt. 5:32). By upholding the validity of the Law even now that the preaching of the gospel has begun, Jesus refuses to let the Pharisees off the hook. These hypocrites stand in contrast to the sinners who are finding favor with God ("forcing their way" into his kingdom through repentance).

16:19-31 The Rich Man and Lazarus The parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus illustrates the fate of people who fail to make friends with God by exercising charity toward others - that is, people who do not practice Jesus' teaching in 16:1-13. The "rich man, whose self-importance shows in his wearing of clothes fit for royalty ("purple and fine linen"), stands for the self-righteous Pharisees. Diseased and famished Lazarus, who lies helpless at the rich man's gate, stands for the needy, whom the Pharisees completely ignore. Even the dogs that lick Lazarus's sores (saliva was believed to have medicinal value) treat him better than the rich man does.

Overlooked in his life on earth, however, Lazarus receives heavenly charity in death. (The Greek name "Lazarus" comes from Hebrew "Eleazar, "God is [his] help.") Angels whisk the deceased pauper off to Abraham's side: the "bosom of Abraham," which likely pictures a heavenly banquet where Lazarus reclines in the place of honor - immediately in front of and to the right of the forefather of the Hebrew nation (cf. 14:7-11).

Meanwhile the rich man also dies and goes to Hades, the shadowy world of the dead. Now he is the one longing for help, and by addressing Abraham as "father" (= forefather) appeals to his Hebrew ancestry for some measure of relief from the flames that torment him. But kinship cannot bridge the chasm between Hades and heavenly bliss; and Lazarus, who in life didn't get a crumb from the rich man, could not now give him a drop of water even if he were willing. Neither will Abraham grant the alternative request to "resurrect" Lazarus to the rich man's brothers and shock them into repentance (here, helping the poor) to avoid an afterlife of torment. If "Moses and the Prophets" (the laws and prophecies contained in the Hebrew Scriptures) cannot move them, neither will a man's rising from the dead - a foreshadowing of the death and resurrection of Jesus.

17:1-10 Duty within the Christian Community Cf. Matt. 18:6-9, 15-22; Mark 9:42-48.

Jesus now turns from addressing the Pharisees to teaching his disciples. In Luke, his summary of duty within the Christian community warns members against causing others to abandon their faith, mandates both rebuke for sinfulness and unlimited forgiveness ("seven" symbolizes perfection and completeness, so v. 4 indicates an unlimited number of times), and points out that only a small amount of faith is necessary to carry out these commands. Jesus also admonishes his followers not to expect special treatment from God for fulfilling their Christian duties (vv. 7-10).

17:11-19 A Samaritan Models Thankfulness On the way to Jerusalem, io men, afflicted with some variety of skin disease, approach Jesus but, obediently following the Mosaic law, keep their distance while begging for merciful healing (Lev. 13:45-46; Num. 5:2-4). Jesus commands that they show themselves to the priests to be declared healed and thus fit for reentry into mainstream society. The actual healing takes place when the lepers demonstrate their faith by setting off to obey Jesus' command. But the miracle moves only one of the io to give thanks - notably, a "foreign" Samaritan (cf. 9:51-56). Jesus' disappointed surprise at the neglectful nine points out the contrast between God's rightful expectation of thanks for his acts of mercy toward humans and our errant expectation of congratulations for dutiful obedience to him (c£ W. 7-10).

17:20-37 The Current Kingdom and the Second Coming Cf. Matt. 24:26-44; 10:39.

The Pharisees expect the kingdom of God to manifest itself in political, revolutionary terms: the overthrow of the Roman government. Jesus corrects this mistaken notion by declaring that the kingdom "is in your midst." In other words, Jesus represented that kingdom; threatening Rome was not his mission.

The Pharisees have failed to recognize Jesus as the current embodiment of the "kingdom;' but the unmistakable signs that will immediately precede and accompany his future return (signs that occur during the "days of the Son of Man" and on "his day") will rule out any question in the last days. Jesus tells his disciples not to follow false leads in watching for his second coming to satisfy their wishful thinking - "you will know it when you see it" (cf. 2 Thess. 2:1-12; 3:1-15). He must endure suffering and rejection before "his day" comes. Just as Lot's wife should have focused on fleeing from destruction rather than fatally turning her head to watch (Gen. 19:24-26), so his followers should continue to fulfill their duties to fellow believers (vv 1-10) and to God (vv. 11-19; cf. 9:61-62).

18:1-8 Pray without Ceasing The parable of the Widow and the Unjust Judge applies Jesus' teaching about persistence in prayer to future petitions for his second coming, at which time he will "grant justice to his [persecuted] chosen ones" (vv. 7-8). In ancient Palestine, widows made up a large class of society, since as young teenagers most girls married much older men. Widows lacked social power and financial opportunity, and the widow in Jesus' story can only hope to influence the unfair, unsympathetic judge through persistent pleading. Eventually exasperated, he executes justice for the widow just to get rid of her. But beyond the comparision to God's certain and speedy exercise of justice for his chosen ones, the question lingers, will they lose faith that Jesus will return to deliver on the promise? In other words, when he does come again, will any faithful people be left to execute justice for? This question assumes a significant, troubled interval of time between Jesus' departure and return - one that challenges his disciples to persevere.

18:9-17 Humble Prayer, Certain Justification A second lesson on prayer teaches humility before God as the requirement for justification. The falsely pious prayer of the Pharisee who touts his moral superiority actually condemns him as a hypocrite. Jesus has earlier exposed the Pharisees' commission of the very sins represented by the people with whom the Pharisee in the story contrasts himself (on justness, 11:37-12:12; on adultery, 16:14-18). Nevertheless, the Pharisees' observable acts of piety, such as fasting on Mondays and Thursdays and donating a tenth of all of their possessions, won them the admiration of the Jewish masses - but not Jesus. In his day, the financially opportunistic tax collectors were looked down on in the public eye; so the current parable catches the attention of Jesus' ancient audience by making the respected Pharisee the loser and the universally despised tax collector the winner (cf. the parable of the Good Samaritan, 15:11-32). The depth of the publican's humility even prevents him from adopting the normal posture of prayer: face lifted heavenward, with eyes open (v. 13). The story also spells out in spiritual terms the contrasting results of humility and self-exaltation illustrated in the social sphere by Jesus' teaching in 14:7-11.

Luke here adds a note about Jesus' welcome reception of children, for in ancient Palestine they completely lacked social power and thus, by default, embodied humility (vv. 15-17; cf. Matt. 18:3; 19:13-15; Mark 10:13-16).

18:18-30 The Requirements and Rewards of Discipleship Cf. Matt. 19:16-29; Mark 10:17-30.

The difficulty of implementing Jesus' teaching on charity becomes painfully obvious in his encounter with the rich ruler. More than simply fulfilling all the commandments, to attain the kingdom of God a person must reorder his or her priorities, including sacrifice on behalf of the poor and marginalized. The disciples' example enacts this teaching.

18:31-34 Jesus Details His Nearing Passion Cf. Matt. 20:17-19; Mark 10:32-34.

Jesus has already predicted his suffering, death, and resurrection both in general (5:35; 12:50; 13:32-33; 17:25) and specific terms (9:22, 43-45)• Here the emphasis lies on his passion as fulfilling Old Testament prophecy. The incomprehension of the Twelve in Luke contrasts with their understanding in Matthew (cf. Matt. 17:1-23).

18:35-43 A Blind Man Receives Sight Cf. Matt. 20:29-34; Mark 10:46-52.

The parallel account of this healing in Mark gives the blind man's name as "Bartimaeus" (cf also Mark 8:22-26). As with the Samaritan leper, Jesus commends the blind man's faith as making his healing possible (17:19).

The Last Supper

The first three Gospels contain accounts of a meal held by Jesus with his closest followers in Jerusalem shortly before he died (Matt. 26:17-29; Mark 14:12-25; Luke 22:7-38). Paul gives a brief account of the central event in the meal when he is trying to encourage a proper attitude to the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the church at Corinth (1 Cor. 11:23-26).

The meal was held in the upper room of a house and took place in the evening as the main meal of the day, but no explicit reference is made to what was consumed, other than bread and

wine. According to the Evangelists, however, the meal was in fact a Passover meal (although John appears to date the meal a day earlier, in which case it would have been an ordinary evening

meal, perhaps with something of the Passover atmosphere already present). A Passover meal would have included hors d'oeuvres and a main course of roast lamb and the ritual drinking of wine at four points in the meal. It was customary to interpret the various dishes as symbols of different aspects of the original Passover and the liberation from Egypt recorded in Exodus. It fits in with this custom that Jesus is recorded as having given a new interpretation to the bread and to one of the cups of wine. In both cases he gave thanks to God (as Jews did at every meal)

and then distributed the food and passed the cup so that all the participants shared together.

The Upper Room (Coenaculum) in the Crusader-era Church of the Apostles on Mount Zion. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

The precise details of what Jesus said with respect to the bread and the cup vary surpris

ingly in our sources. Common to all four are the words, This is my body," to which Luke and Paul add, "which is [Luke: 'given'] for you. Do this in remembrance of me." But as regards the cup there is less agreement. Mark and Matthew have, This is my blood of the covenant which is poured out for many [Matthew: for the forgiveness of sins']"; whereas Luke and Paul have, This cup is the new covenant in my blood [Luke: 'which is poured out for you']." There is no agreement among scholars as to the precise original wording or how the variants in the wording arose. It would not be surprising if early Christians paraphrased or added to the original wording in order to bring out its implied meaning more specifically. It seems certain that Jesus identified the bread as a symbol of his body and the cup of wine as representing either his blood or what was effected by his blood. The reference to blood points unmistakably to death and probably to death by violence. The reference to his body is less clear, but the Lucan/Pauline phrase "which is [given] for you" and the parallelism with the blood combine to suggest that here also is symbolism for the death of Jesus. Whether the expression "which is ... for you/many" is attached to the bread or the cup saying, it indicates that what Jesus is doing with his body and blood is somehow for the benefit of the participants. The reference to the (new) covenant (cf. Jer. 31:31-34) must be understood as a contrast to the "old" covenant that was established in the wilderness shortly after the Passover in Egypt and sealed by the offering of an animal whose blood was smeared on the people and objects associated with the covenant that God was making with them (Exod. 24:1-8). The use of for many" points to the vicarious suffering of the Servant of Yahweh described in Isa. 53:1112. Jesus' sharing of the bread and the common cup to be consumed by the guests at the meal suggests some kind of union created by the common act of eating and drinking both among the guests and between them and Jesus.

John 13 also has an account of the meal that contains none of this description and surprisingly focuses on the footwashing performed by Jesus on the guests. John has already provided teaching in which, first, Jesus himself is said to be the bread that bestows life on those who eat it; and, second, it is necessary to eat the flesh of the Son of Man (Jesus) and drink his blood in order to have eternal life and remain in union with him. The bread is identified as the flesh of Jesus given for the life of the world (John 6:32-58). All this is a development of key thoughts in the other Gospels.

In 1 Corinthians a traditional

account of what Jesus did is cited as a guide to how Christians should celebrate their regular congregational meals. By their nature the symbolic actions at the meal are a means of proclaiming the death of the Lord Jesus that was intended to continue as a solemn way of remembering him and maintaining unity in the body of the church.

For Further Reading

1. HOWARD MARSHALL

19:1-10 A Rich Man Gains Salvation The response to Jesus by Zacchaeus, Jericho's chief tax collector grown rich by fleecing his fellow Jews, contrasts with the response of the rich ruler in 18:18-25 and shows that "what is impossible for mortals is possible for God" (18:27). To gain entry into the kingdom, both men need to demonstrate their love of God, not of money, by sharing their material wealth with the poor. Zacchaeus spontaneously vows his generous charity and also pledges to pay back far more than Mosaic law required for financial fraud (cf. Lev. 5:16). Zacchaeus's promises do not buy him salvation; rather, they identify him as a humbly repentant seeker of the kingdom (cf.13:22-35; 16:1-18). On Jesus' mission of seeking and saving the lost (v. 10), see chapter 15.

19:11-27 The Parable of the Pounds Cf. the parable of the Talents in Matt. 25:14-30.

The crowd around Jesus apparently still thinks about his kingdom in political terms. Perhaps they draw parallels between Jesus' journeying to the Judean capital of Jerusalem and the traveling to Rome of aspiring local rulers seeking imperial support for their political ambitions back home. But Jesus will make Jerusalem his point of departure for heaven, and this parable is a kind of prophetic autobiography, with the exacting nobleman and his departure for a distant country representing Jesus and his postpassion ascension. The nobleman's reception of a kingdom signifies Jesus' heavenly exaltation by God (cf. Acts 2:29-36). The slaves left behind stand for Jesus' followers, entrusted with carrying out the "business" of the kingdom during his absence from earth. The hateful, pursuing citizens represent the Jewish leaders, who reject Jesus' authority (vv. 39-48). The return of the nobleman signifies Jesus' second coming. The summoning of the slaves to give an account stands for the last judgment, and the execution order for the hateful citizens portends the final punishment of the Jewish leaders, though not of the slave who held onto his pound (Gk. mina, three months' wages for a laborer). The severe but not fatal punishment of this unproductive disciple illustrates that fear of God must issue in risk-taking action, not cautious incapacitation.

19:28-21:38 Jerusalem and the Temple

19:28-48 Popular Acclamation vs. Official Opposition Cf. Matt. 21:1-17; Mark 11:1-19.

Only Luke records the Pharisees' protest over the popular acclamation of Jesus (v. 39); his reply that in the event of the disciples' silence the stones would take up the cry (v 40); and the lament of Jesus over Jerusalem, which the Romans would overrun in A.D. 70 (vv. 41-44). Much to the chagrin of the malice-bent religious leaders, popular support for Jesus intensifies as daily he teaches at the temple. Thus it is their resistance to Jesus that brings the downfall of Jerusalem (v. 44).

20:1-19 The "Wicked Tenants" Question Jesus' Authority Cf. Matt. 21:23-27, 33-46; Mark 11:27-12:12.

Jesus presents a parable to "the people;" but it is really addressed to the religious leaders who oppose him. Expecting the "tenants" to return their share of the produce, the "landlord" (God) finds his slaves/messengers (prophets) scorned, so he sends his principal heir. When the "beloved son" receives the same brutal treatment, the landlord breaks the lease and turns over the vineyard as a gift to new tenants. When the scribes and chief priests realize that it is they who have been characterized as the offenders, their immediate impulse is to do away with Jesus. But sensing the growing acceptance of Jesus' messsage, they refrain (v. 19).

20:20-44 Jesus Cannot Be Trapped Cf. Matt. 22:15-33, 41-46; Mark 12:13-27, 35-37a.

The Pharisees and Herodians (supporters of Herod) are unlikely allies in an attempt to stir up trouble for Jesus. Luke explicitly details their evil intentions (v 20). Knowing that he will not hold back the truth, they expect that he will offend either the religious or political authorities, or both. The denarius (v 24) bore the image of the emperor and the inscription "Tiberius Caesar, son of the divine Augustus."

Jesus paints a picture of life in the age to come far greater than that rejected by the Sadducees. The dead are "children of God," "children of the resurrection;" and so no longer burdened with earthly concerns for marriage and bearing offspring (vv. 35-36).

The Messiah had long been expected to be a descendant of David. Jesus now proclaims that the "son" will be greater than David (vv. 41-43; cf. Ps. 110:1).

20:45-21:4 A Widow's Offering Cf. Mark 12:41-44.

Jesus contrasts the pious display of the theologians (20:45-47), as well as the comparative ease of the rich (21:1), with the example of a poor widow who gives generously of her limited resources. Particularly forceful is Jesus' charge that the religious leaders (and by extension the temple system itself) have contributed to the desperate plight of widows and other dispossessed persons in Judean society (20:47).

21:5-38 Forecast of Destruction Cf. Matt. 10:1721; 24:1-22, 29-36; Mark 13:1-20, 24-32.

In this "little apocalypse;" Jesus details "signs" that will precede the destruction of Jerusalem. Luke substitutes a reference to "Jerusalem surrounded by armies" (v 20) for Matthew's and Mark's "abomination of desolation," probably since his Gentile audience would not have understood the distinctively Jewish terminology (cf. Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14). The fulfillment of "the times of the Gentiles" (v 24) refers to their role in the coming upheaval and the eventual proclamation of the good news among them.

Verses 34-38 prescribe constant, sober alertness for the end so that the devastating events that precede it do not take Jesus' followers by surprise and weaken their faith. Maintaining moral readiness becomes the key not to "escaping" the bad times themselves but to resisting the temptations to abandon faith in the midst of those times. Only by remaining faithful will a person be able to "stand before the Son of Man" at the last judgment. The crowds find Jesus' teaching so compelling that they get up early to hear him.

22:1-6 Conspiracy and Betrayal

Cf. Matt. 26:1-5, 14-16; Mark 14:1-2, 10-11.

Stymied in their desire to do away with Jesus, the religious leaders find unexpected assistance from one of Jesus' own disciples. Luke blames the treachery solely on the satanic possession of Judas, who conspires to aid the scribes and temple police while avoiding the crowds gathered for the great pilgrimage feast.

22:7-23 The Last Supper

Cf. Matt. 26:17-29; Mark 14:12-25; John 13:1-30.

Uniquely in Luke, Jesus brings up the need to prepare for the Passover meal, and so he emerges as a model of compliance regarding Jewish law (v. 8). Luke's account of the Last Supper begins with Jesus' expression of gladness to be celebrating the Passover meal with the apostles, followed by his announcement that he will not partake of it again until the arrival of God's kingdom (vv. 15-18). The closing revelation that his betrayer is sharing this last meal, under pretense of table fellowship, casts the betrayal in the worst possible light (vv 21-23). Nevertheless, verse 22 clarifies that Jesus' "going" (to endure his suffering [v 15]) has been predetermined (by God), so that even his betrayal by Judas falls under the ultimate control of God.

22:24-30 Leading by Serving

Cf. Matt. 20:25-28; 19:28; Mark 10:42-45.

The apostles' attempt to identify the traitor among them leads to a dispute over which of them is the greatest. In line with his previous admonitions on humility, Jesus takes the opportunity to point out his personal example of leading by serving. The apostles, who themselves have served Jesus in standing by him during his trial-fraught ministry, need not worry about chasing after greatness. Their servant-Lord Jesus - to whom God the Father has awarded a kingdom in the age to come - has already appointed them to positions of honor and authority in that kingdom.

22:31-34 Jesus Foretells Peter's Denials

Cf. Matt. 26:33-35; Mark 14:29-31.

Jesus' addressing Peter by his old name, Simon, anticipates the apostle's coming denials of association with him (vv. 54-62). That Peter later denies knowing Jesus but does not deny him as the Christ, however, demonstrates the efficacy of Jesus' prayer that Peter's faith not fail (as a result of the imminent ordeal). As with Judas, Luke lays the blame for the denials on Satan, whose demand to "sift all of you like wheat" (= shake the apostles' faith) will prove Peter vulnerable but ultimately not defeated, for Jesus gives him the assignment of strengthening his fellow apostles after he reclaims his moral courage ("turn[s] back;' W. 31-32).

22:35-38 Back to Normal

Jesus instructs the apostles to resume their normal practice of preparedness for a journey by taking money ("purse"), a bag (for clothes and supplies), and a sword (for self-defense against bandits). The reversal of his earlier command to leave such supplies behind (9:1-6;10:1-16) signals the end of an era, for Jesus' own earthly ministry will soon come to an end.

Jesus' dying the death of a common criminal (crucifixion) will fulfill the prophecy of Isa. 53:12 (v. 37). The apostles take the directive to acquire swords as a call to arms in defense of Jesus, but he quiets their enthusiasm for armed resistance (v. 38; cf. W. 50-51).

22:39-53 Betrayal and Arrest

Cf. Matt. 26:30, 36-56; Mark 14:26, 32-52.

Luke gives a more condensed version of the arrest of Jesus than do Matthew and Mark. He does not name Gethsemane as the specific location of Jesus' arrest on the Mount of Olives, and he reports only one episode in which the disciples fall asleep while Jesus goes off to pray. Before Jesus does so, therefore, he instructs the apostles to pray also - not for him, but for their own strength to resist the temptation to abandon their faith, as he has petitioned for Simon Peter in verse 32.

Verses 43-44 do not appear in some of the oldest manuscripts of Luke, and many scholars believe a scribe added them later. The often misread verse 44 does not say that Jesus' sweat drops of blood but that his sweat became like drops of blood - he sweat profusely, as though he were bleeding.

Luke excuses the apostles' slumber on their sorrow (over Jesus' fate). Judas approaches Jesus to deliver a kiss, but Jesus stops him short with a rhetorical question that exposes the ostensibly friendly greeting as a betrayal (v 48; cf. vv. 21-23). Because the apostles have brought two swords, which they are willing to use to defend Jesus (v 38), it comes as no surprise when one of them attacks a member of the entourage of arresters. Jesus' immediate rebuke for the assault and his healing of the wound (which only Luke records) underscore his opposition to armed resistance of the coming ordeal (vv. 3738). His comment that the current "hour" and "the power of darkness" belong to the arresters highlights the evil origin of the events set in motion by the betrayal (v. 53).

22:54-62 Peter Denies Knowing Jesus

Cf. Matt. 26:57-58, 69-75; Mark 14:53-54, 66-72; John 18:15-18, 25-27.

Luke places Peter's denials of Jesus before his account of the trial by the Sanhedrin. Thus the denials fall directly on the heels of Peter's failure to stay awake and pray for moral courage (vv. 40, 45-46). Despite the lapse of time between challenges, Peter's resistance only heightens (w 58-59). When the cock crows, Jesus casts a knowing glance at Peter (v. 61; cf. V. 34).

22:63-71 Jesus before the Council

Cf. Matt. 26:57-68; Mark 14:53-65; John 18:19-24.

According to Luke, Jesus' appearance before the Sanhedrin takes place come daylight, after a night of mockery, slander, and abuse by his guards (vv. 63-65). Luke gives a condensed version of the trial, in which Jesus refuses to answer outright the questions of his accusers but volunteers statements that imply his equality with God (sitting at God's right hand [v. 69; cf. Ps 11o:1] and tacitly accepting the designation "Son of God" [v. 70]) - statements the council take as blasphemy, punishable by death according to Jewish law. The literal translation of Jesus' response in verse 70 reads, "You say that I am [the Son of God]," an answer that turns the council's question into an inadvertent confession of his divinity (cf. Matt. 26:64).

23:1-25 Verdict: Innocent - Sentence: Death

Cf. Matt. 27:1-2, 11-26; Mark 15:1-15; John 18:2840.

By adding the Sanhedrin's false accusation that Jesus has been fomenting tax revolt among the Jews, Luke intensifies the council's portrayal of the supposedly self-proclaimed king of the Jews as a threat to Rome. In fact, Jesus has done just the opposite: he has supported paying taxes to Caesar, has not once called himself the Christ, and has forbidden the disciples to advertise him as such (20:21-26; 9:20-21).

Pilate is not convinced of the ploy against Jesus, but overwhelmed by the persistence of the chief priests and the size of the crowd, he seizes the opportunity to push the case off onto the regional ruler of Galilee, Herod (Antipas), who happens to be visiting Jerusalem at the time and under whose jurisdiction the Nazarene prisoner falls. Herod, though happy finally to meet Jesus (cf. 9:9), cannot get an answer out of him. In Luke, the continued mockery and abuse of Jesus take place under Herod's watch, not Pilate's (v. 11; cf. Matt. 27:27-31; Mark 15:16-20).

The reaching of concurring verdicts by Herod and Pilate repairs their relationship, puts an exclamation point on the innocence of Jesus, and makes the people's call for his crucifixion all the more unjust.

23:26-56 Jesus Crucified and Buried

Cf. Matt. 27:32-66; Mark 15:21-47; John 19:17-42.

Luke continues to give unique attention to the women who support Jesus and his ministry. The public lamenting of the "daughters of Jerusalem" over Jesus' imminent crucifixion shows them courageous dissenters to the death sentence demanded by the majority of the Jewish leadership. Jesus selflessly turns the lamentation back on the women (cf. 11:27-28) in anticipation of the awful events that will attend the (Roman) destruction of Jerusalem, which he prophesied in 19:41-44; 21:5-6. Jesus ominously warns that if gross injustice, such as that now being done to him, can happen in the "green wood" (the times of peace under Roman rule), just imagine what will happen in the "dry [tree]" (the coming Roman assault on Jerusalem, 70).

In Luke, Jesus' crucifixion between two "criminals" (lit., "doers of evil") fulfills the prophecy of Isa. 53:12, which Jesus cites in 22:37 (cf. Matt. 27:38; Mark 15:27). His call for the forgiveness of his crucifiers appears only in Luke (v. 34), as do the rebuke of the one criminal by the other for blaspheming Jesus (vv. 40-41) and Jesus' affirmation of salvation for this one who recognizes his innocence N. 43).

Consistent with Luke's emphasis on Jesus' prayerful piety, rather than crying out in agony Jesus utters a prayer immediately before expiring on the cross. His voice remains loud, however, in evidence of his physical strength even in death, and the wording of his prayer makes the moment of his dying a purposeful event over which he maintains control (cf. Matt. 26:51-54). The nature of his death and all that surrounds it cause the onlooking centurion to confess Jesus' righteousness (v. 47; not his divinity, as in Matt. 27:54; Mark 15:39).

The risen Jesus appears on the road to Emmaus; bronze relief at the Callisto Catacombs, Rome.

Luke presents Joseph of Arimathea as a good and righteous dissenter to the plans and actions of his fellow council members regarding Jesus (vv. 50-51). By laying Jesus' body in a brand new tomb, Joseph treats the corpse with special respect. In ancient Palestine, rock-hewn tombs normally accommodated generations of family members. These burial caves featured a raised platform for laying out the body of a newly deceased person and a large, disk-like stone door that rolled sideways to seal off the entrance. After the flesh of a corpse decayed, the skeletal remains were transferred to an ossuary, or secondary burial box, to clear the platform for the body of the next relative who died.

The "day of Preparation" refers to Friday before sunset, by which time must cease all the work of preparing for the Sabbath day of rest (v. 54). The women from Galilee have remained loyal disciples to the end and beyond (vv. 49, 55-56).

24:1-12 The Empty Tomb

Cf. Matt. 28:1-10; Mark 16:1-8.

Two dazzlingly clad men (angels; cf. V. 23) appear to the women who return to the tomb to perfume Jesus' corpse, and the double witness to his resurrection satisfies the legal requirement for judicially valid testimony (Deut. 19:15; contrast the single angel in Matthew and Mark and its dramatic descent from heaven, attended by an earthquake, in Matthew). Only Luke relates the disbelief of the disciples on hearing the report of the women. (In referring to the apostles as "the eleven," Luke allows his audience to assume the obvious absence of Judas, though he does not report the traitor's demise until Acts 1:15-19; cf. Matt. 27:5.) Peter, however, demonstrates his having "turned back" from his denials (22:31-34) by running to the empty tomb to see for himself (v. 12).

24:13-35 Eyewitnesses to the Resurrection

Reported only in Luke, two of Jesus' disciples, a number of whom have evidently spent the Sabbath in Jerusalem with the now 11 apostles, leave the group of mourners on Sunday to go to the nearby town of Emmaus. Luke records personal and place names and notes the length of the day's journey, thus providing circumstantial details supporting the validity of the reported encounter that follows. The two travelers (again a sufficient number to give legally valid testimony) find themselves joined by the resurrected Christ but do not recognize him. They relate to their seemingly uninformed traveling companion the recent fate of the one on whom they had pinned their messianic hopes and the reports of his now empty tomb. The disciples' disappointment that Jesus did not "redeem" Israel or "set it free" shows they are still thinking of the Messiah in political terms (v 21). Their comment that it was the "third day" since the events culminating in Jesus' crucifixion reflects the 1st-century Jewish belief that the soul departed from a person three days after physical death, so that by now Jesus should be really dead. Jesus walks his traveling companions through the Old Testament prophecies concerning the Christ to correct their understanding of the nature of his messianic mission (v 27).

The Trial, Death, and Resurrection of Jesus

Why did Jesus have to die? This is one of our most crucial questions for understanding the significance of Jesus' identity and mission. First, the Gospels themselves, our most important witnesses to Jesus' life and ministry, devote an inordinate amount of space to the predictions and plots that anticipated Jesus' execution and to their narratives of his suffering and death. For them, the character of Jesus' life and the manner of his death are inseparable realities. Second, Paul, Peter, and other New Testament writers clearly represent the cross of Christ as central to the gospel. Third, among the events of Jesus' life, none is more historically certain than his crucifixion at the behest of the Roman governor Pontius Pilate - an event noted by ancient Jewish, Roman, as well as Christian sources. Fourth, under Roman rule, crucifixion as a mode of execution was reserved for enemies of the Roman political order. Jesus' crucifixion thus begs an important question: How could Jesus' ministry have led anyone to the conclusion that he posed a political risk to imperial Rome?

Key to answering this question are the Gospel reports of hearings (Luke 22:66-71; cf. John 11:47-53) and trials (Matt. 26:57-27:31; Mark 14:53-15:2o; Luke 23:1-25; John 18:13-19:16). In John 11, the Jewish leaders in Jerusalem recognized the potential of Jesus' popular following to jeopardize the uneasy balance

that characterized Rome-Jerusalem relations. More explicit are the charges brought against Jesus in Luke 23:1-5. There Jesus is discredited as a false prophet leading God's people astray (Matt. 27:63; cf. Deuteronomy 13) and presented to Pilate, the Roman governor, as a threat to Caesar. Opposing the payment of taxes to Caesar, as one part of this indictment has it, would have had immediate economic repercussions. Far more significantly, refusing to pay taxes and urging others to do the same would have symbolized a rejection of the political jurisdiction and imperial authority of Rome over Jewish people and Jewish affairs. A similar political note is sounded in John 19:12,15, where the dominion of Caesar is contrasted with that of Jesus.

Why would the Jewish elite have presented Jesus to Rome's agent of governance in these terms, and sought the death penalty in this case? The Gospels record Jesus' numerous infractions of Jewish legal practices, including his characteristic overruling of Jewish laws related to food and table companions, as well as his practice of healing on the Sabbath. More pointedly, according to the Gospel records of Jesus' initial trial before the Jewish council in Jerusalem (the Sanhedrin), Jesus was charged with blasphemy. From their perspective, his speaking and acting against the temple (Matt. 21:12-17; Mark 11:11-19; Luke 19:45-48) amounted to profan

ing the God of the temple. His claim regarding his forthcoming presence and rule at the right hand of God (Matt. 26:64; Mark 14:62) was particularly blasphemous. In all likelihood, the Sanhedrin, though powerful in so many affairs of Jewish life, probably did not possess the authority to decide for and carry out the death penalty. Jesus, viewed as a false prophet and blasphemer, was clearly deserving of death in their view, so he was handed over to the Roman legal system for trial, sentencing, and execution.

Why did Jesus have to die? From a historical perspective, the answer is clear, even if it is multilayered. Put simply, too many Jewish and Roman leaders opposed his mission and message as dangerous. The law of Moses called for the removal of his person and influence on account of its harmful effect on God's people. And the law of Rome required that he (and others like him) be made an example so other would-be pretenders to the throne might be reminded of the fate of those who incited rebellion against the empire.

This is not the whole story, however. Of this we are reminded by the close association of cross and resurrection in Gospel narratives and creedal statements. Through Jesus' own predictions of his suffering and death, and his insistence that these were "necessary" in God's redemptive design, and through the generous use of the Scriptures in the Gospel records of the events leading up to Jesus' death, we learn that more than human forces were at work in Jesus' execution. As Luke records it, Jesus anticipates his death with the words, the Son of Man is going as it has been determined [by God]" (Luke 22:22; cf. Isaiah 53). In short, the cross was neither an accident of history nor a surprise to God, but was actually central to God's eternal purpose.

This means that the resurrection of Jesus cannot be viewed as "overturning" the cross or in spite of" the cross. Viewed consistently as God's powerful act, the resurrection of Jesus from the dead is God's vindication of Jesus' person, mission, and death. If the heinous reality of Jesus' execution on a Roman cross calls into question his status as God's Son, Lord, and Messiah, the resurrection is irrefutable proof that Jesus is all these and more. If Jesus' execution seems to prove that the interpretation of the Scriptures and view of God paraded by the Jewish elite in Jerusalem were valid, and that Rome's authority in human affairs was absolute, the resurrection is irrefutable proof that neither of these affirmations was true. If Jesus' death on a Roman cross portrays Jesus as a political threat, this is because he did, indeed, pose such a threat, since the coming of the rule of God into the world cannot but call into question all other rulers and all other ways of exercising power. The resurrection of Jesus is thus the historical ground of the theological affirmation that in Jesus' person and work we see the revelation of God's character and purpose.

The unanimous witness of the New Testament writings is that Jesus was resurrected from the dead and is alive, but no one

actually witnessed the resurrection event itself. Does this mean that we lack any evidence for Jesus' resurrection? No, but it does mean that the evidence available to us is less direct. Most interesting in this regard is the tradition of the empty tomb, witnessed in each of the Gospels (Matt. 27:62-28:15; Mark 16:1-8; Luke 24:1-12; John 20:1-18). Since women in antiquity were generally not recruited to provide legal testimony, it is astonishing that, according to the unified testimony of the Gospels, the first witnesses of the empty tomb were women. It is highly unlikely that early Christians would have invented stories of the empty tomb in which women were the key figures (cf. Luke 24:11).

With regard to this same tradition, it is also interesting that nothing in the New Testament indicates that anyone doubted testimony that the tomb was empty. Matthew's Gospel observes that, when the tomb was discovered to be empty, plans were concocted and guards bribed in order to spread the story that Jesus' body had been stolen by his disciples (Matt. 27:62-66; 28:11-15). Rather than denying the empty tomb, here was an attempt to explain it away.

Tomb with rolling stone outside Jerusalem; 1st century A.U. (Phoenix Data Systems, Neal and Joel Bierling)

The New Testament contains repeated assurances that people experienced encounters with the risen Lord and that this experience utterly changed their lives. Indeed, something must explain the transformation of the disciples that occurred so quickly following the crucifixion - this transformation from a disheartened, fractured company to the cohesive, hopeful, and purpose-driven band of followers. What the New Testament relates is consistent with what we know of beliefs regarding the resurrection among Jews in this period. Resurrection hope was deeply embedded in a constellation of hopes regarding God's restoration of Israel and the ushering in of God's dominion. The proclamation of the fulfillment of precisely these hopes among those first Christians speaks to their belief that the long-awaited resurrection had actually begun with God's powerful act in raising Jesus from the dead. That the good news be grounded in the historical reality of the resurrection of Jesus from the dead was therefore nonnegotiable.

JOEL B. GREEN

At the end of the journey, the three travelers share fellowship over a meal, and the disciples finally recognize Jesus (compare vv 16 and 31). Some scholars see the meal at Emmaus as a eucharistic celebration reminiscent of the Last Supper (compare V. 30 with 22:19), though Luke commonly uses the terminology of "breaking bread" to describe ordinary meal-taking (e.g., Acts 2:42; 20:7; 27:35). In any case, Jesus' vanishing at the point of recognition prompts the disciples to exchange notes about the emotional sensation generated in them by his exposition of the Scriptures - an inward feeling that helps them believe what they have just seen and propels them back to Jerusalem to give eyewitness testimony of the resurrected Christ to the apostles and company. Upon returning, they learn from the Eleven that Jesus has already appeared to Simon Peter (cf. 1 Cor. 15:5).

Several features of Luke's account combat any skepticism that the reports of Jesus' postresurrection appearances constitute fabrications born of the wishful expectation of his followers: the disciples' initial disbelief of the report by the women who discover the empty tomb; the nonrecognition of Jesus by the two disciples on the road to Emmaus; and the doubt of the disciples in whose midst Jesus now appears. Indeed, Christ's coming back to life catches even his disciples by surprise, and he has to convince them of his physical existence by showing them his flesh, inviting them to touch him, and eating food in front of them. Yet his sudden vanishing and materializing hint at elemental differences between his pre- and postresurrection bodies (vv 31, 36).

24:44-53 Jesus' Final Instructions and Ascension

Having convinced the disciples of his fleshly reality, Jesus helps them to understand the prophecies concerning the Messiah that he had explained to them before his crucifixion but that they failed to grasp. He recommissions the disciples with the task of proclaiming repentance for the forgiveness of sins (vv. 47-49; cf. 9:1-6; 10:1-16). The proclamation comes in Jesus' name, since his sacrificial death has made forgiveness possible (cf. the Great Commission in Matt. 28:18-20). His command that the disciples stay in Jerusalem till they are "clothed with power from on high" (v 49) anticipates their filling with the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4).

Luke ends his Gospel with the ascension of Jesus into heaven and the joyful and obedient response of his disciples, who remain eyewitnesses till the end of his earthly sojourn (v. 51; cf. Acts 1:9-11). Verses 13-53 represent a telescoping of events, since Acts 1:3 reports that Jesus made postresurrection appearances over a period of 4o days before ascending to heaven.

↑ Back to top