The Historical Books
Deuteronomy does not contain a "second law," as its Greek name would imply, but a second giving of the Mosaic law, which the Israelites received at Sinai. Deuteronomy both restates and explains the Law outlined in Exod. 20:22-23:19 for the historical situation immediately before to the Israelites' entry into Canaan. This fifth and final book of the Pentateuch is also the first book of what scholars call the Deuteronomistic History, which focuses on Israel's life in Canaan up to the Babylonian exile and which includes Joshua, judges, 1-2 Samuel, and 1-2 Kings.
Authorship and Audience
Scholars take different positions regarding the authorship and original audience of Deuteronomy. Traditionalists maintain that the book preserves a faithful record of the words of Moses, though few would regard Moses as its final author, since at a number of points Deuteronomy refers to Moses in the third person and since the book's final chapter records Moses' death (cf. ch. 34). In this view, the original audience is the new generation of Israelites that has "grown up" during the 40 years of wilderness wandering and replaced its faithless fathers, who refused to enter the land of God's promise after leaving Sinai in the mid-to-late 2nd millennium B.C.
Others view the book as directed toward a much later, 7th-century group, probably settled in the southern kingdom of Judah during the divided monarchy. This position sees Deuteronomy functioning as reform law in addressing the religious, economic, social, and political concerns of the day, with an editor using Moses' name to lend authority to the book's content.
Deuteronomy aided the religious reforms of Judah's King Josiah in the late 7th century (2 Kings 22-23), but the book seeks to bring not only external change but also sincere, internal devotion to God (6:4-9; 10:12-13). That the New Testament authors quote Deuteronomy more than 8o times reveals this book's importance in the development of Christianity from its beginnings.
Structure
The overall structure of Deuteronomy includes the various elements of an ancient Near Eastern treaty, with God as the "overlord" and the Israelites as his "vassals" (see "Covenants" [141-44]). Two introductory speeches by Moses begin the book (1:1-4:43; 4:44-11:32). These addresses remind the Israelites of their history with a loving and faithful God and call them to covenantal obedience. This new generation must regard the covenant as their own and not simply as binding on their ancestors. The repetition of the Ten Commandments in 5:6-21 provides the basis for the laws expounded in the legal core of Deuteronomy (chs. 12-26). Moses' lengthy concluding remarks (chs. 27-33) look forward to Israel's life in Canaan and put forth a choice: covenantal obedience, which will lead to life, or disobedience, which will lead to death (30:15-20). God himself anticipates Israel's faithlessness but also pledges his redemption and blessing (31:16-21). Moses' death occasions the transfer of leadership to Joshua (ch. 34).
1-3 A Review of Israel's Journey
1 In Deuteronomy 1-4, Moses recites to the Israelites a condensed account of their journey from Mount Sinai (always called "Horeb" in Deuteronomy) to the plains of Moab. The account begins at the end of the 4oth year since the exodus from Egypt, and the address takes place with the nation encamped on the eastern side of the Jordan River in Moab. In his first speech, Moses highlights God's command that the Israelites take possession of the land he promised to the patriarchs (Gen. 15:18-21) and God's fulfillment of his promise to multiply Abraham's descendants (Gen. 15:5). Moses then cites his appointment of tribal leaders to help with administrative tasks (Exod. 18:13-26; Num. 11:14-17); the report of the spies sent to scope out Canaan and the Israelites' faithless response (Num. 13:1-14:25); God's disallowing the current generation to enter the promised land as punishment for their rebelliousness (Num. 14:26-38); and Moses' similar sentence for failing to honor God (Num. 20:7-12). The chapter ends by noting the Israelites' failed attempt to enter Canaan against God's will (Num. 14:39-45).
Law in Israel and in Judaism
The psalmist's cry "Oh, how I love your law!" (Ps. 119:97) highly commends one of Israel's lasting legacies. Joyous feasting and generous giving, not mourning, marked the day of its reading (Neh. 8:9-10). Israelite law drew on the rich legal culture of Mesopotamia - law codes such as the Laws of Ur-Nammu (ca. 21st century B.C.) and Hammurabi's Code (ca. 18th century). It inherited its casuistic ("If ... then") and lex talionis ("eye for an eye") legal formulas from ancient law (Exod. 21:26; Deut. 19:21). But for Israel, "law" (Heb. torah) meant not simply "legal code" but "teaching" or "instruction." That is why the first section of the Hebrew canon - comprising both narratives and laws - bears the name Torah. The Pentateuch gives Israel "instruction" through both lives and law, instruction so treasured as to evoke love.
Law and Laws in Israel
Biblical tradition roots law in God's revelation to Moses at Mount Sinai (Josh. 8:31; 2 Chr. 33:8; Neh. 10:29). Moses received the law at Sinai (Exodus 20-Numbers 10), later proclaimed new laws (e.g., Num. 27:1-11), and preached the expanded Sinai legislation beside the Jordan (Deuteronomy 12-26). Moses wrote the law - probably the core of Deuteronomy (Deut. 31:24; 2 Kgs. 14:6) - into a "book," which survived (Josh. 23:6; 2 Chr. 25:4) and was later rediscovered
(2 Kings 22). But biblical laws show evidence of a process of growth and adaptation long past Moses' time. For example, Exod. 20:24 permits Israel to build an earthen altar to honor God anywhere, but Deuteronomy insists that Israel perform all worship at the single place chosen by God himself (Deut. 12:5; 16:2, 16). Most scholars believe the reference is to the temple in Jerusalem and associate Deuteronomy's policy of a central sanctuary with the religious reform of King Josiah (ca. 620 B.c.; 2 Kings 23). Thus the term "law of Moses" affirms him not as its writer, but as its founder - the giver of Israel's first laws and the legal authority whose work later Israelite scholars would extend.
That extension incorporates four legal collections into the Torah. The language and simplicity of the Book of the Covenant (Exod. 20:22-2333) mark it as the earliest (ca.11oo; cf. Exod. 24:4). Included are two types of legal material: judgments (case laws) and statutes (specific commands) that define religious and civil rules and specify punishments for breaking them. The Bible's bestknown collection, the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1-17; Deut. 5:6-21), forms its table of contents. It offers a Sinai covenant in miniature - a brief historical prologue with 10 instructions. The Holiness Code (Leviticus 17-26), probably a compilation by priests (perhaps ca. 700 or Soo), aims to promote holiness in the community (Lev. 19:2).
The date of the Deuteronomic Code (Deuteronomy 12-26) is uncertain, but many of its laws are thought to be ancient, perhaps even Mosaic (cf. Deut. 31:24), and a preliminary collection probably compiled in the northern kingdom before it fell (722). Most scholars consider it to be the "book of the law" found in 621 (2 Kgs. 22:8). (See the introduction to the Historical Books. [165-69].)
Israelite laws articulate Israel's community vision and values. Unlike other ancient codes, Israelite law requires equal treatment for all citizens, carefully limiting royal power (Deut. 17:14-20) and sternly outlawing favoritism (Lev. 19:15; Deut. 16:19; cf. Jas. 2:9). The lex talionis formula ("eye for an eye") curbs excessive revenge by requiring equivalent compensation for injury or loss (Lev. 24:20). The law's concern to preserve national purity also closes the loopholes of some Mesopotamian laws, which permit the substitution of fines or compensation for execution in capital crimes (Exod. 21:12, 17; Lev. 20:9; Deut. 13:5). But refreshingly humane laws, for example, protect a female slave from abuse (Exod. 21:7-11) and permit mercy toward an irresponsible ox owner (21:28-30). Ultimately, Israelite law promotes loyalty to Israel's covenant with Yahweh. It regulates which prophets Israel should obey and which they should stone for promoting idolatry (Deut. 13:1-5; 18:9-22).
Local judges or elders adjudi- cated criminal and civil cases at the city gate (Exod. 18:21-22; Deut. 16:18; Ruth 4:1-10). Priests and Levites at sanctuaries answered "Yes/No" questions by casting lots (Urim and Thummim; Exod. 28:30), visually inspected for ritual uncleanness (Leviticus 13-14; cf. Num. 5:11-31), and decided difficult cases referred to them (Deut. 17:8-13). The king himself was the highest court-of-appeals for aggrieved citizens (2 Sam. 15:2; 2 Kgs. 6:26-29; 8:5-6).
The Law in Judaism
In Judaism - the form of Israel's religion after the exile - Torah refers both to divine revelation as a whole and to its specific statements (commandments, proverbs, stories). Obedience of Torah is the heart of Judaism, but not in a rigid, legalistic sense. Law represents Israel's practical response to God's gracious acts - his election of Israel, rescue from slavery, and covenantal relationship. As Ben Sira wrote (ca. 18o B.C.), "Those who fear the Lord seek to please him, and those who love him are filled with his law" (Sir. 2:16). But the law omits many matters or seems contradictory, so Judaism offers interpretation of biblical laws and the guidance of interpretive authorities (priests, scribes, lay teachers). The Pharisees of Jesus' day were prominent lay teachers praised for their precise interpretation of Mosaic law (Acts 22:3; 26:5). They also obeyed their own special rules - "traditions" received from the sect's ancestors. They washed their hands before eating (Matt. 15:2; Mark 7:3; Luke 11:38) and practiced `erub - the linking of adjacent houses as a single house
by cross-beams to avoid violating the Sabbath, still a common practice in Hasidic neighborhoods. But recent studies cast doubt on the common impression that Judaism recognizes a Mosaic oral law parallel to the written law. The Pharisees apparently taught that, while a good Pharisee obeyed both the "traditions" and Mosaic law, a good Jew need only fulfill the latter.
The center of Judaism is the local synagogue, an innovation first attested in Egypt (mid-3rd century B.C.). Considered customary, the weekly Sabbath service featured teaching and Scripture readings (Acts 13:15 mentions the law and the prophets"; cf. Luke 4:17). Modern synagogues architecturally feature the ark, which stores the Torah scroll, and their Torah readings on Sabbaths and during annual festivals complete all of its 54 sections each year. Ancient Greco-Roman writers confirm Jewish observance of the Mosaic law on monotheism, circumcision, Sabbath, and food laws. Jews throughout the Roman world also continued to pay the half-shekel temple tax, to fast on the Day of Atonement, to send firstfruits and free-will offerings to Jerusalem, and to attend annual feasts of pilgrimage there (Passover, Booths, and Weeks). Loyalty to Moses underlies Jewish criticism of early Christian beliefs and practices as violations of Mosaic law (John 19:7; Acts 6:13; 18:13; 21:28), criticism that Paul denies (Acts 24:14; cf. 28:17).
The Jewish historian Josephus called the laws "simple and familiar" - far fewer and easier to grasp than modern tax laws! - and many laws find consistent observance in a daily routine.
Ancient Jews sought to obey the Shema (Deut. 6:4-9) by fixing it on doorposts or wearing select parts of the Law, and "zeal for the law" (1 Macc. 2:58; cf. Acts 21:20) led many to die rather than violate the Law or permit the defilement of Jerusalem or the temple. Judaism features epitomes of the law - short statements that voice its basic thrust (e.g., Rabbi Hillel's comment, "What is hateful to you, do not to your neighbor: that is the whole Torah, while the rest is commentary ..."; cf. the "Golden Rule," Matt. 7:12). Jesus' pronouncement on the "great
est commandment" reflects this practice (Mark 12:28-31; cf. Deut. 6:4-9; Lev. 19:18, 34), as do some of Paul's comments (Rom. 13:10; Gal. 5:14). Affirming Israel as the people through whom the imperishable light of the law was to
be given to the world" (Wis. 18:4), rabbis often compiled lists of seven laws for interested Gentiles to observe.
ROBERT L. HUBBARD, JR.
Stela of Hammurabi receiving symbols of authority from the seated sun-god Shamash. Below are listed 282 laws. (Louvre; photo by Mitchell G. Reddish)
2 Deuteronomy 2 fills in a few details about the wasted years of wilderness wandering - years passed over quickly in Numbers. The first half of the chapter mentions the Israelites' journey from Kadesh-barnea, near the southern border of Canaan, to Mount Seir, south and east of the Dead Sea. It goes on to recount Moses' attempt to lead the Israelites through Edomite territory (Num. 20:14-21) and the nation's detour through the wilderness of Moab. The account stresses that God will not give the Edomites; Moabites', or Ammonites' land to Israel inasmuch as he gave it as an inheritance to Esau and to Lot's sons. Here at least the Edomites appear to have treated their Israelite kin in a friendlier manner than Numbers portrays (vv. 28-29).
The generation of Israelites that refused to enter Canaan 38 years earlier has died (cf. Num. 14:29-32). The death of these rebels occasioned the new generation's opportunity to move toward staking their claim in the promised land. The Israelites' defeat of the Amorites at Heshbon signals the beginning of God's judgment on
the sinful inhabitants of Canaan foreshadowed in Gen. 15:16.
3 The recounting of the journey continues with the Israelites' defeat of Og, Amorite king of Bashan and leader of the mighty Rephaim (cf. Num. 21:33). The emphasis on this people's number and might, their heavily fortified cities, and the large size of their king's iron bed emphasize God's power to bring the Israelites success in the face of seemingly overwhelming odds (v. 11). Thus the Israelites' victory serves as a foil to the previous generation's lack of faith (Num. 13:28-33).
When the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and halfManasseh claimed their landed inheritance east of the Jordan (cf. Numbers 32), they displaced not their distant cousins in Edom, Moab, and Ammon, but the Amorites and Canaanite peoples living in Bashan and Gilead, north of Ammonite territory. After briefly acknowledging Joshua as Moses' successor (v 21), the text tells of Moses' glimpse of the promised land from the Pisgah ridge, ca. 9 miles northeast of the Dead Sea, while the Israelites remain camped on the plains of Moab (cf. 34:1, "Mount Nebo").
4:1-43 Exhortations to Covenantal Faithfulness
The retelling of Israel's journey with God provides the basis for Moses' appeals to the congregation, which end this first introduction to the Deuteronomic law. He reminds them that they know what to do to keep God's laws, have experienced the punishment for disobedience, and should now recognize the honor God has extended to them by establishing his covenant with them and should pursue lives of faithfulness to God. Moses urges not routine legalism but spiritual discipline and heartfelt obedience, which will result in the good life that God intends for his people.
By recalling the manner in which God communicated his covenant with the Israelites at Sinai, Moses reminds them to honor God's distinctively spiritual nature by refraining from fashioning images to represent him (vv. 15-18). He also warns them against worshipping his creations in nature (v. 19). Because Moses knows he will not accompany the Israelites into Canaan, he fears their spiritual waywardness in his absence, warns them of the consequences of covenantal disobedience, which include exile, and even calls down this curse should they disregard God's commands (vv. 26-28). But God is compassionate and gracious, as well as jealous (v. 24), and will not reject his repentant people N. 31). Indeed, God has already acted on Israel's behalf in ways unique among the nations. He has shown himself supremely willing and able to care for his people's every need, and he will continue to do so if only they obey him.
Finally, Moses names one city of refuge in each Transjordanian tribe's territory (cf. Num. 35:11-14).
4:44-11:32 The Ten Commandments as the Basis for Obedience
4:44-5:33 Moses' second speech recalls Israel's history and looks forward to the nation's life in the promised land as it focuses on the Law given at Sinai. He exhorts the new generation of Israelites to regard the Law as their own covenant with God (5:3) and restates the Ten Commandments (5:7-21). Remembering the Law, following it, and teaching it to one's children emerge as central themes throughout these chapters. By repeating the Law and drawing lessons from the previous generation's disobedience of it, the speech stresses that the fear of God, personal humility, and remembrance of covenantal history (both of God's faithfulness and the Israelites' unfaithfulness) will keep this new generation on the path of obedience and prevent the blessings of material prosperity in the promised land from lulling them into laxness in their devotion to God.
Deuteronomy demonstrates concern for the weaker members of society in 5:14-15, where the purpose of Sabbath observance is to offer rest to servants and for the Israelites to remember their deliverance by God from slavery in Egypt. (Contrast Exod. 20:10-11, which grounds the practice in God's having rested on the seventh day of creation.)
6 In 6:10-9:6 Moses delivers eight sermons that call the Israelites to remember their past and teach their children in the ways of God. Each sermon describes a particular situation - either from the past or in anticipation of the future in Canaan - and draws conclusions that lead to practical applications for life under the covenant. The units are 6:10-15, 16-19, 20-25; 7:1-16, 17-26; 8:1-6; 7-20; and 9:1-6.
Judaism's central prayer, the Shema ("Hear"; 6:4-9), communicates the essence of Israelite religion: Israel recognizes only one God, whom they must love with every fiber of their being. Furthermore, God's Law must permeate the entirety of an Israelite's life (vv 20-25). Orthodox Jews continue to obey the command to bind the Law to their bodies by fastening small boxes containing miniature copies of the Law (phylacteries) to their foreheads and right arms (v. 8). Many Jews also attach cylinders containing copies of the Law (mezuzoth) to their doorposts N. 9).
7 Through the Israelites, God will now bring judgment on the "many nations" that inhabit Canaan, including the accursed descendants of Noah's errant son Ham (Gen. 9:20-25). Earlier, God saved a remnant of humanity from the judgment he brought about by the flood as part of his plan to redeem his creation; now the Israelites represent that remnant, and God commands them to purge the promised land of all forms of wickedness - including humans - in order to further his redemptive purposes through them. Their obedience to this command, which includes eradicating the worship of the Canaanite fertility-god Baal, will bring great blessing from the only true God in the very realm of Baal's supposed power (vv. 1314). The Lord himself will accomplish the task through them (vv. 17-24).
8 Chapter 8 remembers the Israelites' days in the desert as an opportunity for growth in faith. In the wilderness, God both humbled his people and faithfully provided for them to teach them that life in its fullest sense comes not from mere food but from obedience to God's will N. 3). After detailing the bounty of the land the Israelites will soon inherit (vv. 7-10), Moses warns against developing the pride and self-reliance that material blessing can induce. These traits would signal that the Israelites had forgotten the lessons of their past, as well as the Giver who grants the blessings. Forgetfulness can easily lead to idolatry, and idolatry for the Israelites will lead to inevitable judgment (vv. 19-20).
9 The Israelites must not view their defeat of the Canaanites as resulting from their own power or as a reward for their worthiness to possess the land, but as the work of a mighty God, who precedes them in battle and who uses them to mete out just judgment on the wicked. Moses reminds the Israelites of their waywardness in worshipping the golden calf at Sinai as a way to dispel any illusions of self-righteousness.
10 Verses 6-9 interrupt Moses' speech, which now centers on his second reception of the stone tablets, to detail the Israelites' itinerary in the wilderness and report the commissioning of the Levites. In vv. 12-13, Moses summarizes God's requirements of the Israelites: fear (respect, as shown by right worship of him alone), total obedience, and love for him (cf. 6:5). Moses' exhortation that the Israelites "circumcise" their hearts encourages a covenantal obedience that stems from sincere and internalized devotion to God (cf. Jer. 4:4). Deuteronomy's emphasis on God's impartiality and his concern for the weak in society is again clear in vv. 17-19. The 7o ancestors of the Israelites mentioned in v. 22 include only the males of the patriarch Jacob's household (cf. Gen. 46:26-27).
11 Chapter 11 contrasts the potential blessings and curses that lie before the Israelites in Canaan. God himself tends Canaan's fields and makes the land fruitful, unlike in Egypt, where only the laborious work of sowing and irrigation produced crops (W. 10-12; contrast Num. 16:12-14). Yet God controls Canaan's yield and
the Israelites' future in the promised land, and only by their obedience will they realize God's good promises (vv. 13-17). Verse 29 alludes to the ceremony on Mounts Ebal and Gerizim, near the centrally located city of Shechem, that will celebrate the Israelites' anticipated future conquest of Canaan in its entirety (cf. chs. 27-28; Josh. 8:30-35).
12-26 Specific Instructions for Life in Canaan
Many scholars regard chapters 5-3o as the oldest part of the book, whose discovery in the temple aided King Josiah's reforms in the late 7th century (cf. 2 Kings 22-23). Chapters 12-26 form the legal core of these chapters by detailing specific laws the Israelites must follow in Canaan. These regulations find their basis in the Book of the Covenant (Exod. 20:22-23:33) and include, among other materials, both apodictic laws (straight commands and prohibitions) and casuistic laws (case laws that prescribe specific penalties; see "Law in Israel and Judaism" [153-551).
12:1-28 From the outset of the Israelites' entry into the promised land, they must destroy all trappings of Canaanite religion - from altars to idols. The purpose of this command is to obliterate the names of the idolaters' gods, for according to ancient Semitic thought the essence and power of any being lay in its name (cf. 7:5, 25). The Israelites must establish an entirely new place of regular worship in a location chosen by God where they would remember his name alone (v. 5). This place became Shiloh, where the high priest Eli and his protege Samuel served (cf. Jer. 7:12). Jerusalem replaced Shiloh under David and Solomon, the latter of whom built the first temple. After the kingdom of Israel divided following Solomon's death, the northern tribes established two unauthorized rival shrines - in Bethel and Dan.
The regulations here allow for some slaughtering and eating of meat, including animals that do not qualify for sacrifice, within the gates of the Israelite settlements in Canaan. This allowance grows out of a recognition that most Israelites would find it difficult to travel to a single, central shrine from geographically widespread tribal territories (vv 15-28; contrast Lev. 17:1-7). The present commands, however, clearly uphold both the prohibition of the consumption of blood (Lev. 17:1off.) and the directive to offer official sacrifices only at God's altar (vv. 17-18, 26-27).
Canaanite altar at Megiddo, focus of the largest extant Early Bronze I temple in the Levant. (www. Hol ylandPhotos. org)
12:29-13:18 The Israelites must neither imitate the worship practices of the Canaanites (12:3031) nor succumb to the temptations to worship other gods held out by false prophets, cherished relatives and friends, or entire communities of wayward countrymen. On the contrary, they must put to death any who seek to seduce them away from the worship of God alone (ch. 13). The books of Kings illustrate both the Israelites' failure to honor this ban on Canaanite religion and the tragic consequences.
14 The laws in vv. 1-21 set the Israelites apart as a holy nation (see "Holy, Clean, and Unclean" [127-28]) by prohibiting Canaanite mourning practices and detailing observance of food laws (cf. Leviticus 11). Because animals that had died on their own would not have had their blood drained out, the Israelites must not eat them. Boiling a kid in its mother's milk may reflect a Canaanite practice.
The latter half of chapter 14 echoes laws regarding tithing given in Leviticus 27 and Numbers 18. Tithing (the giving of one-tenth) accomplishes several purposes: it reminds the Israelites that their possessions (animals, produce, etc.) comprise gifts from a gracious God; supply sustenance for the Levites, who lack a tangible inheritance in the promised land; and provide occasions for family and community fellowship centered around the worship of God. Verses 24-26 allow the offerer who lives a distance from the central shrine to exchange his tithe for money, which he can easily carry on his journey to the sanctuary and then use to purchase food and/or drink to present once he arrives.
15 Chapter 15 requires generosity among the Israelites by restating laws concerning the forgiveness of debts in the Sabbatical Year (cf. Leviticus 25). Masters of slaves released during the seventh year must supply the necessary goods to ensure their successful and lasting independence. These laws transform the motivation for lending from one of economic gain (through accumulation of interest and labor; 23:19-20) to simple, heartfelt benevolence toward needy countrymen. The prescriptions also aim to check poverty and the escalation of class distinctions based on material wealth.
16:1-17 Deuteronomy 16 shows less interest in the specific details of Israel's three great festivals than in their functioning to bring the entire Israelite community together at the central place of worship to remember their history as slaves in Egypt, celebrate their deliverance by God, and rejoice in God's blessings through the fruitfulness of the land (esp. vv. 11,16). Leviticus 23 gives more detailed information regarding Israel's religious festivals.
16:18-17:20 This section addresses issues regarding Israel's judicial, political, and social structures and intersperses laws to prevent religious unfaithfulness (e.g., Canaanite cultic practices, 16:21-22; and the offering of defective animals as sacrifices, 17:1).
Israel's theocracy does not separate societal justice from religious purity. It requires judges to decide fairly and impartially. If a local judge finds a particular case too ambiguous to discern, he must refer it to a higher tribunal and allow the Levitical priests to render a verdict. The punishment for failing to honor the priests' judgment is death. Israel's justice system requires more than one witness to condemn a backslider or murderer to death.
The instructions in vv. 14-2o regarding a king for Israel recognize the nation's comparison of itself to its neighbors. While God does not prohibit the appointment of a human king, God stipulates that he himself will select the monarch from among the Israelites. The human king must devote himself to studying God's law rather than to amassing war machinery, wealth, and wives. In this way, he will remain humble toward God and countrymen in his heart. Nevertheless, many of Israel's kings did marry foreign wives, whose introduction of foreign gods greatly contributed to the nation's religious - and therefore divinely orchestrated political - downfall. Solomon figures as the prime example (1 Kgs. 10:26-11:8).
18 Verses 1-8 encapsulate the rights of the Levites as a tribe to receive from their fellow Israelites support for livelihood, since their inheritance consists not in land but in sharing the offerings made to God in exchange for full-time religious service (cf. Numbers 18).
The remainder of the chapter prohibits the Israelites' adoption of the pagan religious practices of child sacrifice and manipulation of the spiritual world through witchcraft, divination, and the like (cf. Lev. 20:1-6). Rather than relying on pagan mediums and spiritualists to determine God's will in specific circumstances, the Israelites must heed the words of a divinely appointed prophet, whom God will raise from their midst to replace Moses and whose fulfilled prophecies will confirm his authenticity.
19 This chapter repeats the command that the Israelites establish geographically dispersed cities of refuge to which unintentional manslayers may flee for asylum from blood avengers (cf. 4:41-43). These provisions serve to curb undeserved punishment in a social system that begins by assuming guilt and requires proof of innocence. But one found guilty of intentional
murder loses the right to asylum in the cities of refuge and becomes subject to the death penalty. A witness who falsely accuses another person becomes subject to the punishment he seeks for the accused, up to and including death. This potentiality, combined with the requirement of at least two witnesses to establish the guilt of an accused person, serves to deter the bearing of false witness. Verse 21 repeats the lex talionis in confirmation of these guidelines (cf. Exod. 21:23-25; Lev. 24:17-20).
Verse 14 sets forth a principle of great importance for a nation that derives its livelihood from the land: neighbors must honor each other's territorial boundaries and refrain from usurping another's ancestral inheritance.
20 Israel's priests must inspire the nation's citizens as they prepare for divinely instituted war in Canaan. To prevent another man's staking claim to one's property or wife, valid excuses for nonparticipation in battle include ownership of a newly built home or recently sown field and engagement for marriage. The fainthearted must also remain at home so their fear does not spread among the troops.
The Israelites must offer terms of peace to cities outside Canaan. The inhabitants of those cities that surrender without a fight shall become subordinate to Israel. In those cities that resist, the Israelites must kill all the men but may take everything else for themselves as booty. By contrast, the Israelites must kill "anything that breathes" in cities within Canaan, leaving no one to lead them astray from the true worship of God (cf. 7:1-5). Israel may use only nonfruit-bearing trees in making siegeworks for war; in other words, the Israelites must not destroy the bounty of the land, which God intends as a component of his gift to them.
21 Lacking a known culprit, the elders of the city nearest a murder victim found lying in open country must assume responsibility for obtaining God's forgiveness for the crime and for reestablishing the nation's purity before him. The atonement ritual prescribed involves the elders' washing their hands over the body of a slain heifer to substitute for executing the unknown murderer.
God allows Israelite men to marry foreign women from defeated cities outside Canaan. The women's status as foreign captives is not a valid reason for their Israelite husbands to mistreat them, however. A husband who no longer wants his foreign wife may not sell her, but instead must grant her freedom. This law serves as a check against any tendency toward marrying foreign wives purely for economic gain. It also protects the dignity of women made particularly vulnerable in a patriarchal society during wartime.
Verses 15-17 prohibit a patriarch's playing favorites by insisting that a man's firstborn son receive his rightful inheritance even if born of an unloved wife (cf. Jacob's preference of Rachel's son Joseph above the older sons of Leah; Genesis 29-30, 37). That disobedient Israelite sons may receive the death penalty for persistent obstinacy toward their parents demonstrates the seriousness of God's command that children honor their fathers and mothers and thereby preserve the stability of the family as the foundation of Israelite society. The hanging of a body on a tree (vv. 22-23) refers to further shaming an executed individual through exposure of his corpse.
22 These laws flesh out some of the practical implications of loving one's neighbor as oneself (cf. Lev. 19:18). The laws include caring for a countryman's lost property and restoring it to him as well as maintaining one's own property so as to ensure the safety of other people. God's concern with the order he established at creation emerges in laws that respect the distinctiveness of the sexes (v. 5), products of the land (vv. 9,11), and animal species (v io). Tassels on garments (v 12) serve as constant reminders to follow God's commands (cf. Num. 15:37-40).
The laws in vv. 13-3o address sexual purity, not as a private matter but as a community concern. They protect women from sexual slander by disgruntled husbands and in cases of rape clear them from the social and punitive consequences of adultery. A bloodstained sheet could prove a woman's virginity on her wedding night or her menstrual and therefore nonpregnant state. Both instances protect her eligibility for marriage. But the laws' purpose
is to preserve the honor of the patrimony more than to guard the rights of women. For the sake of the Israelite community as a whole, the laws require responsible sexual behavior by prescribing serious punishments, including the death penalty, for adultery and sexual activity outside marriage.
23 Laws concerning the right to participate in community worship at the central sanctuary ensure the congregation's ritual purity and strengthen the Israelites' national distinctiveness. The prohibitions in vv. 1-2 may constitute rejection of pagan religious practices involving castration and cult prostitution resulting in pregnancy. Although, for historical reasons, no Ammonite or Moabite may worship in the Israelite assembly, descendants of the Edomites and Egyptians may participate by virtue of their blood relationship to Israel through Jacob and their initial hospitality to God's people through Joseph.
Verses 9-25 address a range of issues, including the cleanness of the Israelite army camp, asylum for foreign slaves, cult prostitution, interest on loans, vows to the Lord, and the rights and restrictions involved in taking sustenance from a countryman's vineyard or field. Regarding asylum, contrast the Old Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, which prescribes the death penalty for harboring runaway slaves.
24 Verses 1-4 do not institute or sanction divorce; rather, they regulate the divorce that the ancient Israelites already practiced. The laws here protect women by requiring of a husband serious reflection and legitimate, written grounds for divorcing his wife - he may not remarry her if she marries another man and is divorced a second time. Also, the writ of divorce enabled the woman to refute a former husband's false charge of desertion.
The Israelites' knowledge of their history as slaves in Egypt must temper their exercising of individual rights so as to show mercy to the weaker members of society. A millstone taken as a pledge would deprive the owner of his means to make food; a cloak kept overnight as a pledge would deprive the owner of his protection from the night air; wages withheld from a servant would deprive him of his daily needs. Farmers and vinedressers must leave the leftovers from their fields and fruit trees for those without other means of support (cf. Ruth 2:15-16).
While people must act in the interest of society as a whole, they must suffer the consequences of their sins as individuals. Not even children and parents may substitute for each other for transgressions deserving the death penalty (v. i6).
25 By setting an upper limit on the number of lashes administered, verses 1-3 prohibit excessive and degrading punishment of an Israelite found guilty by the court. Later practice reduced the maximum 40 "stripes" to 39 to prevent the unintentional transgression of this law through miscounting (cf. 2 Cor. 11:24).
The law regarding levirate marriage outlined in W. 5-10 finds expression in Ruth 4. The unusual and severe punishment for a woman's potentially damaging a man's genitals during a fight (vv 11-12) likely reflects the social importance of the man's ability to father children. Verses 13-16 echo the call for just weights in Lev. 19:36 (cf. Prov 20:10, 23).
26 This chapter anticipates the Israelites' settled life in Canaan and elaborates the required ceremonies involving presentation of firstfruits to God and giving the third year's tithe in support of Levites, resident aliens, orphans, and widows as instructed in 14:28-29. The first ceremonial prayer remembers God's gracious deliverance of Israel from Egypt and recognizes his gift of a
bountiful land. "My father was a wandering Aramean" N. 5) is a statement of faith, or "credo;" referring to Abraham, who stayed at Haran in the region of Aram-naharaim before continuing on to Canaan. The second prayer declares the offerer's obedience and ritual purity and invokes God's blessing.
The last four verses conclude this legal core of Deuteronomy by reaffirming Israel's covenantal relationship with God as stipulated in these 15 chapters. Verse 16 charges the Israelites to obey with care and sincerity the commandments recorded in chapters 12-26; verse 17 reminds them of their promise to do so; verse 18 affirms God's commitment to his people; and verse 19 states the lofty rewards of obedience, whose purpose ultimately consists in honoring God.
27 A Ceremony to Ratify the Covenant in Canaan
Moses, Israel's elders, and the Levitical priests instruct the people to ratify their covenant with God soon after they enter Canaan in a ceremony similar to the sealing of secular treaties in the ancient Near East (see "Covenants" [141-441). First, they must record the law (the commandments in chs. 12-26) on lime-plastered stones and display them on Mount Ebal, near the centrally located city of Shechem. Next, they must make peace offerings to God on an altar built not according to Canaanite custom but according to divine instruction (cf. Exod. 20:25-26). Finally, six tribes stationed on Mount Gerizim shall pronounce blessings on the nation, and the other six, on Mount Ebal, shall pronounce the covenantal curses (Cf. 11:26-29; Josh. 8:30-35).
Mounts Gerizim and Ebal, from which the Israelite tribes pronounced the blessings and curses in the covenant ratification ceremony at Shechem. (www.HolylandPhotos.org)
The text records only the 12 curses to be uttered and to which the people must consent with an acknowledging "amen" ("let it be so"). The curses single out transgressions of the second, fifth, sixth, and possibly eighth of the Ten Commandments, which prohibit making idols, dishonoring parents, murder, and theft. The curses also take up the themes of caring for society's weak and of sexual purity, particularly regarding familial relationships. Verse 26 covers the remainder of the Deuteronomic commandments under the general designation of "law"
28 Blessings and Curses
By spelling out the covenantal sanctions, chapter 28 rounds out the ancient Near Eastern treaty structure of Deuteronomy. This section devotes the majority of space to the curses, which speak in both personal and communal terms in detailing the ways in which disobedience to the covenant will result in conditions exactly opposite to the blessings promised for faithfulness.
Verses 1-14 focus on the abundant fertility of land, animals, and the people themselves in outlining the prosperity that covenantal obedience will produce at all times and in all ways. This emphasis elevates God's power over the Canaanite deity Baal's supposed realm of rule. In addition to the blessings of land and progeny (vv 8, 11), the promises of protection from enemies and blessing on other nations (vv. 7, 12) hark back to God's promise to Abram (Gen. 12:1-3). These blessings, which bring life in its fullest sense, embody what it means for God to claim the Israelites as his own people (v. 9).
The next 54 verses detail the deathly consequences of covenantal disobedience. The curses in verses 15-19 parallel the general blessings in verses 2-6. The curses also warn of divinely sent illnesses and plagues that recall the punishments God poured out on the Egyptians prior to the exodus (vv. 21-22, 58-61). Confusion, vulnerability, heartache, and fear will add to life's miseries (vv. 28-34, 65-67). Exile will reduce the Israelites to their preelected state: vassals to
a foreign power and subject to powerless idols N. 36, 49-52, 64). God will render the Israelites' labors and possessions useless in his quest to destroy the nation (vv. 38-48).
Israel's besiegement by a foreign power will produce famine, which will cause the abominable behavior of parents' killing and eating their own children (vv. 53-55; cf. Jer. 19:9). Family discord will become the norm in previously harmonious households (vv. 54-57). The nation will be reduced in number, and those who remain will not even be able to sell themselves as slaves in a foreign country (v. 68). God will take as much delight in destroying his disobedient people as he does in prospering an obedient nation (v. 63).
29-30 Moses Presents a Choice
Moses' third speech resumes several themes from his discourses in chapters 1-u. Here he appeals to Israel's history in reminding them not only of the wonders God has worked on their behalf but also of God's power to bring about both the blessings and curses of the covenant. Moses' words confirm that the Law applies to the present generation as well as to coming generations (29:10-15; cf. 5:3). He summarizes the devastating consequences of unfaithfulness (29:18-28) yet inspires hope for restored blessings to a repentant Israel, even in the event that God must punish them for disobedience to the full extent warned in the covenantal curses (30:1-10).
Moses points out the clarity and accessibility of the Law, thereby placing direct responsibility on the Israelites for their actions regarding the covenant (30:11-14). Though God's plans for the future remain hidden, the Israelites know and understand what God expects of them now (29:29), and God himself will enable the Israelites to honor him through covenantal faithfulness (30:6; cf. 10:12, 16); therefore, disobedience will prove nothing but deliberate. Moses sets before the Israelites the choice between life and death and concludes with a hopeful reminder of God's covenantal promises to Israel's ancestors, the patriarchs (30:15-20).
31 Moses' Final Acts
Moses announces his impending death and endorses Joshua as the Israelites' military leader in taking possession of Canaan. In his charge to the nation as a whole and to Joshua individually, Moses inspires courage and trust in God's promises based on God's past faithfulness to his people.
Moses entrusts the written law to the priests and Israel's elders. To ensure the education of future generations in the covenantal provisions and requirements, he commands the reading of the Law to the Israelite assembly every Sabbatical Year at the Feast of Booths.
God meets Moses and Joshua at the tabernacle and foretells Israel's future unfaithfulness through worship of other gods. Despite knowing what lies ahead, God gives Joshua marching orders to lead the Israelites in possessing the promised land and pledges his presence with him.
Moses places the book of the Law beside the ark of the covenant as a witness against the Israelites' future disobedience and prepares to teach the assembly a divinely inspired song that will serve the same purpose.
32:1-47 The Song of Moses
The poetic form of Moses' song enables its memorization by the Israelites, who like their contemporaries passed on much of their historical traditions orally. Following the format of an ancient Near Eastern covenantal lawsuit, the Song begins with the invocation of witnesses to the proceedings (heaven and earth, v. 1). Verses 4-6 summarize the reason for the lawsuit - Israel's disobedience. Verses 7-14 detail God's election of Israel and his loving care for them. The indictment of Jeshurun (a poetic name of Israel) for her irrational and unnatural idolatry appears in vv. 15-18, and vv. 19-25 hand down the guilty verdict and a bitter sentence that recalls the covenantal curses detailed in 28:15-68.
The remainder of the Song departs from the lawsuit format by adding a final section that rules out the Israelites' complete destruction. Though God will use Israel's enemies to punish his people, he will curb their penalty (vv 26-27). When Israel sinks to the bottom, when the false gods they have foolishly pursued fail them, God will rise up to avenge his people against their spiritually ignorant enemies and vindicate his name (vv. 28-43). The punishment and restoration foretold here point to the 70-year Babylonian exile and return of Israel to Canaan in 538.
Jordan Valley as seen from Moses' vantage point on Mount Nebo. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)
32:48-52 God's Final Instructions to Moses
God instructs Moses to climb Mount Nebo to catch a glimpse of Canaan before he dies on that mountain, as Aaron did on Mount Hor. The brothers' punishment for failing to honor God at Meribah barred them from entering the promised land (Num. 20:1-13).
33 The Blessing of Moses
Moses assumes the role of "father" to the nation of Israel as he blesses each of the 12 tribes before he dies (cf. Genesis 49). The hopes and prayers that the blessings convey presuppose Israel's covenantal obedience and anticipate the fulfillment of God's promises of possessing Canaan and prospering in it. Reference to Moses in the third person (v. 4) may signal that verses 4-5 represent a response by the assembly to Moses' opening words.
Reuben's short blessing reflects Jacob's dying sentence on him (Gen. 49:3-4) and may be viewed against the backdrop of Korah's rebellion, in which the Reubenites Dathan and Abiram participated (Numbers i6).
The absence of Simeon from the list probably reflects that tribe's absorption into the tribe of Judah near the beginning of Israel's settled life in Canaan. In this case, Judah's blessing would include Simeon as well N. 7). The phrase, "bring him to his people," may be a prayer for a reunited kingdom. (The northern tribes split off from Judah and Simeon following Solomon's death in the late loth century and formed the kingdom of Israel as distinct from the southern kingdom of Judah.)
The blessing of Benjamin appears to hint at God's choice of Jerusalem as the location for the tabernacle (and later the temple). God's dwelling "between his shoulders" seems to picture the mountain ridges of this hill-country site in Benjamite territory.
Joseph's blessing acknowledges that he ranks first among his brothers (v. 16) and wishes the abundance of nature, military success, and numerical increase on his tribe, which inherited the names of his sons, Ephraim and Manasseh. Part of Manasseh settled east of the Jordan River, as did Gad, whose blessing praises this tribe for their brotherly aid in conquering the promised land proper (cf. Numbers 32).
34 The Death of Moses
After ascending Mount Nebo and viewing the expanse of land God promised to the patri archs, the central figure in the books of Exodus through Deuteronomy dies east of the Jordan in Moab. This chapter refers to Moses in the third person and praises him for his exceptional prophetic role, arguing against its authorship by Moses.
Moses had known of his fate for some time (Num. 20:12; 27:12-14). While the great prophet ultimately would not escape punishment for his sin at Meribah, God continued to bless him with good health in old age and honors him in death with a divine burial (vv. 6-7). The Israelites mourn him for 3o days and then embrace the leadership of his successor, Joshua, who inherits Moses' spirit of wisdom (v. 9). Moses' epitaph singles him out as a unique figure in Israel's history (vv. 10-12).
Deuteronomy closes with a new generation of Israelites prepared to take possession of Canaan under a new leader chosen by God to further his work of redeeming sinful humanity. The record of this redemptive history begins in Genesis immediately after the fall. Thus the Pentateuch as a whole provides hope for the restoration of humankind's intimate relationship with the God who lives in their midst - a relationship lost through sin in Eden and made possible by Israel's covenantal obedience in a new garden - the promised land flowing with milk and honey.