Background
More than a year after composing 1 Corinthians, Paul writes 2 Corinthians from Macedonia. In the interim he has made a second trip to Corinth, but the problems in the church persisted. After returning to Ephesus he wrote a third, now lost letter expressing sorrow over that visit and the strained relationship between church founder and congregation (2:1-4; 7:8). 2 Corinthians is his fourth letter to this fellowship of Christians.
Background
The events leading to Paul's composition of 2 Corinthians involve his coworker Titus, who has recently delivered to the congregation Paul's "sorrowful letter" prescribing church discipline for his primary opponent (2:5-10). Paul finds it impossible to remain in Ephesus awaiting Titus's report on the Corinthians' response, so he leaves for the Asian port city of Troas to intercept the emissary on his return trip. But Paul finds it impossible to remain in Troas too, so he sails to Macedonia (northern Greece), where he finally meets up with the returning Titus.
The Letter
Titus's report of Corinthian compliance with Paul's instructions brings great joy and relief to the apostle and occasions this emotion-laden letter, which poignantly reveals Paul's feelings about himself, his ministry, and his relationship with his church "children." In anticipation of his upcoming, third visit to Corinth (12:14; 13:1-2), Paul also gives instruction for the church's contribution to his relief fund for the impoverished church in Jerusalem.
Because the last four chapters of 2 Corinthians display an overall change in tone, from joy and relief to a defense of Paul's apostolic authority, some scholars consider chapters 10-13
at least a part of the lost "sorrowful letter." More probably, here Paul targets a different contingent of the Corinthian church - the minority who persist in opposing him.
1:1-14 Celebrating Comfort after Affliction
Paul names as his coauthor Timothy, whom he recruited for ministry during the previous missionary journey (Acts 16:1-5). The "saints throughout Achaia" include converts in Athens, Cenchreae, and perhaps other cities of southern Greece in which Paul pursued evangelistic activities (Acts 17:16-18:23). His signature greeting, "Grace and peace;" strikes a chord with ethnically mixed audiences of Gentiles and Jews.
Paul begins by celebrating the comfort of God, which counterbalances afflictions endured for the sake of Christ and enables him to comfort others who are suffering. The greatness of Paul's joy over such comfort stems from the seriousness of the life-threatening afflictions he and his companions have recently experienced in the province of Asia. The leaders' upstanding conduct through such trials gives good reason for the Corinthian church to take pride in their association with Paul and company, as the evangelists also take pride in the spiritually maturing congregation at Corinth.
1:15-2:11 Repairing Strained Relationships
The painful nature of Paul's second visit to Corinth assumed in chapter 2 - an apparently unsuccessful attempt to correct problems in the church - caused Paul to cancel a planned, subsequent trip so as to spare the Corinthians further hurt stemming from their then-strained relationship with him.
Paul also refers to a now-lost "sorrowful" letter giving the same reason for keeping his distance - his love for the disaffected Corin thians. But the church's disciplining of Paul's primary (unidentified) opponent has sufficiently repaired their relationship; so Paul urges the majority to emulate his own forgiveness by reincorporating the offender into their community. Such forgiveness robs Satan of the advantage inherent in fractured Christian fellowship.
2:1217 Anxiety Relieved
Paul recalls the intensity of his anxiety over his previously strained relationship with the Corinthian Christians, his impatience in awaiting news from his assistant Titus, sent to Corinth to deliver the sorrowful letter (vv. 12-13), and his joyous relief at the positive report (vv. 14-17; cf. ch. 7). The image of participation in a divinely led triumphal procession stems from the parading of victorious Roman generals through the streets of Rome with captives trailing behind and incense perfuming the air in thanks to the gods. To unbelievers, bearers of the gospel represent an aroma "from death to death" (as the smell of incense reminded captives of death in battle and the end of life as they knew it), for rejection of the message by people spiritually dead in their sins seals their death for eternity. Conversely, those who accept the gospel become spiritually enlivened now for eternal life.
3 Unveiling Salvation
Just as Paul and the Corinthian church have good reason for mutual pride, so also does each party embody a living letter of recommendation for the other - letters written by none other than Christ himself (vv. 1-3; cf.1:14). The imagery contrasts with Moses' receipt of the Law on tablets of stone - a contrast Paul develops further by asserting the superiority of the new covenant based on its permanence, as opposed to the impermanence of the old covenant symbolized by the fading of glory from Moses' face (Exod. 34:29-35). Paul refers to the Mosaic law as the "ministry of death" and the "ministry of condemnation" because it awakens the human conscience but cannot elicit perfect obedience for salvation. Getting a clear look at the glory of the Lord through the Holy Spirit, instead of a veiled impression of righteousness through the Law, transforms the beholder into the Lord's glorious image. Thus the "ministry of righteousness" brings freedom from the Law.
4:1-7:16 Ministry and Motivation
Paul and his companions persevere in their ministry despite the rejection of the gospel by people whose minds "the god of this world" (Satan) has blinded to its "light" and despite the subjection of their mortal bodies ("earthen vessels") to all kinds of affliction. The apostle characterizes the evangelists' ministry as one of voluntary service to Christ and describes their spirits as indomitable. In fact, the entrusting of the gospel "treasure" to mere mortals ensures that the glory for its eternal life-producing success gets credited to God alone (4:7). Paul's confidence in the resurrection (cf. 1 Corinthians 15) provides the basis for his discounting temporary earthly afflictions in expectation of an incomparably glorious eternity (4:14, 17-18).
The ancient Greeks disparaged the body as a burden for the soul (Acts 17:16-34). In chapter 5, Paul disparages the mortal body ("earthly tent") but celebrates the eternal, heavenly body believers will inherit when resurrected. He says the soul need not get naked but only change clothes. Resurrection promises this better body, but the final judgment requires pleasing of God while still "clothed" in the mortal one.
All believers, while still in their mortal bodies, enjoy inner re-creation resulting from their restoration to a right relationship with God ("reconciliation") through the substitutionary, sacrificial death and resurrection of Christ. Paul urges the re-created Corinthians to repay this ill-deserved favor (= grace) of God by behaving in ways that do not discredit the ministry to which they have responded - a ministry that continues to entail affliction and hardship for their long-suffering spiritual fathers, the apostle and his associates.
The "discrediting" conduct prohibited by the apostle seems to center around forging ties with unbelievers for purposes Paul leaves ambiguous (6:11-7:1; cf. 1 Cor. 8:9-13). Paul preempts the complaint that his instruction is restrictive by characterizing the Corinthians' lingering affection for worldly associations as the real re strainer, for partnering with pagans hinders the Christian's progress toward holiness (cf. 1 Cor. 5:9-13). "Belial" (6:15), a mythological term later identified with the Devil, usually represents "wickedness" in biblical usage.
In chapter 7, Paul celebrates his relief at the restoration of his relationship with the Corinthians as reported by Titus. The comforting news makes the apostle a joyful sufferer in ministry and reverses his initial regret over sending to the Corinthians a now lost letter, which first caused them sorrow but ended by evoking their repentance.
8-9 Funds for the Mother Church
The apostle's restored confidence in the Corinthian congregation emboldens him to announce a financial challenge: match the Macedonian churches in joyful and generous donations to the relief fund he is collecting for the mother church in Jerusalem. The Macedonian congregations, which include Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea, have given "beyond their means." Although the Corinthians' year-old commitment to contribute has been an inspiration, Paul emphasizes an even stronger foundation for charitable giving: the example of Christ, who impoverished himself by coming in human form and giving himself on the cross for the eternal enrichment of humanity. Paul further points out that the Corinthians might someday need similar aid from Jerusalem (8:14). What the Corinthians "sow" they will "reap" in blessing (9:6).
Paul promises to the generous and cheerful giver "abundance in every good work." He is sending to Corinth an advance team including Titus and Christian "brothers" from Macedonia to help the church complete its fund drive before he arrives. The handling of the money by fellow workers protects the apostle from the appearance of extortion (evidently charged by his opponents; cf. 11:7-15, 20) and suspected embezzlement (cf. his defense in 12:16-18). Thus he will avoid even the appearance of evil (8:20-21).
10-13 Stern Words to Persistent Critics
Paul now takes a dramatically different tone, probably because he is targeting a different audience - his opponents, not his supporters as in chapters 1-9. Unmistakable sarcasm and irony pepper this forceful apology of his ministry.
10 Countering False Charges By characterizing Christ himself as meek and gentle, Paul turns into a compliment the complaint of his opponents that he is meek in person but bold when absent" (in his letters). Paul's previous lack of success apparently led to the charge of cowardice by his critics. Paul denies the charge by asserting his readiness to "punish" them if he must (v 6), preferring to exercise his apostolic authority to enlighten rather than reprimand, refusing to ignore their criticism (v. 8), and claiming that he is the same in word and deed (v. 11). For now, he cares only for God's ap proval. Self-commendation counts for nothing (v. i8).
Temple of Apollo at Corinth; 6th century B.C. (www.HolyLandPhotos.org)
11 Winning at a Fool's Game Paul expresses his fear that the Corinthians are falling easy prey to preachers of an unorthodox version of the gospel - "super-apostles;" whose claims to superiority Paul rejects. His observation that his "untrained" speech does not betray a lack of knowledge warns the Corinthians against forsaking his pure and simple gospel for the seemingly supercharged versions of apostolic frauds. Thus the battle for Christian "purity" rages over the mind, not just the body.
Paul confronts the criticism that he would not accept wages for his ministerial work (vv. 7-11). The Corinthians have taken offense at his determination not to burden them financially (cf. 1 Cor. 9:11-18). They assume he loves the Macedonians more because he took their money. The outrageous assumption only steels Paul's resolve to maintain his distinctiveness from false apostles, who take advantage of the Corinthians without their even noticing. Paul sarcastically admits his weakness in perpetrating such offenses (v. 21). But he will engage the false apostles in a round of their foolish boasting game - and will play to win! If they claim an impeccable pedigree, so does he. If they claim servanthood to Christ, he claims superior servanthood, not by virtue of his accomplishments but by way of his weaknesses: the quantity of his afflictions, the intensity of his sufferings, the gravity of his endangerment, the comprehensiveness of his perils, and the constant weightiness of his concern for his converts.
12:1-13 Boasting at Arm's Length The necessity of Paul's profitless boasting stems from his Corinthian opponents' unfavorable comparison of him to the self-promoting superapostles. In verses 1-7 he recounts a past vision to prove his apostolic competitiveness - even his superiority N. 7) - in the arena of revelations. His being caught up to the "third heaven" signifies being conveyed to the very presence of God. But since the transport to paradise shows him divinely favored rather than humanly fragile, he down plays the ecstatic experience in several ways: he speaks of himself only in the third person, emphasizes that the event took place a long time ago, dismisses the question of whether the revelation occurred in or out of body, and follows up the report with an immediate mention of his "thorn in the flesh," sent to keep him humble. The ambiguous affliction, which God thrice refused to remove, serves as a constant reminder to Paul that his apostolic strength lies in his human frailty, which unlike overconfidence does not downplay the power of God. Thus he establishes firm ground for refusing to boast, save in his weaknesses.
Paul ends his fool's speech by asserting that the signs, wonders, and miracles he performed among the Corinthians should have convinced them of his apostolic authenticity (v. 12). He reprimands his opponents for compelling him to brag when he had already proven worthy of their commendation, and he sarcastically requests their forgiveness for failing to charge money for his ministry.
12:14-13:13 Concern for Corinth Claiming responsibility for the welfare of the Corinthian Christians, Paul warns that he will not accept communal strife and unrepentance - which he as their spiritual parent will find personally humiliating. By appealing to the Mosaic requirement of two or three witnesses to establish legal truth (Deut. 19:15), Paul characterizes this visit as the final witness to the sincerity of the Corinthians' Christian commitment. He is prepared to do whatever necessary to punish persistent sinners, but would prefer using his God-given apostolic authority for its intended purpose of enlightenment. Let the Corinthians worry less about the spiritual condition of Paul and more about their own N. 5).
In closing, Paul returns to the theme of taking comfort (v. 11; cf. 1:3-7). Against the Corinthians' inclination to cliquishness, he encourages like-mindedness and Christian unity (cf. 1 Cor. 1:10-4:21), demonstrated in their greeting each other with a "holy kiss" and grounded in their fellowship in the Holy Spirit. The last verse - 13:13 - is the only biblical benediction that includes all three persons of the Godhead.
From Jesus to Paul
Jesus taught and acted with messianic authority that led his hearers to pay attention. The need to memorize and spread his message began during his own ministry, when he sent out the Twelve and the Seventy with the good news of the kingdom. The presence of Greek-speaking members in the church at Jerusalem ("Hellenists"; Acts 6) meant that traditions about his words and deeds had to be translated into Greek very soon after Pentecost. The continuing presence of apostles in Jerusalem ensured the preservation and a measure of control of these traditions.
We do not know whether Paul ever heard Jesus speak, but he had many opportunities to learn about him. As a Pharisee, Saul of Tarsus would have heard of his teachings through the Pharisaic "grapevine" and from the testimonies of Christians he persecuted. After his encounter with Christ on the Damascus road (probably less than two years after the crucifixion), Paul presumably would have wanted to discover all that he could about him (Phil. 3:8,10). As a new Christian, joining in worship with Christians at Damascus he would have shared his own story and heard the stories of others. Paul lived and taught for at least a year in Antioch, where refugees from Jerusalem had been among the first preachers, bringing with them the message of Jesus (Acts 11:1826). His visits to Jerusalem enabled him to learn firsthand from Peter,
James, and others (Gal. 1:18-19; 2:9). Finally, his close association with people such as Barnabas, Silvanus, and John Mark, who knew the traditions from Jerusalem, would have given Paul many occasions to deepen his knowledge of the earliest Christian beliefs.
Some have argued that Paul was so passionate about the Christ he knew by faith that he had little interest in the Jesus of history. They note that Paul rarely alludes to Jesus' teachings and says nothing of his miracles or parables. On this view, the apostle was only interested in the powerful, risen Christ that would appeal to Gentiles rather than the Jesus depicted in the synoptic Gospels who taught more explicitly about the kingdom than about himself.
But Paul shows no evidence of a distinction between the risen Christ and the pre-Easter Jesus. Instead of viewing the crucified Christ in a worldly way, believers are to understand the significance of the cross by the Spirit (cf. 2 Cor. 5:16). Before coming to faith in him, Paul believed Jesus could not be the Messiah because he was a criminal, under the curse pronounced in the Old Testament on anyone hung on a tree; now Paul saw that the curse was part of God's plan of salvation and worthy of the resurrection (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).
In Galatians, Paul emphasized that his gospel came through revelation from God because at stake was his insistence that
Gentiles need not become Jews to be members of God's people. His authority was being questioned by people who asserted that nonJews had to be circumcised and keep the food laws and calendar in order to be true Christians (Gal. 1:6-9; 2:11-14; 6:12-13; Acts 15:15). Apart from this issue, Paul's gospel was the same as that of those who believed before him (Gal. 1:23; cf. 1 Cor.15:11). Writing to the Corinthians, Paul describes his gospel of the death and resurrection of Christ as a tradition he had received and passed on (1 Cor. 15:3-7). Other than not requiring Gentile Christians to take on the distinctive Jewish customs, there is no evidence that Paul's gospel differed from that preached by the most conservative Jewish Christians in Jerusalem.
The rarity of direct references to traditions about Jesus in Paul's letters is actually characteristic of all New Testament epistles and most apostolic fathers until the middle of the 2nd century. We find very few direct quotations of Jesus, few references to his deeds, and no mention of his parables in any of the earliest Christian writings apart from the Gospels, yet we know that these Christians treasured the stories and sayings of their Lord. So Paul is not unusual in this regard. His letters, like those of other early writers, are full of echoes of Jesus' teachings (cf. Rom. 12:14;13:8-10;14:14). He simply does not identify them as such.
Paul and other apostles presupposed that the recipients of their letters already knew basic traditions about Jesus (cf. Rom. 6:17). Their epistles were not sent to establish the fundamentals of the Christian faith, but to address specific pastoral issues and needs. Speaking with apostolic authority and an awareness that the Spirit of Jesus spoke through them, the apostles apparently felt no need to refer to Jesus' teachings to underscore their exhortations. Furthermore, Christ's death on the cross and his resurrection eclipsed in significance any particular act of mercy or miracle prior to his passion. So it is perhaps not so surprising to see early Christian
writers pointing to these crucial events rather than to lesser deeds. That is not to say that the sayings and ministry of Jesus were unimportant to them, only that letters were not the place to convey these traditions. Paul and other early Christians emphasized the person of Jesus even more than his teachings because the resurrection had vindicated him as Messiah, who brought salvation through his death on the cross. Thus the Proclaimer became the Proclaimed.
For Further Reading
Letters, ed. Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993, 492-503.
Still, Todd D. Jesus and Paul Reconnected. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008.
. Paul and the Historical Jesus. Cambridge: Grove, 1998.
MICHAEL B. THOMPSON