Prophets
Prophets
The prophetic movement in the Old Testament has its beginning with Moses. Even though Abraham is called a prophet because he prayed for Abimelech (Gen. 20:7), the more technical sense of the prophet as a divine spokesperson applies to Moses, who received, spoke, and explained God's word to Israel.
The Pentateuch sets Moses apart as the one who mediates between God and Israel, distinguished before Israel as God's servant to whom he spoke face to face (Num. 12:6-8; Exod. 33:11).
Deuteronomy contains Moses' final giving of the Law to Israel before his death. The book records the transition of leadership from Moses to Aaron, the elders, and the priests. Further, the book anticipates not only the rise of the monarchy in Israel (Deuteronomy 17), but also the rise of a prophet "like Moses" (ch. 18). The basic definition of the prophet (Deut. 18:15-18) specifies an Israelite sent by the Lord, with unique authority to which Israel must respond positively, while shunning the oracles and power plays of diviners and magicians (vv. 9-14). God's prophet is "like Moses," entrusted with the divine oracles, communicates them, and attests to them through signs even when this requires his own suffering for the purpose of bringing Israel back to the Lord (cf. Jeremiah).
The era after Moses and Joshua is characterized by the rare occasions when God spoke to his people (1 Sam. 3:1). It was not until Samuel that the prophetic voice was heard again throughout Israel (1 Sam. 3:20). Samuel truly was a prophet "like Moses" who left his mark on the history of Israel as a godly servant of the Lord (see 1 Samuel 12).
A radical change took place under Samuel, however. Israel demanded a king, and the Lord gave in. With the rise of kingship, the prophet turned to minister God's word from the people at large to the anointed king (Samuel to Saul, Nathan to David). The "court prophets" were consulted by the Israelite kings in order to determine God's will in battle (cf.1 Samuel 28). The prophet was God's spokesperson as well as a royal advisor.
Kingship in Israel and Judah was generally corrupt, and gradually the prophet became the antagonist of the king. The stories of Elijah and Elisha illustrate the tensions between kings and prophets, which came to a peak during the ministry of Elijah (cf. his challenge of idolatry at Mount Carmel, 1 Kings i8). Then at Mount Horeb Elijah called on God to demonstrate his justice to unfaithful Israel (1 Kings 19). The prophet had become the "accuser" of God's people, afflicting the comfortable."
Statue of Elijah at Muhraka, highest peak of Mount Carmel, commemorating his victory over the prophets of Baal. (Wikimedia Commons)
In response to Elijah's accusation, God proclaimed an oracle of judgment. The prophets' accusation and God's determination of judgment characterize the message of the classical or literary prophets, who, in the tradition of Moses and Elijah, serve as divine spokespersons as well as accusers. But also stemming from God's oracle to Elijah, the classical prophets comfort the afflicted or poor, who constitute the "remnant," and this is a major theme in the prophets. The nature of the God of Israel dictates judgment, even within Israel. It is also the basis of hope, as God's faithfulness to his promises is the sure foundation of the continuance of Israel.
The classical prophets, like their predecessors, are characterized by their relevance to the community to whom they minister God's word. They speak the language of the people and express themselves in rhetorical devices that reveal not only their mastery of the language but also the power of imagination. Through simile and metaphor, they appeal to their audience to "re-imagine" their relationship with the Lord. They refer to issues, political alliances, and circumstances that were relevant to their contemporaries. The prophets are first and foremost representatives of their own age and address God's word to their age. The language, images, references, and issues of the prophets communicate God's word in space and time; therefore, it is essential to know the background of the prophets and of their contemporaries: their social, political, and ethical world.
Prophecy
The literary or classical prophets are part of a movement that lasted for 300 years, from Amos (ca. 760 B.c.) to Malachi (ca. 450). This period includes the separate existence of the two kingdoms, the fall of Samaria (722), Judah's continuance for another century, the fall of Jerusalem (587), the exile, restoration (536), and the messages of hope (Haggai and Zechariah) as well as of doom (Malachi) given to the postexilic nation.
The prophetic movement differentiates itself through the distinctive contribution of each prophet and by the context of his ministry. The movement also reveals an inner, organic unity in the message of all the prophets. Understanding this dynamic interplay between the uniqueness of each of God's servants and the connectiveness of the prophetic message as a whole helps the modern reader better engage with the prophetic books.
The reader is best prepared to study the prophets by asking three sets of questions. First, what is the historical, social, religious, and political context in which the prophet spoke? Related to this is the chronological relationship among the prophets. Did the prophet live before, during, or after the Babylonian exile? If before the exile, is he primarily addressing Israel or Judah? If after the exile, what is his stance toward the new nation?
Second, how does the book unfold structurally the message of the prophecy? The prophetic speeches originated from the prophetic words spoken to a variety of audiences at different times throughout his ministry. The writing of the oracles into a book still reflects the prophet's speeches to particular audiences, but the composition and structuring of the messages in book form now address another audience, the readers, to whom God's word comes in a new historical context. The reader must connect the parts by understanding the literary genres, the literary and stylistic devices, and the distinctive literary features of the book, and the message of each part.
Third, what is the distinctive contribution of the prophetic book to the unfolding of the larger picture of salvation history? The answer requires a consideration of the message of the prophets, the relationship of the message of a given prophet to that of other prophets, how the prophetic message anticipates the message of the New Testament, and how the prophetic expectation is transformed in the light of the coming of Jesus Christ.
The prophetic message is a distinct application of God's will to a particular people living in a definite historical situation. The "predictions" of the prophets are not so much "foretellings" in a specific sense. Their words set into motion a course of events that begins with their own time and extends to the second coming of the Lord Jesus. The prophecies regarding the exile fold into the larger topic of the day of the Lord, as do the judgments on specific nations. There is no exhaustive fulfillment of God's word until the consummation. The imagery of particular judgments often has cataclysmic, cosmic, and universal dimensions. The message of judgment, while given in a definitive historical context, cannot be restricted to a particular era. The prophetic message of affliction and consolation is relevant as long as wicked people twist God's reign of justice and the righteous suffer. Similarly, the effective range of the oracles of salvation takes us from the days of the prophets to include the restoration of Israel after the exile, the first coming of Jesus, the age of the church, and finally the grand salvation of creation: the new heaven and earth.
Prophets of Israel
Prophets of Judah
Prophets of the Exile
Prophets of the Postexilic Period
Hosea
Amos
Jonah (?)
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Jeremiah
Ezekiel
Daniel
Obadiah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Joel (?)
The prophets are witnesses to the coming of the kingdom of God and to the fall of human powers. Their realistic portrayal of human corruption, oppression, limitations, and vulnerability is relevant for any age. But more than that, they witness to the inauguration of the kingdom of God that will bring about a radical transformation in human political, religious, economic, and social structures. Similarly, the prophets are candid critics of the descendants of David, many of whom have become corrupt and oppressive. The new age requires a new kind of spirit in the house of David. Many of the "messianic" prophecies speak directly to their current situation. Isaiah's prophecy of the child that will be born whose kingdom will be characterized by justice, righteousness, and peace is an implicit criticism of Ahaz (Isa. 9:6-7; cf. ch. 7). The presentation of Hezekiah (chs. 36-37) suggests that the prophecy of the child finds its realization in Hezekiah, but Hezekiah's reign was in the end also marred by political wranglings (ch. 39), and he too invites God's judgment (vv. 6-7). The fulfillment-in-time leads the reader to look for a reality in his own time. Several generations after Hezekiah's death, the godly looked at King Josiah as a potential candidate. But when Josiah died at a young age, he had not brought about the kingdom of justice, righteousness, and peace. None of his successors did, and then came the exile.
Each prophet contributes his own perspective to the message of human sinfulness and the need for the purification of humanity, the coming of the kingdom of God, the messianic age (with its justice, righteousness, and peace), and the remnant. Isaiah provoked Judah to jealousy by the image of Gentiles coming to Zion (Isa. 2:2-5) and thereby anticipates Paul's teaching on the inclusion of the Gentiles to stir the Jews to faith (Romans 9-11). The same prophet also presented the theme of Gentile inclusion in a variety of other ways (56:1-8; 61:5; 66:21). Other prophets (Zephaniah, Zechariah) made their own contribution to the theme or ignored it (Ezekiel). Yet all prophets are in agreement that the kingdom of God, the messianic kingdom, and the remnant distinguish themselves by the Spirit's transformation of a world characterized by justice and righteousness (Mic. 6:8; cf. Hos. 6:6).
Against the background of the Old Testament prophets, the reader will be better positioned to understand the message of the New Testament. Jesus summarizes the message of the Old Testament when he rebukes the Pharisees for having "neglected the weightier matters of the law: justice and mercy and faith" (Matt. 23:23). Jesus called on his con temporaries to prepare for the coming of God's kingdom (4:17), inviting the remnant to persevere, thirsting, hungering, weeping, and waiting (5:3). He taught them to pray for the kingdom (6:9) and to seek it (v. 33). Jesus connects the kingdom, himself, and justice and righteousness.
Jesus also corrects and transforms the expectations raised in the prophets. The prophets say little about angels, heaven and hell, or the resurrection. Jesus explains each of these topics. The greatest surprise is in his claim to be the King of Israel, the true Davidide. He teaches and heals, is humble and suffers abuse, and dies in the end. He has no army or political ambitions. Yet the Gospel writers witness to Jesus' claim that he is the true and only Messiah, with whom God is pleased. He has received authority over creation (John 13:3). No one can come to the Father except through Jesus Christ (John 14:6), who has received authority to judge and to save (5:26-27). Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36), whose kingdom is not of this world. Nevertheless, he is the only legitimate ruler and will rule until all humans bow before him. The evidence of Jesus' messianic claims lies in his resurrection (1 Cor. 15:24-28).
The New Testament ends with the portrayal of Jesus' coming to vindicate the remnant and to avenge himself against their enemies (Revelation 19), as well as with the presence of God and the Lamb with the remnant in the New Jerusalem in the new creation (ch. 21). The blessing of Jesus rests upon them (Rev. 22:13-14).
The New Testament confirms rather than fulfills the message of the prophets (cf.1 Peter 2). The prophets encouraged the godly to await the coming of the kingdom. This kingdom is confirmed in the exaltation of the Lord Jesus Christ at the right hand of the Father. Yet the members of his church still await the coming of the kingdom in glory and power, being assured that he who said "I am coming soon" (Rev. 22:20) will effect the transformation of all things. In this regard, the Old Testament prophets witness to a reality of God's kingdom in their time and beyond. So do Jesus and the apostles. The kingdom is here, but not yet here in its fullness. When the Scriptures are read in this manner, the message of the prophets connects with that of Jesus and the apostles. It is also transformed in the light of the coming of Jesus Christ.
FOR FURTHER READING
Blenkinsopp, Joseph A. A History of Prophecy in Israel. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1983.
Redditt, Paul L. Introduction to the Prophets. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 20o8.
VanGemeren, Willem A. Interpreting the Prophetic Word. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,199o.
Wilson, Robert R. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel. Philadelphia: Fortress, 198o.
WILLEM A. VANGEMEREN