Literary Form
A classic representative of the Wisdom literature of ancient Israel, Proverbs became an instruction book for the practical application of Israelite moral law to attitudes and everyday living. Though Proverbs shows parallels to ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian wisdom writings, the book shows a distinct perspective consistent with the worship of Yahweh as directed in the legal tradition of the Pentateuch.
Literary Form
The Hebrew word for "proverb" (mashal) carries two meanings, which reveal the means and end of these pithy nuggets of wisdom: "to be similar to" and "to rule over." By means of comparison, a proverb aids the intellectual grasping of a truth and thereby allows a person to gain mastery over the principle that that truth implies (cf. the modern expression, "Knowledge is power"). Another characteristic typical of proverbs is generalization. For the most part, possessing knowledge positions a person for power, but possessing knowledge does not guarantee one will gain power. Similarly, Proverbs repeatedly asserts that the righteous will prosper, but the lives of many biblical figures, notably job and Jesus, poignantly demonstrate exceptions to this general rule and distinguish it from a promise.
Occasionally, the mostly two-line, singlethought expressions in Proverbs appear in thematic clusters, but more often than not the text lacks progression of thought from verse to verse and jumps from one idea to the next with no apparent connection. Though the chapters of this book may seem disjointed, the brevity and poetic form of the proverbs offered the advantage of easy memorization in a time when oral tradition was the primary means of instruction. Proverbs also contains other, sometimes longer literary forms. For example, "sayings" offer observations about life but stop short of providing value judgments or advice for action. Admonitions/prohibitions, formulaic devices (e.g., "numerical sayings," ch. 30), and wisdom poems are additional teaching tools found in Proverbs, which throughout employs varying forms of poetic parallelism (see "Poetry and Wisdom Literature" [304]).
Content
Eight main sections make up the book of Proverbs. The first, chapters 1-9, offers a general introduction on wisdom by a parentlike teacher, who, in keeping with male-oriented ancient Near Eastern society, admonishes the studentson to shun Ms. Folly and pursue Woman Wisdom. The catchphrase "the fear of the Lord" emerges as the basis for a life characterized by wisdom (see 1:7). This "fear" (= reverence) means conduct that accords with Israel's legal tradition, and therefore "wisdom" primarily carries moral overtones, rather than defining a lofty level of intellectual ability. As the direct opposite of wisdom, "folly" or "foolishness" refers not to simple stupidity but to attitudes and behavior that do not conform to Hebrew law. Six collections of proverbs and sayings appear in 10:1-31:9, and a complete acrostic poem (cf. Psalm 9) concludes Proverbs with a portrait of the "excellent wife;" the perfect example of wisdom as developed through the book.
Forms of Wisdom Literature
Proverb or aphorism
Admonition or prohibition
Instruction
Allegory
Riddle
Numerical saying
Hymn in praise of personified Wisdom
Disputation
Fable
Example story
Autobiography
List
Proverbs restates a number of overarching themes in addition to wisdom/folly and its counterpart, righteousness/wickedness. Teaching concerning the use of words and the taming of the tongue; business, social, official, and family relationships; sexual restraint; the misuse of alcohol; and industriousness/laziness, with its counterpart, wealth/poverty, all find a prominent place throughout the book. The instruction contained in this ancient moral primer applies today largely because it recognizes and addresses universal factors that affect human behavior for better or for worse - pride and humility, anger, hopes and fears, joys and sorrows.
Composition
The literary collections in Proverbs originate from different periods in Israel's history. Themes that deal with familial and business relationships may have originated well before the monarchic period, and references to maternal instruction demonstrate that schooling in morality certainly occurred in the home (cf.1:8b; 31:1-31). Certain proverbs and sayings, however, specifically address kings and court matters (e.g., the "Royal" collection, 16:1-22:16). That superscriptions heading a number of collections link them with various kings - in addition to Solomon - and that ancient evidence from Israel's neighbors, Egypt and Mesopotamia, shows the presence there of court and temple schools lead most scholars to view the bulk of Proverbs as having originated from the monarchic period to the exile (Toth-6th centuries B.C.), with the final editing of the book occurring no later than the 2nd century. Though superscriptions name Solomon as author/compiler of the two longest collections (10:1-11:16 and chs. 25-29; cf.1 Kgs. 4:32-34), finalization of the present form of the book appears to have come from later editors.
1:1-7 The Purpose of Proverbs
The introduction to Proverbs gives the purpose of the book: instruction, mainly but not exclusively for the young and naive, in wisdom, which results in appropriate behavior. Verse 3 links wise conduct with the divine characteristics of "righteousness, justice, and equity." To acquire knowledge, gained by instruction and issuing in wisdom, requires reverence (= "fear") of the Lord, a theme that occurs repeatedly throughout this book N. 7). The "proverbs of Solomon," to which verse 1 refers, begin in chapter 1o.
1:819 In Praise of Parental Instruction
The personal advantages of heeding the advice of one's elders, here described as the instruction of parents, stand over against the ultimate selfdestructiveness of giving way to enticements by sinners, who claim that malicious crimes against the innocent pay and who promise criminal fellowship. "Sheol" and "the pit" (v 12) refer to the silent, shadowy abode of the dead.
1:20-33 Woman Wisdom Prophesies
Personified as a woman, "Wisdom" laments her rejection by the simple and naive, whose fate for neglecting her instruction and correction consists in certain calamity. When it hits, their cries of distress will come too late. Those, however, who heed her advice by fearing the Lord from the start have no cause for fearing the disastrous consequences brought on by the pursuit of evil (cf. vv. 28-29 and 33). See also chapter 9, which pits substantive, trustworthy Woman Wisdom against loud-mouthed, ignorant Ms. Folly.
2 The Benefits of Pursuing Wisdom
Though Wisdom loudly and publicly announces her availability in 1:2off., the search to find her requires attentiveness and concerted effort (vv. 2-4). The discovery of wisdom amounts to the discovery of God, who protects the pilgrim by keeping him on the paths of righteousness, with the result that he enjoys the covenantal blessing of life "in the (promised) land" (v 21). In con trast, the consequence of following the "loose woman," whose road of marital and covenantal unfaithfulness leads to the same end as that of the thugs in 1ao-19, consists in forced relinquishment of that blessing (cf. 9:13-18).
The account of the fall provides the supreme example of unwise behavior and its consequences. Adam's and Eve's disobedience to God in choosing for themselves what constituted good and evil behavior (the meaning of "knowing" good and evil) resulted in their losing a life of paradise in the garden of Eden, not to mention the deadly effects of their transgression for the rest of humanity (Genesis 3).
3 Kindness, Truth, and Humility Characterize the Wise Person
Remembering instruction figures as importantly as initially accepting it (v. 1; cf. 2:1). A long life characterized by peace, prosperity, and peace of mind (shalom, the fruit of harmonious relationships with God and his creation) adds to the picture of the reward for pursuing wisdom (cf. ch. 2). While verses 2,16-18, 23-24 describe such a life, verses 25 and 34 acknowledge the inevitable onslaught of "the wicked" and presuppose affliction even for the righteous, though God remains on their side (see W. 33-35).
Kindness and truth characterize the life of the wise person. The admonition in verse 3 pictures the securing of these characteristics to one's body and, in doing so, parallels the similar command regarding the Torah in Deut. 6:8. Verses 27-31 describe the fleshing out of kindness and truth. Humility before God, defined as trusting in him and seeking his guidance, also marks a person as wise. Once again, Adam and Eve come to mind as the supreme examples of folly through their choice to disregard God's direction in favor of trusting their own judgment (contrast W. 5-7 with Gen. 3:6). The promise in verses 9-1o of tangible reward for material generosity toward God fits with the Old Testament theology of this-worldly recompense for one's actions. The Old Testament often interprets such affliction as divine discipline, which Proverbs admonishes one to accept (vv. 11-12; cf. Heb. 12:1-13).
4 Avoiding Distractions
By remembering and passing on the instruction of his own father, the teacher demonstrates that he practices what he preaches (vv 3ff.; cf. 3:1). Acquiring wisdom, which goes hand in hand with avoiding evil deeds and deceitful words, is the path to a blessed life. The Apostle Paul echoes the admonition to ignore distractions from the "upright path" when he urges the Philippians to follow his example of "forgetting what lies behind" and "pressing on toward the goal for the prize," the "upward call of God" (compare vv 25-27 with Phil. 3:12-14).
"Listen, children, to a father's instruction, and be attentive, that you may gain insight" (Proverbs 4). (Phoenix Data Systems, Neal and Joel Bierling)
5 Sexual Fidelity in Marriage
Wise behavior also includes the sexual fidelity of a husband to his wife. Not only should he resist the temptations of the sweet-talking adulteress, which will only produce a painful outcome, but he should also revel in his sexual relationship with his wife (cf. 7:6-27). Here, as throughout the book, Proverbs addresses its instruction to males, but it applies to women as well (cf. Deut. 22:22). Jesus affirms the validity of the Old Testament prohibition against adultery by intensifying its definition to include infidelity of thought (lust), not just action (Matt. 5:27-28).
The Hebrew word often translated here as "adulteress" means "strange woman" or "foreign woman" (cf. 2:16-17). The author's use of an alternative Hebrew word for "adulteress" heightens the sense of religious danger the loose woman poses through her added, inevitable temptations to the worship of "foreign" gods (cf. Numbers 25; 1 Kgs. 11:1-8).
6 Integrity in Work and Relationships
Verses 1-5 advise the financial guarantor stuck with a defaulter's debt to waste no time in diligently working off the unwisely acquired burden. Verses 6-11 cite the ant as an example of self-motivated industriousness in work. Emulating the insect will guard one from the clutches of poverty.
Again the teacher's attention turns toward the devious, deceitful person, who in the end will get his just deserts. As an aside, verses 1619 list some of the evils that God hates: pride, lying, violence against the innocent, wicked plotting, quickness to do wrong, false witnesses, and those who pit friends and family members against each other (contrast 4:23-27). The formulaic language, "six things ... yes, seven...; marks the list as representative rather than complete (v. 16; cf. 30:15, 18, 21, 29).
Chapter 6 closes with more warnings about the consequences of sexual sins, including those with prostitutes, whom verse 26 mentions overtly for the first time in Proverbs. Batting eyes may look enticing (v. 25), but giving in to them is like embracing fire or walking on hot coals (vv. 27-28). The one foolish enough to commit adultery (v. 32) sustains the inevitable burns of permanent public shame and unrepayable debt to the personally and socially offended husband.
7 Adultery: A Case Study
The teacher metaphorically urges the student to marry Wisdom, the "wife" who will enable
him to resist the smooth-talking adulteress (v. 4; "sister" conveys "bride"; cf. Song 4:9-12). Then the speaker describes the seduction of a naive young man by a married woman whose husband has temporarily left town. Before approaching the young man under cover of darkness, the adulteress makes alluring preparations for the enticement that reveal the degree to which she has planned her sexual transgression. Persuaded that he may "eat the forbidden fruit" discreetly, the youth walks straight into the bedroom trap, ignorant as a soon-to-be-butchered ox of the metaphorically mortal wounds he is about to sustain (cf. 2:16-19).
8 Wisdom Presents Her Resume
In contrast to the secretive, scheming adulteress of chapter 7, Woman Wisdom loudly and publicly advertises her legitimate, universal availability at the city gate, where the ancients conducted their daily business. She proclaims the righteousness of her utterances and her unmeasurable value, which exceeds that of silver, gold, and jewels. She claims for herself godlike hatred of evil, power in human affairs, and the ability to grant desirable rewards. In verses 22-31, Wisdom states God's claim on her from before the creation of the world (cf. John 1:1-4, where the "Word" refers to Jesus). Verses 24, 28, and 29 remember day 2 of the creation account in Genesis 1; verses 25, 26, and 29 recall day 3; and verses 27 and 28 reflect day 1. By hating (rejecting) evil, Wisdom reveres God and loves (chooses) life (vv. 13 and 35). By default, then, the one who hates Wisdom (through neglect and rejection) loves (chooses) death, as did Adam and Eve at the fall.
9 Wisdom's Feast versus Folly's Fare
Chapter 9 closes the first main section of Proverbs by summarizing the message of chapters 1-8 in banqueting imagery. From her visually prominent, solidly built hilltop mansion, Woman Wisdom and her maidens universally summon houseguests to a life-giving feast featuring reverence for God as the course around which the rest of the meal revolves (cf. Jesus' parable in Matt. 22:1-14; Luke 14:16-24). In contrast, loud mouthed but ignorant Ms. Folly lies in wait at her doorway, where she tempts well-intentioned passersby to depart from the straight and narrow path by sampling in secret her supposedly sweeter but actually fatal stolen fare (vv. 17-18; contrast John 4:14; 6:51). Woman Wisdom lays it on the line in verse 12: you determine your own fate through wise or foolish choices (cf. Psalm 1). The moral? Beware the false advertisements of Ms. Folly.
10:1-22:16 The Proverbs of Solomon
The short sayings that contain tidbits of wisdom for everyday living - the proverbs proper - begin in chapter 10, and they frequently take up specific points made in chapters 1-9 (compare 10:10 with 6:13; 10:12a with 6:19b). Threehundred seventy-five proverbs attributed to Solomon extend from 10:1-22:16. While each verse in the rest of the book represents a distinct proverb, the sayings appear at least loosely grouped together according to similar themes, key words/phrases, or poetic style, such as the antithetic parallelism characteristic of chapters 10-15 in which a couplet uses contrasting images to present a single idea from opposite sides. The New Testament writers regularly echo the themes and language of Proverbs.
10
1 "Father" and "mother" do not represent contrasting interests here; rather, they form a word pair typical of Hebrew poetic parallelism (cf. 15:20; 17:25).
7 A person's "name" embodied his or her character and very being, and one's "memory" brought not only honor but a form of continued existence. Preserving both had great importance in ancient Israel.
12 On love's covering of transgressions, see 1 Pet. 4:8.
16 The Apostle Paul agrees that sin earns punishment, in the form of "death" (= damnation), but he asserts that God grants life ("eternal life") not as an earned wage but as a free gift (Rom. 6:23).
19 James also emphasizes the importance of a bridled tongue (Jas. 1:19; 3:1-12).
27 The blessedness signified by a long life in this world results largely from the Old Testament's undeveloped view of a robust afterlife.
30 On the exile of the wicked from "the land;' see 2:22.
31 Ancient Assyrian texts abound with references to the cutting out of a person's tongue as a form of physical punishment for transgressions ranging from disobedience to parents to breaking a business contract to sacrilegious utterances. Mosaic law does not prescribe the practice.
11
1 Merchants weighed out goods on scales counterbalanced with objects of standardized weights (cf. Lev. 19:35-36).
4 Jesus' parable of the rich man and Lazarus illustrates the irrelevance of worldly riches in the afterlife (Luke 16:20-31). The proverb here comments on this-worldly circumstances.
24-31 Through generosity toward others, the giver also benefits; the miser's stinginess hurts him as much as anyone. Verse 15 has already warned against exercising benevolence imprudently.
12
4 Recall the examples of Esther and Vashti.
21 This generality, typical of proverbs (cf. 13:21), finds notable exceptions throughout the Bible.
26 Paul recognizes how individuals' actions influence the beliefs and behavior of others for good or for ill (1 Corinthians 8; 9:19-23).
13
8 Along with material wealth come problems about which the poor never have to worry.
9 The light, or lamp, signifies one's life.
13 "The word" and "the commandment" refer to God's laws, the "respect" (or "fear") of which means following them.
24 This verse recognizes parental discipline as an act of love. Reacting to widespread, clear-cut cases of child abuse, modern Western society generally views as unacceptably harsh the use of a "rod" to punish one's children (by beating; cf. 10:13; 23:13-14). Proverbs views parental withholding of warranted, physically punitive "tough love" as a disservice to the child.
14
12 Paul echoes this truth in Rom. 6:21.
21,31 On Mosaic law regarding treatment of the poor, see Leviticus 25; Deuteronomy 15; 24:6ff.
15
3 Job expressed conflicting sentiments about God's watchful eye (Job 7:17-20; 29:1-4).
8 Cf. 1 Sam. 15:20-22; Ps. 40:6-8.
11 "Sheol" stood for the abode of the dead, or sometimes simply the grave; "Abaddon" means "place of destruction" (cf. Ps. 88:3, 4,11).
20 Cf. 10:1.
25 Lack of economic opportunities left widows among the least powerful members of society (cf. Deut. 14:28-29; 26:12-13; Jas. 1:27). The fairly wide age difference usually between wives and their older husbands resulted in widowed women making up a greater percentage of the population than today.
33 Cf. 16:18; 18:12 combines the two.
16
4 Here "evil" may mean disaster or trouble. The Old Testament repeatedly illustrates God's use of pagan nations to punish the wayward Hebrews (e.g., the Assyrians, who brought about the downfall of the northern kingdom in 722, and the Babylonians, who conquered the southern kingdom in 587/86; 2 Kings 17-18; 24-25).
12 Saul learned this lesson the hard way through his disobedience concerning the Amalekites (1 Samuel 15, esp. vv. 22-28; cf. David's dying charge to Solomon,1 Kgs. 2:1-4).
17
6 A large family signified God's blessing. Fathering male heirs ensured the family's continued participation in the covenantal promises, but in special circumstances the Mosaic law also provided for passing on family property to daughters (Num. 27:1-11; 36).
8 The proverb does not condone offering bribes but merely observes the apparent effectiveness of the practice as a means to selfish ends. Verse 23 overtly recognizes the goal of bribing as committing injustice.
13 Cf. Jesus' command to return good for evil (Matt. 5:38-48).
18 See 6:1-5.
18
10 The imagery of the "strong tower" comes from the well-fortified lookout towers built into the defense walls surrounding important ancient Near Eastern cities (v. 11).
18 Casting lots may strike modern Westerners as leaving a matter to chance, but ancient Near Easterners, including the Hebrews, relied on the practice to discover divine will (cf. Exod. 28:30; Esth. 3:7; Joshua 7; 18-19.
20 Cf. Deut. 8:3; Matt. 4:4.
19
5, 9 The Ninth Commandment prohibits bearing false witness (Exod. 20:16).
7 Cf. Job 19:13-22.
18 See 13:24.
20
9 John finishes this thought with a note of hope (1 John 1:8-10).
14 In many societies yet today, "bargaining" often involves the buyer's pointing out imperfections in the goods she wishes to buy so that the seller will reduce the price. After the sale, the buyer may brag about the good deal she got.
16 See 6:1-5.
18 The proverb does not urge the making of war; rather, it prescribes entering into it only with wise counsel.
20 The proverb echoes the Fifth Commandment (Exod. 20:12).
22 See 17:13.
25 The proverb refers to making a sacrifice of something without verifying its ritual cleanness until after the fact.
28 See 16:12.
30 Cf. 13:24.
21
2 Cf. Matt. 6:1-18.
3 Cf. 15:8.
13 Deuteronomy shows particular concern for society's economically weak (cf. Matt. 25:31-46).
17 The proverb does not warn against taking time to enjoy life; rather, it observes that focusing on the pursuit (= "love") of pleasure leaves one a pauper. "Oil" refers to olive oil, a product put to a variety of uses in the ancient Near East (see Deut. 33:24).
22:1-16
4,16 These generalities, typical of proverbs, find many specific exceptions in the biblical and modern worlds (cf. 3:9-10).
9 Cf. 11:24-31.
13 The sluggard claims a lame excuse for his laziness.
15 This viewpoint echoes 20:30 (cf. 13:24).
22:17-24:34 More Wise Sayings
The literary style of this section departs from the pithiness of Solomon's proverbs (10:1-22:16) and resumes the prosaic mode of expression characteristic of chapters 1-9. Here, distinct paragraphs conveying complete thoughts urge the avoidance or adoption of specific behaviors through a series of commands. Proverbs 22:17-24:22 closely parallels sayings in the 30-chapter "Teaching of Amenemope," a pre-Solomonic (before 960) Egyptian text that gives moral instruction to public servants. Most scholars agree that Proverbs has adopted and adapted sayings from this Egyptian text, rather than vice-versa. Attempts to divide this section into a parallel 30 paragraphs seem forced, though 22:20 refers to "30" sayings.
According to 22:17-21, heeding the "words of the wise" N. 17) figures as the basis for a life of trust in God (v. 19). The rest of the chapter warns against oppressing the poor (vv. 22-23); being influenced by the hot-tempered (vv. 24-25; cf. 15:1, 18); becoming a guarantor for another (vv. 26-27; cf. 6:1-5); and seizing land (v. 28; cf. 23:10-12; Deut. 19:14).
Chapter 23 begins with warnings concerning the pursuit of upward mobility in the social and economic realms (vv. 1-9). On the prescription of harsh parental discipline in verses 13-14, compare 13:24. Mentoring advice follows, with encouragement to show consistent reverence for God, avoid keeping company with heavy drinkers and gluttons, and resist tempters to sexual transgression (vv. 15-28; cf. 6:24-7:27). The instruction concludes with a vivid and unattractive description of the dulled drunkard ruled by a self-destructive addiction to alcohol. Compare the deceptive appeal of strong drink (w 31-34) with the misleading promises of the wayward woman (7:6-23).
The first 14 verses of chapter 24 develop the contrast between wise and foolish persons. Strength, power, and mercy characterize the wise; but violence, scheming, and incompetence mark the foolish, who lack the skills necessary to conduct business and legal affairs "in the [city] gate" Verses 15-16 warn the wicked against trying to bring calamity on the righteous, but the instructions to the righteous in the next 13 verses begin with a warning that they not rejoice when calamity befalls their enemies (vv. 17-18). The prohibition against bias in judgment applies equally to the poor and the powerful (v 23; cf. Lev. 19:15; Deut. 1:16-17). In the Golden Rule, Jesus gives a positive approach to the prohibition against "getting even" (v 29; Matt. 7:12). The chapter closes similarly to chapter 23 by portraying the unenviable plight of a foolish person - here not the drunkard but the sluggard (vv. 30-34).
25-29 Additional Proverbs of Solomon
These five chapters contain 13o additional proverbs traditionally credited to Solomon (cf. 10:1-22:16). According to 25:1, the collection was compiled during the reign of Judah's righteous King Hezekiah, who reversed his royal predecessors' departures from the pure worship of Yahweh (2 Kings 18-20; 2 Chronicles 29-32). Pithy proverbs by comparison, replete with similes and metaphors drawn from nature and everyday life and often presented in pairs, predominate in chapters 25-27. Chapters 28-29 return to the antithetic parallelism characteristic of chapters 10-15.
25
6-7 Jesus' parable applies this principle of humility to the broader scope of human attitudes and behavior (Luke 14:7-11).
18 The Ninth Commandment prohibits bearing false witness (Exod. 20:16).
21-22 Treating one's enemies in a loving way issues in a dual result: blushing shame on the part of the enemy (or continued disfavor with God; cf. 24:17-18) and divine reward for the wronged (cf. Matt. 5:43-48). The Apostle Paul precedes his quotation of this proverb with a reminder from Mosaic law that God reserves vengeance for himself (Rom. 12:19-20; Deut. 32:35).
28 Perimeter walls played an important part in the defense system of ancient Near Eastern cities.
26
4-5 This contrasting pair of verses warns against suspending one's wisdom by engaging in discussions one knows to be foolish; rather, one should use his wisdom to expose the foolishness and the fool for what they are.
8 To adhere the ammunition to the weapon represents the ultimate in foolishness.
13-16 Compare the reflection on the sluggard in 24:30-34.
17-28 James 3:5-12 also speaks of the problems caused by the "untamed tongue."
27
13 See 6:1-5.
20 Sheol is the grave, or the abode of the dead; Abaddon means "place of destruction" (cf. Ps. 88:3-4,11).
23-27 The chapter ends with practical advice to a farming society, but the principle of prudent attentiveness to one's livelihood applies equally well today. Jesus bids his followers not to "worry" about tomorrow (Matt. 6:25-34).
28
4 Here and elsewhere in chapters 28-29, "law" refers to Mosaic law, the legal tradition of Israel set forth in the Pentateuch.
13 The New Testament concept of repentance includes both the confession of sins and the forsaking of them (1 John 1:9).
14 Here "fear" means "reverence;' with the implied object being God.
17 For laws addressing manslaughter and murder, see Numbers 35.
20 The folly lies not in being wealthy but in pursuing schemes to "get rich quick' by cutting ethical corners (cf. Matt. 6:24).
21 On bribes, compare 17:8.
23 Cf. 9:7-9.
24 The Fifth Commandment mandates honoring one's parents (Exod. 20:12).
29
7 On Mosaic law regarding treatment of the poor, see Leviticus 25; Deuteronomy 15; 24:6ff.
9 Cf. 26:4-5.
14 See David's dying charge to Solomon (1 Kgs. 2:1-4).
15,17 On parental discipline, see 22:15.
18 Divinely generated prophetic visions complement the Mosaic law through "special revelation," which is distinguished from God's "general revelation" of himself in the created order and the human conscience (cf. Rom. 1:18-32).
23 Compare 25:6-7; Luke 14:7-11.
25-26 Placing one's faith in human beings (= "fearing" them) and trusting in God stand opposite.
30 The Oracle of Agur
The names Agur and Jakeh (v. 1) do not occur elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. That they do appear on South Arabian inscriptions and that "Massa" likely refers to a North Arabian (Edomite) tribe descended from Ishmael (Gen. 25:14; 1 Chr. 1:30) suggest that the sayings in this chapter originated outside Israel in an area renowned in ancient times for wisdom - "the east" (cf. Matt. 2:1). Agur assumes a posture of humility before sharing his insights in a way that often requires the reader to figure out the sayings' implications for wise behavior.
The "numerical sayings" in verses 15, 18, 21, 29 begin with a formulaic literary device that marks the lists they contain as representative rather than complete ("three things ... four ..."; cf. 6:16-19).
4 The first of Agur's rhetorical questions finds an answer in the person of Christ (cf. Eph. 4:810).
11, 17 Old Testament law prescribes the death penalty for cursing one's father or mother (Exod. 21:17).
23 Cf. the desperation of the unloved Leah (Gen. 29:1-30:24) and the tension that developed when Hagar "supplanted" her mistress, "Sarah," by conceiving a child by Abraham (Genesis 16).
25 Cf. 6:6-11.
31:1-9 A Queen Mother's Advice to Her Son
We know nothing else of the non-Israelite (Massaite?) "king" Lemuel (cf. 30:1). His mother's seemingly corrective admonitions are our only available examples of the kind of maternal instruction referred to in 1:8b; 6:20. The account of the barren Hannah's vow regarding the son for whom she prayed helps explain the meaning of the last line in verse 2, where apparently the queen mother views Lemuel as the answer to her prayers (cf. 1 Sam. 1:1-11). Her teaching echoes familiar warnings in earlier chapters about overindulgence in wine and women N. 3; cf. Solomon's negative example,1 Kgs. 11:1-13). Lemuel's position as king makes temperance in these areas particularly necessary for the competent and just fulfillment of his monarchical duties.
31:10-31 The Excellent Wife
In this complete acrostic poem, which may represent further advice to Lemuel, the "excellent wife" embodies the perfect example of the many qualities of wisdom, as defined in Proverbs. Proverbs 18:22 calls the finding of a wife "good," and 19:14 considers a prudent wife a gift from God. But the "excellent wife" - if one can find her - is the wise woman to marry (see 7:4)! The direct opposite of the adulteress and the sluggard, she is trustworthy and industrious (contrast 7:6-27; 24:30-34). She takes care of her household and takes economic initiative. She is strong, hard-working, and dignified. At the same time, she is compassionate, optimistic, and kind. She is a wise teacher. These qualities win her the respect of her husband and children, and the products of her labor earn for her public praise. No shrinking violet, no trophy wife, this "excellent" woman demonstrates the "fear" (= reverence) of God in practical, everyday life.
Proverbs thus comes full circle, with the "fear of the Lord" emerging not only as the beginning of knowledge, wisdom, and instruction, but also as the end result (1:7; 31:30).