Authorship
The book of Nehemiah (part of the originally unified Ezra-Nehemiah) draws on the personal memoirs of the royal Persian cupbearerturned-Jewish-governor and other sources to describe a third return to Jerusalem of Babylonian exiles. The journey occurs in 445 B.c., during the reign of the Persian king Artaxerxes I. The Jerusalem community's principal achievement during Nehemiah's tenure was its rebuilding of the city's walls, despite relentless opposition by the governor of the former Israelite capital of Samaria (Sanballat) and his allies. Nehemiah's personal account of these events appears in chapters 1-7.
The priestly scribe Ezra resurfaces in Nehemiah 8 to deliver a public reading of the Mosaic law. Many scholars believe this chapter originally belonged between chapters 8 and 9 of Ezra, with an earlier version of Neh. 9:1-5 appearing in Ezra io. Some also believe that Ezra and Nehemiah conducted their work in Jerusalem not as contemporaries but in tandem, with Nehemiah's return and activities actually preceding Ezra's by nearly 50 years. This view has lost support in recent years.
Community confession and recommitment to the Mosaic covenant characterize chapters 9-1o. Chapters 11-13 relate the activities that followed, including Nehemiah's institution of reforms, and bring to a close the Old Testament historical narrative.
Authorship
Most of Nehemiah is written from a first-person perspective as Nehemiah's own memoirs. Chapters 8-11 report exclusively in the third person (esp. 8:9). That 13:26 cites Solomon's marriages to foreign women as the cause of his religious failure argues against the Chronicler's authoring Ezra-Nehemiah, for Chronicles omits all mention of these marriages in an effort to portray the Davidic builder of the first temple in a good light.
1 Nehemiah's Response to Jerusalem's Plight
Verse 1 dates the initial events of Nehemiah to November/December 446 (= the month of "Chislev" in "the twentieth year" of Artaxerxes I). Nehemiah, identified in verse 11 as the king's cupbearer, is living in the Persian winter palace at Susa, where his responsibilities include tasting Artaxerxes's wine as the last line of defense against poisoning the king, and guarding the imperial living quarters.
A visit from this royal butler's brother and his Judahite traveling companions occasions Nehemiah's inquiry after Jerusalem and its community of Jews returned from exile in Babylon. Likely, the historical circumstances described in Ezra 4, which records Artaxerxes' order that building in Jerusalem cease (Ezra 4:21), lie behind the disheartening response Nehemiah receives. Jerusalem's reportedly dilapidated condition sends him into a four-month period of mourning (cf. 2:1; Nisan is the first month of the Hebrew year, March/April).
Hasmonean tower built on a portion of the wall of Nehemiah; surviving traces can be seen in the lower courses of the tower and in other portions of the wall behind and beside the tower. (William S. LaSor)
Nehemiah's confession of personal and national sin responds to the echo of Deuteronomistic theology, which views Hebrew misfortune as punishment for covenantal disobedience (cf. Deut. 28:15-68). Nehemiah also prays that God remember his promises of restoration to the faithful (cf. Deut. 30:1-5). The cupbearer's request that God grant him success and "mercy in the sight of this man" (Artaxerxes) leaves one wondering just what Nehemiah has in mind.
2 Nehemiah Begins Work in Jerusalem
Artaxerxes notices Nehemiah's unusually mournful behavior. The king's inquiry as to the source of his butler's remorse instills fear in Nehemiah, perhaps because he knows that a truthful response could be viewed as disloyalty, since Artaxerxes' own orders prevented the Jews from improving Jerusalem's physical condition (Ezra 4:17-24). Nehemiah may be risking his life by expressing grief over Jerusalem's sad state, but Artaxerxes responds favorably by granting a leave of absence and permission to begin rebuilding. He even provides a military escort for the lloo-mile journey and timber from the royal forest.
Along the way, Nehemiah delivers to the governors of the province in which Judah lies written proof of royal authority to pursue his mission, but the news ruffles the feathers of Samaria's governor (Sanballat), a powerful Transjordanian Ammonite official (Tobiah), and later a north Arabian tribal chief (Geshem, of Kedar). Once in Jerusalem, Nehemiah takes a secret nighttime tour to inspect the remains of some of its southern walls and gates. Not until Nehemiah determines for himself the extent of his task does he reveal his plan to Jerusalem's Jewish inhabitants. Their immediate support in renewing the building emboldens Nehemiah to defy the regional opponents, who continue making trouble throughout the project (chs. 4; 6).
3 The Community Work Crew
No doubt the rebuilding of Jerusalem's io gates and 1.5 miles of walls proceeds according to a master plan. Nehemiah organizes families to work on sections of the fortifications closest to their homes, community groups to rebuild portions in their districts, and professionals to repair segments that protect areas important to their vocations. Natural competition and each group's particular stake in the outcome likely contribute to its swift completion in just 52 days, despite the persistent opposition of Sanballat and allies (6:15). The community construction project includes women and incorporates men from a wide variety of occupations - priests, perfumers, politicians, temple servants, merchants, and goldsmiths. Though some refuse to participate, others take on extra assignments (cf. W. 5, 27).
The description of the work progresses counterclockwise from the easternmost gate on the city's north side (the Sheep Gate). Many of the physical features and locations named remain unknown. With the exception of the 9-ft.-thick section of wall built higher up the steep slope ascending from the Kidron Valley on the City of David's southeastern flank, the rebuilt walls follow the contours of the fortifications destroyed by the Babylonians 150 years earlier.
4 Warding Off Opposition
Sanballat's extreme anger over the rebuilding program suggests that the Samarian governor assumed a degree of jurisdiction over Jerusalem - jurisdiction increasingly threatened with each course of stones the Jews add to the fortifications. That the belittling allied opposition actually takes the project quite seriously becomes clear in their conspiracy to attack from all directions. The inhabitants of formerly Philistine Ashdod represent the western flank, with Sanballat of Samaria to the north, the Ammonites to the east, and the Arabs to the south. Thanks to Jewish informants who spoil the element of surprise and allow Nehemiah to implement a strategic defense plan, Sanballat and company abandon their plot, and the Jews resume work but remain on high alert.
Nehemiah's habit of coupling petitionary prayer with practical action becomes increasingly evident as this account of his bold activities unfolds (v 9; cf. 2:4; 6:9, 14).
5 Averting Socio-Economic Crisis
External opposition is not the only threat to the success of Nehemiah's task. Tensions between Jews also jeopardize the unity necessary to complete the project. Famine has produced a crisis by forcing poor Jews to give their children as slave-pledges against debt and by requiring landowners to mortgage their property to get food. As the poor become poorer, they must borrow to pay their taxes to the Persian government. Worst of all, the creditors are Jews themselves.
Though Mosaic law permitted short-term debt-slavery (more properly, servanthood; Lev. 25:39ff.) and the temporary sale of property to fellow countrymen as payment for debt, the Law also provided for the redemption of slaves (v. 8) and set forth regular times of release and the return of property (cf. Exod. 21:2-11; Leviticus 25; Deut. 15:1-18). Publicly, Nehemiah now calls on the more economically fortunate among the postexilic community to follow the spirit of the Law by forgiving all debts, returning all property to its original owner, and freeing all slaves. The creditors consent, and Nehemiah puts the priests under a representative oath to bind the agreement.
Verses 14-19 comprise the first of Nehemiah's "Remember me" prayers (cf. 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31). The verses outline the good example set by Nehemiah regarding sacrificial generosity toward the Jewish community - a policy he follows during his entire 12-year tenure as governor of Judah (v. 14). Not only does Nehemiah refuse the locally tax-funded food allowance to which he is entitled as an official of the Persian government (40 shekels - about 1 pound - of silver per day), but he also shares his daily dinner with a small army of friends and countrymen. He shows leadership in the trenches to boot by getting his hands dirty with the work (v. 16).
6 Dismissing Threats and Completing the Walls
Having abandoned their plan to stop the Jews' rebuilding efforts by an assault on Jerusalem (ch. 4), Sanballat and company try to lure Nehemiah into a trap some 24 miles northwest of the city. Frustrated by his first four refusals of diplomatic talks, the enemy leaders tell Nehemiah of a rumor that he intends to revolt against Persia and have himself declared a king, the report of which would invite royal retribution on the governor and his city. Seeing through the scheme, Nehemiah lets the bait lie.
Neither does the suggestion of an assassination attempt persuade Nehemiah to seek refuge in the temple, which only priests could enter.
Bolstered by unwavering faith in God and inspired by the conviction that God ordained his mission, Nehemiah remains concentrated on the task at hand. In less than two months, Jerusalem's 1.5-mile perimeter wall stands tall again, and the surrounding nations shudder in recognition of the power of God, who enabled the accomplishment.
7 Preparing to Repopulate Jerusalem
Nehemiah's vision for Jerusalem and the Jews extends beyond mere completion of the city's fortifications to its continued security. After appointing civil guards, assigning personnel for temple service, and naming his godly brother governor, Nehemiah prepares to inventory Judah's Jewish population with an eye toward relocating residents of outlying areas to the now-underpopulated, underguarded Jerusalem, which mostly still lies in ruins. Nehemiah's discovery of the list of initial returnees who accompanied Zerubbabel in 538 will provide the basis for the population redistribution (cf. n:1ff.). Verses 6-73 repeat almost verbatim the list in Ezra 2.
8 Ezra's Public Reading of the Law
Chapter 8 disrupts Nehemiah's memoirs, which resume in 12:31. This disruption, coupled with the sudden introduction of Ezra in 8:1, leads scholars to suggest that this chapter originally belonged between chapters 8 and 9 of Ezra and that the compiling editor of Ezra and Nehemiah repositioned the chapter to highlight the converging influence of the two men's careers, Ezra's primarily in the religious sphere, and Nehemiah's mainly in the civil realm.
Whatever the original chronological setting of the events described here, they occur on the date later celebrated as the Jewish New Year (v. 2), and their theological significance rings true for the community of returnees. The people take the initiative in inviting Ezra to read to them the Law (portions of Genesis-Deuteronomy). Ezra symbolically conveys the accessibility of the Law to nonpriests by choosing 13 lay leaders to stand with him while he reads. Verses 8-9 demonstrate the teaching role of the Levites, who help the people understand what they hear. The congregation's deeply emotional response suggests that they realize their religious failings, and it evidences their ready willingness to renew their covenantal relationship with God. The Levites admonish the people to observe the occasion not with mourning but with joyful celebration.
On the next day, family heads, priests, and Levites gather to Ezra for further instruction in the law and realize that it is time for the Feast of Tabernacles (or "Booths") commemorating the exodus from Egypt. The entire Judahite community of returnees observes the weeklong celebration, which the Hebrew people have neglected since the days of Joshua, who led the chosen people into the promised land some eight to 1o centuries earlier.
9 A Corporate Prayer of Confession
The present structure of Nehemiah 8-10 portrays the unusual order of community celebration followed by corporate mourning, characterized by the people's fasting, wearing of sackcloth, and covering themselves with dirt. Grief over their sin and that of their ances tors occasions their communal confession in a prayer led by the Levites.
The prayer begins with praise to God and acknowledgment of his sovereignty evidenced in creation. It quickly moves to a rehearsal of God's work on behalf of the Hebrews, beginning with his decision to bless Abram and his descendants (Gen. 12:1-3; 15:18-21). The prayer remembers great events in Israel's history, acknowledges God's longsuffering in continuing to fulfill the Abrahamic covenant even in the face of the people's disobedience, and acknowledges God's justice in finally judging his defiant people through foreign conquerors (Assyria and Babylon). At the same time, they take courage that God has not abandoned them in their punishment, and they find hope in God's promise of restoration for a repentant people (cf. Deut. 30:1-10) - a promise not yet fully realized by the returnees, who remain subject to a foreign power in the promised land.
10 Signing the Covenant
The prayer of confession in chapter 9 becomes the basis for renewing the covenant. By signing the agreement, Nehemiah and leaders in the religious and civil spheres acknowledge on behalf of the people the curses that befall those who disobey.
Verses 28-39 outline specific laws on which Nehemiah bases his reforms recorded in chapter 13. The verses recall laws that prohibit intermarriage with foreign peoples (cf. Exod. 34:16; Deut. 7:1-4); require observance of sabbatical years (cf. Exod. 23:10-11; Lev. 25:2-7); and require communal support of the temple and priestly tribe (cf. Num. 18:8-32). The "appointed times" N. 33) refer to the feasts and festivals described in Leviticus 23.
11:1-12:26 A Human Inventory
Chapter 11 resumes the concern for increasing Jerusalem's population (ch. 7), though the perspective here does not appear to reflect Nehemiah's personal memoirs. Lot-casting to determine God's will designates one-tenth of Judah's Jewish population as a human tithe assigned to relocate from the country to the sparsely inhabited former capital. Verses 6, 9, and 14 suggest Jerusalem's defense as at least one motive for this move.
1 Chronicles 9:2-17 largely parallels the list of Jerusalem's inhabitants in verses 3-19. The list includes men of Judah and Benjamin, secular leaders, priests, Levites, and gatekeepers. 1 Chronicles 25 details the regulations David established concerning the temple singers' service (vv 22-23).
Additional lists unrelated to repopulating Jerusalem are preserved in 11:25-12:26. These inventories provided a framework for the returned community's reorganization. The broad geographical distribution suggested by the list of postexilic Judahite settlements (11:27-36) does not so much reflect the historical realities of the day as recall the Hebrews' ideal territorial possessions in the promised land (cf. Joshua 15) and establish renewed hope for the Jews' future there.
Nehemiah 12:1-26 positions the priests and Levites of the initial return under Zerubbabel (538) alongside those present in Nehemiah's time. The list of Levites again highlights the singers, here pictured as carrying out their musical service antiphonally (12:8-9). "Darius the Persian" (12:22) probably refers to Darius I and distinguishes him from the earlier "Darius the Medea" During the reign of Darius I, the Jews rebuilt the temple (completed in 515).
12:27-47 The Dedication of Jerusalem's Rebuilt Walls
The account resumes Nehemiah's personal perspective in verse 31, as the governor's career reaches its climax with the dedication of Jerusalem's rebuilt walls. Two groups, each composed of priests and Levites, begin the ceremonial procession at the westerly-positioned Valley Gate. Accompanied by Ezra - religious counterpart to the leading civil servant, Nehemiah - one group ascends to the top of the thick wall, presumably by stairs on its inner side. This contingent walks in a counterclockwise direction, while the second group, accompanied by Nehemiah, follows them up but proceeds the opposite way. The two groups meet at the temple, halfway from their starting point, where they conduct a joyous celebration filled with singing, sacrifice, and attention to practical matters David prescribed for the temple service (1 Chronicles 25-26) and Solomon carried out (2 Chr. 5:11-14). On the ritual purification of people as well as objects (v. 30), cf. Exodus 35-40 (priests and tabernacle); Leviticus 8-10 (priests), 13-14 (people, houses, fabrics), 16 (the altar).
13 Nehemiah's Reforms
After serving as governor of Judah for 12 years, Nehemiah returned for a time to his position as royal cupbearer in Artaxerxes' court (433). Nehemiah's memoirs now resume with an account of his second term as governor in Jerusalem.
During the unspecified time of Nehemiah's absence from the refortified Jerusalem, the Jews have abandoned their covenantal promises, which they earlier ratified (ch.1o). The high priest Eliashib has even housed Nehemiah's earlier Ammonite opponent, Tobiah, in one of the temple's storerooms, and Eliashib's grandson has violated covenantal law for priests by marrying a Gentile wife (v 28; cf. Lev. 21:14; Ezek. 44:22) - a daughter of Nehemiah's former Samarian archenemy, Sanballat.
The Jews have so neglected the required support for the Levites that these impoverished temple servants have abandoned their work in Jerusalem and returned to farming in the Judahite countryside. The Jerusalemites show complete disregard for the Sabbath by conducting work and commerce on this holy day. Also, intermarriage with foreigners has even produced children who cannot communicate with their Jewish relatives.
Knowing that the eventual outcome will be the disappearance of the Jewish community as a unique society, Nehemiah chastises individual transgressors by delivering physical blows as well as verbal lashings (v 25). He purifies and reorders the Jewish community anew to safeguard its distinctiveness as the remnant of God's chosen people (cf. Ezra io). But the Jews' recent communal disobedience in the absence of a central, covenantally minded leader suggests that they will continue to repeat the history of religious infidelity perpetuated by their ancestors.