Composition

Composition

Often described as the canonical Gospel with the most Jewish flavor, Matthew is a natural bridge between the Testaments by showing how Christianity grows out of and fulfills the history of redemption initiated in the Hebrew religion of the Old Testament. The connection between Christianity and Judaism emerges in the very first verse, which establishes Jesus as a direct descendant of David, forefather of the prophesied Messiah, and of Abraham, forefather of the entire Hebrew nation (see Isa. 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Gen. 17:1-8). The Gospel portrays Jesus as the new and greater Moses who not only upholds the validity of the Hebrew law but actually intensifies it. At the same time, Jesus redefines the contemporary Jewish understanding of the Messiah and his kingdom. The kingdom of God that Jesus ushers will not liberate the Jewish people from oppression by the Roman government but will make possible their rescue from the eternal consequences of sin. In addition, Matthew includes elements that stress the universality of the ospel - the widening of the door of salvation to allow unfettered access to the Gentiles - culminating in the Great Commission (Matt. 28:19-20).

Composition

Most of the Gospel of Mark appears in Matthew, worded in a way that aids Jewish understanding. (Mark appears to address a Gentile audience.) Matthew prefaces the Marcan material with birth and infancy narratives about Jesus and weaves in lengthy didactic discourses (five in all, to parallel the Five Books of Moses, Genesis through Deuteronomy). Some of these discourses grow out of shorter teaching sections in Mark. Order and symmetry characterize the literary structure of Matthew both in detail and overall arrangement.

Authorship and Date

Scholars refer to the writers of the Gospels as "evangelists" - lit., "proclaimers of the good news" As with most books in the Bible, the text of Matthew does not identify its author, but in the early history of the church the book became attributed to the relatively obscure apostle Matthew (called "Levi" in Mark and Luke), a Jewish tax collector for the Roman government prior to answering Jesus' call to discipleship. The and-century church father Papias says that Matthew wrote "oracles" (in context, most naturally understood as a "Gospel") in Hebrew or Aramaic. But careful study of the Greek text argues against its having been translated from a Semitic original. So either Matthew wrote in both a Semitic and the Greek language, or he wrote in a Semitic style of Greek.

Our earliest indication of the existence of Matthew's Gospel comes from Ignatius, bishop of Antioch (A.D. 98-117). The early migration to Antioch of Christian disciples fleeing persecution suggests that the Gospel may have been written in or near this Syrian city (see Acts 11:1927). Matthew almost certainly used Mark as a source, and the proposed dates for composition of this Gospel range from ca. A.D. 75 to 90.

1:1-17 Jesus, the Messianic Heir of David

Cf. Luke 3:23-38.

Matthew's genealogy of Jesus emphasizes his legitimacy as heir to King David (promised a perpetual dynasty in 2 Sam. 7:12-16) and his embodiment of the Messiah promised by the Old Testament prophets (e.g., Isaiah 11). The Gospel writer presents the genealogical list in three parts, beginning with Abraham as father of the Hebrew nation (Gen. 12:1-13). Each section includes 14 generations. (The final group counts both Jesus' adoptive father Joseph and his biological mother Mary.) This arrangement accommodates Matthew's purpose of highlighting Jesus' Davidic ancestry. The initial group ends with David in the final, emphatic position (vv 2-6a). Also, Hebrew consonants represented not only sounds but numbers, too, and the numerical values of the consonants in David's name add up to 14 (d = 4, v = 6). The 14 generations that make up each of the last two groups of Jesus' ancestors give a numerical reminder of his Davidic descent. The "deportation to Babylon," highlighted by its position at the end of the second group (v. 11), marks the end of the monarchy in Judah. The mention of this event also anticipates the promised resumption of the Davidic dynasty in the person of Jesus Christ, who ends the third group and culminates the entire genealogy.

The incompleteness of the genealogy, which portrays general ancestor-descendant relationships in specific father-son terms, is not unusual in the Bible (see 1 Chronicles 1-9), but the inclusion of women is. Also, Matthew includes Gentile women and some that had "reputations": Tamar, who committed incest with her father-in-law (Genesis 38); Rahab, the harlot rescued from Jericho (Joshua 2); Ruth, the Moabite convert to Yahwism; and the adulterous Bathsheba, the" [wife] of Uriah," a non-Hebrew. Thus Matthew announces Jesus' messiahship for all people - Gentiles as well as Jews, women as well as men, sinners as well as saints (contrast Tamar, Rahab, and Bathsheba with Ruth and Mary; the "bad" Davidic kings Ahaz, Manasseh, and Amon with "good" kings Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah).

By emphasizing Jesus as the Davidic Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, Matthew plays into the expectation that deliverance from foreign oppression and a resurgence of the Judahite monarchy lies in the near future (see Zechariah). The rest of the Gospel will demonstrate how Jesus' life and ministry redefined these expectations in spiritual terms.

1:18-25 Marriage, Birth, and Adoption

Cf. Luke 1:26-38; 2:1-21.

In New Testament times, Jewish engagement and marriage were equally binding, and break

ing an engagement required getting a divorce. Engagement did not obtain the sexual privileges of marriage, however. To avoid shaming Mary, the honorable and compassionate "husband" Joseph determines to divorce his pregnant fiancee on the quiet. But a visionary angelic messenger clues Joseph in to the divine origin of Mary's conception, the divine nature of the son she will bear, and the redemptive purpose of his life in fulfillment of prophecy (v 23 quotes Isa. 7:14). Joseph marries his bride, but he abstains from sexual relations with her until after she gives birth (ca. 6 B.C.). That the official marriage publicly masked Mary's miraculous conception by the Holy Spirit becomes known during Jesus adult ministry, when his fellow Nazarenes still consider him the son of Joseph (13:54-56).

In naming Jesus, Joseph again demonstrates obedience to the angel's instruction (v 21) and confirms his adoption of Jesus as his son-an adoption that establishes legally Jesus' Davidic descent and thereby his legitimacy as dynastic heir (v. 20, "Joseph, son [= descendant] of David. . * "). Since "Yahweh [the Lord] is salvation" (the meaning of Hebrew "Joshua," for which "Jesus" is the Greek equivalent), Jesus saves his people by embodying God in their midst - "Immanuel" (= "God with us").

2 Magi, Murder, and Migration

David hailed from Bethlehem, and Jesus' birth there reinforces his embodiment of the Davidic Messiah promised by the prophets (e.g., Mic. 5:2, quoted in v. 6). "Herod the king" (v. i) refers to Herod the Great, an Idumean (= Edomite, and therefore a descendant of Esau [Genesis 36]) who ruled Palestine under the authority of the Roman government (see "World of the New Testament" [499-506]). The "magi," not kings but members of a caste reputed for their knowledge of astrology, medicine, and natural science, probably came from Persia or perhaps from Babylonia. Matthew does not indicate how many magi asked Herod for help in locating the infant whose "star" (a long-tailed comet?) they pursued. Their calling him "King of the Jews" threatens the unpopular Herod, so that he starts gathering intelligence for a secret mission to murder his perceived rival. Based on prophetic information gleaned from the religious leaders of Jerusalem, Herod points the magi toward Bethlehem with orders to report back when they find the infant-king, ostensibly so Herod can worship him too. The star that guided the magi to Palestine leads them directly to Jesus, to whom they present gifts befitting a king. ("Myrrh" was an expensive perfume.) Herod's attempted trickery fails when, at God's visionary prompting, the magi slip home by an alternative route so that they do not have to reveal the baby's whereabouts to his would-be murderer.

The Temptations of Jesus

Matthew, Mark, and Luke all portray Jesus as tempted (or "tested"; the Greek allows either translation) for 40 days after his baptism (Matt. 4:1-11; Mark 1:12-13; Luke 4:1-13; cf. Heb. 2:18; 4:15). During the course of Jesus' ministry, adversaries and even allies continued the tempting/testing begun by Satan in the wilderness (see Mark 8:11-13, 32-33;10:2;12:13-17 par.), so that at the end Jesus could say to the disciples, You are those who have stood by me in my trials" (Luke 22:28). In the garden on the night he was arrested, Jesus warned his disciples to pray that they might not enter into temptation/testing (Mark 14:38 par.), even as he himself struggled to prepare for his most daunting trial, his passion and death (vv. 33-36 par.; cf. Heb. 5:7-9). On the cross, bystanders tempted him with painkilling wine (Mark 15:23) and mocked him in terms reminiscent of both Satan's wilderness temptation (15:29-30; cf. Luke 4:9) and scriptural portraits of righteous sufferers (Mark 15:26-32; cf. "psalms of the righteous sufferer," the Isaian Servant Songs, and esp. Wis. 2:12-24). Jesus' "cry of dereliction" (Mark 1534; Matt. 27:46) marks the pinnacle of all Jesus' trials and probably reflects ancient belief that God may temporarily "hide God's face" from the righteous in order to test the content of the heart (2 Chr. 32:31; T. Jos. 2:4-7). The cry echoes Ps. 22:1 and addresses God as "my God": Jesus has not "lost faith" but has

endured his trials to the end. He is "tried and true" (Heb. 2:10,17-18; 5:8-9; 13:12).

Traditional Mount of Temptation near Jericho. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

The trials of Jesus need to be seen against the backdrop of conventional Jewish and Christian traditions about temptation or testing. Biblical and postbiblical authors took for granted that trials of faith are inevitable in the life of the righteous (Sir. 2:1; Jdt. 8:2527). The agent could be God, as so often in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Gen. 22:1; Exod. 16:4; Deut. 8:2-5; Ps. 66:10), Satan (under various aliases) or his human agents (e.g., T. Job; Jub. 17:15-16; 1 Cor. 7:5), or human passion (Jas. 1:12-15). In trials of seduction ("temptations") the tempter makes a deceptive offer of benefit or pleasure (Luke 4:3, 6-7; 1 Tim. 6:9). In trials of af

fliction ("tests") the agent causes pain or suffering that tempts the afflicted to abandon faith (1 Thess. 3:5; 1 Pet. 4:12; 5:8-9; Rev. 3:10). But the two sorts of trial blur, and in Greek both are designated with the single word peirasmos. New Testament views of temptation/testing are influenced by the apocalyptic expectation that the end will be preceded by a time of eschatological affliction (Gk. thlipsis) or testing (Mark 13:19; Rev. 3:10; cf. Dan. 12:1). The appropriate response to temptation/testing is always endurance (Gk. hypomone; Rom. 5:3-4; Jas. 1:3-4).

Jesus' endurance of his testing is held up as a model for Christians to emulate (1 Pet. 2:21; 4:1), and proclaimed the basis for his empathy for his disciples whenever they are tested (Heb. 4:15). Paul holds that Jesus' "faith" or "obedience unto death" is the very grounds for our salvation: by it Christ reversed the effects of Adam's disobedience (Rom. 5:19). There are hints in Mark and Hebrews that it was on account of Christ's endurance of testing that God accepted his death as the perfect sacrificial offering, able to atone for sin (see esp. Heb. 5:8-9). Outside the New Testament, such a connection between endurance and redemptive sacrifice is attested in Wis. 3:5-6; 4 Mace.

17:21-22; and some early Jewish interpretations of the sacrifice of Isaac (e.g., Bib. Ant. 40.2, 5-6). The conviction of New Testament authors is that Christians should pray to avoid trial but need not fear it, for they need not rely on their own power alone. Christ opens blind eyes, so that the tested may view their trials in the proper light and follow Jesus in the way (Mark 10:46-52). He gives power to conquer the weakness of will that is otherwise our human lot (Rom. 7:24-25). Like the strengthening angel who helped Christ in

the garden (Luke 22:43), the Holy Spirit stands ready to help those in need (Mark 13:11; Rom. 8:1-27). With the testing, God will provide the way out (1 Cor. 10:13).

Bibliography

SUSAN R. GARRETT

Joseph's response to another angelic warning further ensures Jesus' survival. He moves his family to Egypt, outside the range of Herod's rule. Thus Matthew reapplies to Jesus the prophecy of Hosea commemorating God's calling his "son," the Hebrew nation, out of Egypt (Hos. 11:1; cf. Exod. 4:22ff.). Outmaneuvered by the magi but apparently unaware of Jesus' escape to Egypt, an angry Herod slaughters all Bethlehem's baby boys in an attempt to kill the perceived threat to his throne. In describing the mournful results of Herod's brutality, Matthew refers to Jeremiah's portrayal of weeping Hebrew mothers separated from their exiled children (v. 18; Jer. 31:15).

The Jordan River near Yardenit, traditional site of Jesus' baptism. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

Two more dreams give further guidance to Joseph. The first reveals that Herod's death (4 B.c.) has made it safe to take Jesus back to Palestine. The second keeps the family moving north to Galilee on account of the succession of Herod's son Archelaus to power in Judea (where Bethlehem lay). Note that another son assumed rule over Galilee - Herod Antipas, regretful beheader of the John the Baptist. By highlighting Jesus' residency in Nazareth, Matthew associates him with the messianic "branch" of Old Testament prophecy (e.g., Isa. 11:1).

3 John and His Baptism of Jesus

Cf. Mark 1:2-11; Luke 3:1-22.

Sometime during Jesus' residency in Nazareth, his relative John begins calling the Jews to repentance to make them fit for the soon-to-arrive "kingdom of heaven" - a phrase unique to Matthew. (The other evangelists use the synonymous "kingdom of God"). Matthew identifies John as the forerunner of the Lord prophesied in Isa. 40:3. John's hairy garb and mission of spiritual cleansing (through baptism in water) make him the Elijah-like prophet foretold in Mal. 4:5-6 (cf. 2 Kgs. 1:8). Like the second Elijah, John uses several metaphors to convey the coming judgmental day of the Lord.

John's baptism grows out of the regular practice of ritual bathing, mandated by Mosaic law (e.g., Exod. 29:4). But the baptism of John suffices for a lifetime, since it signifies purification not of the body but of the heart - cleansing from the inside out. John, the desert-dwelling nonconformist, sees through the false piety of the Hebrew religious establishment, epitomized in the Sadducees, who dominated the high priesthood, and the more numerous Pharisees, who over time came to be associated with strict adherence to the Law. John preempts their claim to spiritual security as members of the chosen line of Abraham and refuses to baptize the false penitents.

John tries to refuse to baptize Jesus, too. Having acknowledged Jesus' superiority (v. 11), John protests that it is he himself who needs baptism by Jesus (v 14). But Jesus insists on setting an example for his followers, whose emulative cleansing will "fulfill all righteousness" (v. 15). Jesus' baptism inaugurates his formal, three-year ministry. His visible empowerment by the Holy Spirit and the audible approval of God the Father equip him for his mission.

4:1-11 Jesus Dismisses the Devil's Dares

Cf. Mark 1:12-13; Luke 4:1-13.

By passing three tests of obedience to laws God established through Moses, Jesus proves his worthiness for the difficult task ahead (see "The Temptations of Jesus" 1525-26]). His success in defying the Devil ("accuser"), whose purpose is to gather condemnatory evidence against Jesus, is made even more significant by his suffering the privation of creature comforts, human companionship, and food for 40 days. Jesus first resists the temptation to use his

power to put first the satisfaction of his own physical needs and desires (v. 4; cf. Deut. 8:3). The second test anticipates his crucifixion: he refuses publicly to prove his divine Sonship by invoking the power of God the Father to save him from certain, physical death (vv. 6-7; cf. Deut. 6:16). The Devil even quotes Scripture (Ps. 91:11-12) in an attempt to get Jesus to doubt God's affirmation at his baptism (compare v. 6 and 3:17). The "holy city" (v 5) refers to Jerusalem. Scholars have suggested several identifications for the "pinnacle of the temple." Finally, Jesus refuses to compromise his faithfulness to God for the promise of selfish gain (vv. 9-11; cf. Deut. 6:13; Exod. 20:3-5). The Devil suggests that the "kingdoms of the world" are his to give, but his obedience to Jesus' order, "Begone, Satan!" betrays his subordinance. In verse 11, angels minister to Jesus not to fulfill a dare by the Devil (v. 6) but to reward Jesus for his steadfast obedience to God.

4:12-25 Jesus' Ministry Begins

Cf. Mark 1:14-39.

Learning of the arrest of John the Baptist, Jesus withdraws to Galilee. Capernaum becomes the base for his ministry - another development Matthew sees as fulfilling Old Testament prophecy (vv. 14-16; cf. Isa. 9:1-2). Concentrating Jesus' activities in "Galilee of the Gentiles [`nations']," inhabited by a mixed population of Jews and non-Jews, anticipates the application of the new covenant to all peoples.

With John in prison, Jesus carries forward the call to repentance (v. 17; cf. 3:2). Recruiting helpers proves an easy task: the fishing teams of brothers Simon Peter and Andrew and then James and John join Jesus without delay. Teaching, proclamation of the kingdom, and healing characterize the rapidly growing ministry. The spread of Jesus' reputation north into Syria, east to Transjordan (where most of the 1o autonomous, Greek cities of the "Decapolis" lay), and south to Jerusalem and Judea attracts to him a multitudinous following.

5-7 Teaching the Multitudes: The Sermon on the Mount

5:1-16 The Beatitudes and the Cost of Discipleship Cf. Luke 6:20-23; 14:34-35.

Like an ancient rabbi, Jesus teaches his followers from a seated position. He opens his mouth to speak the life-giving "word that proceeds out of the mouth of God" (cf. 4:4). With nine "Beatitudes" (from Latin beatus, "happy, blissful, blessed") Jesus congratulates the discouraged, mournful, meek, persecuted, and others deemed weak by worldly standards but righteous by God. "Blessed be" does not mean that such people should be happy with their current circumstances; rather, the declaration promises them heavenly reward (v. 12).

Nevertheless, the goal of moral goodness lies not in the receipt of personal reward but in public witness that directs others to the worship of God (cf. 6:1). Jesus instructs his followers that, unlike the pure salt used to season food today, the salty mix of minerals used to fertilize the fields of ist-century Palestine could lose its taste and effectiveness.

5:17-48 Intensifying the Law Cf. Luke 6:27-36; 12:57-59; 16:18.

Jesus corrects any misconception that his emphasis on attitude of heart negates the requirements expressed in the Old Testament "Law" (Genesis through Deuteronomy) and "Prophets" ("Former Prophets," Joshua-2 Kings; "Latter Prophets," Isaiah-Malachi, excluding Daniel). On the contrary, the demands of Jesus' teaching fufill the Law - not by expanding its outward rituals, nor by protecting it from transgression with a "fence" of auxiliary rules, but by requiring a holistically righteous approach to life, from which the keeping of God's law flows naturally. This concept does not originate with Jesus, for it permeates the Old Testament prophetical books (e.g., see Jeremiah 31, esp. vv. 31-33; contrast Amos 8). Average Jews of Jesus' day admired the Pharisees for their meticulous observance of the Mosaic law aided by the "scribes;" who interpreted it. The charge to outdo them in righteousness surely seemed an impossible task (v 20), but not for the righteous of heart, a characterization that did not fit the micromanaging religious leaders (cf. 12:34-35).

The traditional location for the Mount of Beatitudes on the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee, between Capernaum and Gennesaret. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

Yet Jesus' looking beyond the letter of the Law actually intensifies its requirements! Murder earns judicial condemnation, but now judgmentalism warrants damnation. Having sex with someone else's spouse breaks the Law, but now lustful looking counts as an adulterous act. The Law requires punishment to suit an offense (see Exod. 21:23ff.), but now the victim must forgo recompense and volunteer for further mistreatment. The Law mandates neighborly love between Hebrew compatriots (Lev. 19:18), but now the Jews must also love their foreign enemies and even pray for their persecutors. Thus Jesus defines the fulfillment of the Law not as adherence to a set of rules but as conduct that demonstrates a state of being - Godlike moral perfection, which he demands of his followers (v. 48).

Jesus acknowledges that Mosaic law permits a man to divorce his wife (vv. 31-32). The "certificate of dismissal" protects the divorcee from the false charge of deserting her husband, but she still needs a means of support, almost always provided by a male in that patriarchal society. Jesus teaches that remarriage by or to a divorcee spells adultery, and he considers the divorcing husband responsible for her economically necessitated transgression.

In New Testament times, traveling Romans (especially soldiers) routinely conscripted Jews as pedestrian porters, and this practice lies behind Jesus' instruction to "go the extra mile" (v. 41).

6:1-18 Secret Goodness Cf. Luke 11:2-4.

At first glance, Jesus' warning against public displays of piety (6:1) seems to contradict the instruction to let the light of one's good works shine (5:16). But 5:16 advocates public righteousness to stimulate praise of God, whereas 6:1 prohibits public righteousness to generate praise of oneself - hypocrisy. Jesus expounds his instruction from three commonly abused practices of piety: almsgiving, prayer, and fasting - duties that "the hypocrites" make a great show of fulfilling. Pious showiness earned a person the respect of his peers, but Jesus announces that it gets one nowhere with God. Humility in faithfulness does.

Verses 9-13 comprise "The Lord's Prayer." In our oldest and best manuscripts of Matthew, verse 13 lacks the traditional ending, "For thine is the kingdom...." "Debts" (v. 12) refer to moral debts to God (i.e., sins), though the forgiven "debtors" may include those released from financial obligations in the Year of Jubilee (Lev 25:8-55). Deliverance from evil - more accurately the "evil one," Satan - means empowerment to resist temptation (cf 4:1-11).

6:19-34 Treasure Leads the Heart Cf. Luke 11:3436; 12:22-34; 16:13.

What makes a heavenly reward better than an earthly one? Jesus moves from the abstract (respect, esteem, honor) to the concrete: mammon (Aramaic for "wealth"). Heavenly treasures trump earthly ones because no one can steal them, and they do not decay. Only if a person's heart lies in heaven can he outdo the scribes and Pharisees in righteousness and thus enter God's kingdom (see 5:20). Wealth keeps the heart earthbound. A "clear" (generous) eye, unclouded by riches, illuminates the whole body for good works. A bad (stingy) eye, blinded by wealth, handicaps the rest of the body for righteousness (cf. 20:15). Jesus' assertion that service to riches and service to God are mutually exclusive reinforces his warning against amassing wealth (vv. 22-24; cf 19:16-24). This teaching upended the Jews' understanding of material wealth as a sign of blessing from God (e.g., Job 1-2; 42:10-17).

Jesus also recognizes the anxieties of everyday existence, so he encourages his followers to trust God to meet their basic needs, of which he is already aware (cf. vv. 8, 32). God's observable care of the rest of creation should inspire this trust, especially in light of the superior worth of human beings, made in God's image. Besides, worrying cannot lengthen one's life by even a bit. Better to focus on pursuing God's kingdom (by living righteously; 5:17ff.) and seeking the care and rewards of his righteousness (cf. 5:6). Set your priorities straight, and rest assured that God will supply your needs N. 33).

7:1-12 Proper Treatment of Professing and False Disciples Cf. Luke 6:31, 37-42; 11:9-13.

Jesus' command not to "judge" is not a general prohibition against criticizing others; rather, it instructs Jesus' followers not to question each other's profession of discipleship, for only God knows true disciples from false ones. Instead, a person should first practice moral self-criticism and self-correction, then compassionately help restore others to complete moral health.

But nonjudgmentalism within the community must not result in its indiscriminate inclusion of those who do not even profess discipleship, lest they destroy the community from within. Jesus likens these false disciples to "dogs;" who scavenged the streets for food. A scrap of sacrificed meat ("what is holy," v. 6) kindly tossed their way only invites their ravenous attack for more. Similarly, giving "swine" what they fail to value only asks for trouble.

Jesus' comments regarding "asking;' "seeking, and "knocking" should be read in the light of his teaching in 6:19-34. God's granting of requests does not apply to acquiring material wealth but to benefiting from his righteous acts (cf. 6:19, 33) - empowerment to live a righteous life and entry into God's kingdom. Receipt of these good gifts from God generates the responsibility to treat others with goodness. In the "Golden Rule" (v 12), Jesus sums up and affirms the Old Testament principles governing communal relationships.

7:13-29 Take the Hard Road Cf. Luke 6:43-49; 13:23-24.

The elusive "narrow gate" to eternal life stands for the Godlike perfection demanded in Jesus' teachings (5:48). The easily accessed wide gate and broad road, which attract the masses to a different destination - destruction! - represent the lax standards forwarded by false prophets and followed by false disciples (cf. Jeremiah 27-28). Their disregard of the demands of righteousness invalidates their claim of service to God.

Jesus instructs his followers not to let false prophets lull them to destruction down the road of indiscipline and denial; rather, they must exercise wisdom by obeying his teachings. For if they "build their house on the rock" (obey his words), they will weather the storms of persecution and at the last judgment gain eternal life. Persecution will destroy their moral backbone, and they will collapse in a heap before reaching the narrow gate to life (cf. 25:3-46).

Matthew adds to Jesus' sermon an editorial postscript that notes the multitude's amazement at the distinctively authoritative way Jesus taught (vv 28-29). The scribes interpreted the Old Testament law, but Jesus perfected it (see 5:17).

8:1-9:8 Miracles Augment Jesus' Teaching

Cf. Mark 2:1-12; Luke 5:12-26; 7:1-10; 9:57-60.

The good fruit of Jesus' ministry authenticates his service to God, his Father, and the miracles he performs demonstrate his divine power in the physical, natural, and spiritual realms. In extending a healing touch to the untouchable "leper" - socially ostracized and prohibited from entering the temple to offer sacrifices (Leviticus 13-14) - Jesus shows compassion as well as power. He could have healed the man with just a word, as he subsequently does from a distance the servant of a centurion. This demonstration of faith by the Roman official occasions Jesus' announcement that believing Gentiles will enter the company of the elect (who feast with the Hebrew patriarchs in the kingdom of heaven), whereas the "chosen" but faithless will perish. As further examples of Jesus' fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy, Matthew records various healings, including that of Peter's mother-in-law, and exorcisms (vv. 14-17).

When a man from the educated class of scribes volunteers to follow Jesus, he makes clear that discipleship entails more than faith alone. Another disciple requests permission to fulfill important filial duties to his father first, but Jesus disallows the delay and dismisses the social obligation as insignificant compared to following him. (The request may have been to deposit the bones of his father's corpse into an ossuary, a secondary burial box, to make room in the family tomb for the next member who dies - thus Jesus' reference to letting the dead bury their own dead, v. 22.)

Some scholars take Jesus' reference to himself as the "Son of Man" (lit., "human being"; see Ps. 8:4) as carrying messianic overtones (cf. Dan. 7:13).

In ancient times as today, the winds of northern Palestine intensified as they channeled through deep gorges opening out to the Sea of Galilee. One such violent storm arose during Jesus' retreat from the pressing crowds. The terror and desperation of Jesus' comrades at sea contrast with his oblivious slumber on board. In response to their pleading, he calms the storm with a word, and their fear turns to awe as they contemplate what kind of man could possess such power over nature.

The seafaring ordeal ends near Gadara, a city in the Transjordanian Decapolis, and here Jesus conquers violence in the spiritual realm. The demons that possess two men (Mark and Luke mention only one) recognize Jesus as the "Son of God" and realize that his presence spells their punishment by exorcism before "the time" of final judgment (cf. Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-39). At the demons' request, Jesus orders them into a herd of pigs, which rush to their death in the sea. The Gentile swineherds report the exorcism and the economically disastrous loss of the pigs, thus prompting the townsfolk to beg Jesus to leave the area for fear of what other miracles he might work there.

Traversing the Sea of Galilee from southeast to northwest, Jesus returns to "his own city" of Capernaum, the base of his ministry (4:13). By proclaiming forgiven the sins of a paralyzed man (according to popular belief the cause of his physical condition; cf. John 9:1-3) - Jesus sparks in some onlooking scribes the unspoken charge of blasphemy. They fail to recognize his authority to grant such forgiveness. Jesus then heals the paralysis to show that he does, in fact, possess the unseen power to forgive sins.

9:9-17 Celebrating with Sinners

Cf. Mark 2:13-22; Luke 5:27-39.

When Jesus beckons Matthew, who collected Roman taxes at a profit, the man follows without question or delay (contrast 8:21-22). But when an entire crowd of religious undesirables joins Jesus for a meal, the purity-conscious Pharisees question the company he keeps. Jesus cites God's preference of compassion over sacrifice (Hos. 6:6) and thus clarifies his mission of mercy toward acknowledged sinners as opposed to unsullying association with self-professed saints (such as the Pharisees).

Disciples of the imprisoned John the Baptist pose their own question: "Why do Jesus' followers fail to fast?" Jesus replies that fasting would signify mourning, but the presence of Jesus the celebrated bridegroom precludes their gloom. In a foreshadowing of his death, Jesus says that one day his disciples will fast for good reason (v. 15), but for now such behavior does not fit the circumstances.

9:18-34 Still More Miracles

Cf. Mark 5:21-43; Luke 8:40-56.

Jesus' mission of mercy continues with the healing of a ritually unclean woman who in faith touches the fringe of his cloak (see Leviticus 12); the resuscitation of a child in the company of disbelieving, derisive mourners and musicians, customarily hired to play dirges at the home of the deceased; the simultaneous granting of sight to two blind men, who appeal to Jesus as the promised Davidic heir; and an exorcism that enables the de-possessed demoniac to speak.

9:35-10:42 Instructing the Apostles for Missionary Work

Cf. Mark 6:6b-13; Luke 9:1-6; 10:1-12; 12:2-9, 5153; 14:26-27.

In Matthew's second "teachings" section, Jesus' compassion for the needy multitudes sparks his commissioning of 12 disciples as apostles ("messengers") to expand his ministry and spread the word about the arrival of the "kingdom of heaven." Corresponding in number to the 12 tribes of Israel, these "harvesters" represent the beginnings of a new community of God that will grow out of their missionary work, first among Jews (10:5-15) and then among Gentiles (vv. 16-42).

Jesus grants to the apostles power to exorcise demons, heal physical ailments, and raise the dead. The duty of verbal proclamation accompanies these acts of mercy. The itinerant ministry foreshadowed in 8:2o becomes a prescription for the apostles' mission in 1o:9ff. Jesus instructs the apostles not to accumulate money or material possessions (see 6:19-21) but validates their right to practical support by those who benefit from their ministry.

Jesus gives advance warning that the work of harvesting will not be easy. The apostles will become targets of persecution, from which they should flee (10:23). Nevertheless, they must pursue their mission with fearless determination. Trust in God should supplant anxiety (vv. 19-20) and embolden them to spread widely the message Jesus gives them to proclaim (v 27). That he too endures persecution provides moral support for their mission (v 25). But he warns that denial of Jesus in order to avoid physical martyrdom will result in his disowning the denier before his Father in heaven and thus incur the denier's eternal punishment of body and soul (vv. 28, 32-33).

Jesus acknowledges the divisive destiny (not purpose) of his mission (10:34-36, quoting Mic. 7:6). The family strife he foretells arises not from personality conflicts or interpersonal power plays but from discipleship, which invites persecution by unbelieving relatives. To follow Jesus requires making secondary even the most fundamental human emotions and inclinations (10:37; cf. 8:21-22). Still, he shows supportive solidarity with his disciples by putting their treatment on equal terms with his own (10:40-42).

11 John's Questions, Jesus' Confidence

Cf. Luke 7:18-35; 10:13-15, 21-22.

Before his imprisonment, John acknowledged Jesus as the One whose coming he heralded (ch. 3). Perhaps John expected that the "Coming One" would use such power to liberate his faithful forerunner. Jesus answers John's doubts by sending back his emissaries as eyewitnesses to Jesus' fulfilling of Old Testament prophecies (Isa. 35:5; 61:1). Jesus confirms the Baptist's embodiment of the prophesied messenger who prepares the way for God's coming, the second Elijah whose work allays God's judgment (Mal. 3:1; 4:5-6).

Contemporaries of Jesus and John, however, fail to appreciate either one. "This generation" (v. 16) refers to the skeptical scribes and Pharisees, who label the bohemian Baptist a demoniac but condemn the socially engaged Jesus as a hedonistic reprobate. Just as unresponsive to Jesus' ministry are the cities north of the Sea of Galilee (including his home base of Capernaum), where he has performed most of his mighty works. He banishes them to Hades and compares them to the materially rich but morally bankrupt Phoenician port cities Tyre and Sidon (v 21; cf. Isaiah 23) and to Sodom (v 24), ancient epitome of evil.

At the conclusion of the chapter, Jesus confidently articulates his unique relationship to God the Father. Jesus' singular position qualifies him to give "rest" to the spiritually "weary and heavy-laden" The offer comes not from a relaxation of God's moral requirements, but from Jesus' partnership with them under the same "yoke."

12:1-14 Lord of the Sabbath

Cf. Mark 2:23-3:6; Luke 6:1-11.

When on a Sabbath day's walk Jesus' hungry disciples grab handfuls of wheat, the Pharisees call the action "world' (harvesting and threshing) and cry "infraction of the rules!" Jesus corrects their compassionless legalism by appealing to Mosaic law, which allows priests to work in the temple on the Sabbath and thus break it (cf. Num. 28:9-10), for the temple (made for God) supersedes the Sabbath (made for humans' physical and spiritual well-being). As "God with us;" Jesus supersedes even the temple and therefore certainly the Sabbath (vv. 7-8; cf. Hos. 6:6). Jesus continues to elevate compassion over legalism when at the Sabbath synagogue service he heals a man's withered hand. This act of mercy only cements the resolve of the hardhearted Pharisees to "destroy" Jesus.

12:15-37 The Source of Jesus' Power

Cf. Mark 3:7-30; Luke 6:17-19; 11:14-23.

Jesus flees, not from fear of the malice-bent Pharisees, but so he can further his ministry, in fulfillment of prophecy (vv. 18-21; cf. Isa. 42:1-4). But when he heals a person who is blind and mute, the Pharisees charge that his power over the evil thought to cause this condition itself derives from evil. Their charge amounts to denial of the Holy Spirit - a sin that God cannot forgive because it seals shut the door to repentance and belief. For words express the attitude of the heart and so shape how a person lives - and in the end this either justifies or condemns him before God.

12:38-50 Jesus Refuses to Offer Proof

Cf. Mark 3:31-35; Luke 8:19-21; 11:24-32.

If the scribes and Pharisees have not grasped Jesus' identity by observing the miracles he has worked, he is not about to accommodate them with a command performance to prove himself. The only sign he will give lies in the future: his three-day entombment, which parallels the prophet Jonah's seafaring sojourn in the belly of the sea creature (Jonah 1:17). The repentant inhabitants of Nineveh, the objective of Jonah's mission, and the wisdom-seeking Queen of Sheba are unlikely models of righteousness compared to the spiritually stubborn religious establishment of Jesus' day.

Verses 43-45 warn that half-baked religiosity makes a recipe for spiritual disaster. Those who respond to Jesus' activity but fail to rerarrange their lives wholeheartedly will be worse off than had they never believed.

When members of Jesus' biological family approach him for a word, he identifies his disciples - willingly committed to God, his Father - as his true family. Thus Jesus follows his own requirement of subordinating biological bonds to spiritual commitments (see 10:37).

13 Jesus Teaches in Parables

Cf. Mark 4:1-6:6a; Luke 4:16-30; 8:4-19; 10:2324; 13:20-21.

Parables comprise this third "teachings" section in Matthew. Jesus attracts such a large beachside crowd that he must board a boat and deliver his discourse anchored just offshore. Like an ancient rabbi, he sits down to teach, using stories from everyday life that carry a deeper, spiritual meaning. He explains that parables obscure his teachings for those who are not open to his message and have already dulled their spiritual senses, but parables impart greater understanding to true disciples, whose receptive eyes and ears render them ready to learn (vv 10-17).

Jesus begins with the parable of the Sower (vv. 3-9), which illustrates the variety of responses his message will bring (vv. 18-23). Six more parables about "the kingdom" appear in verses 24-50. The wheat and the tares (vv. 24-30) teaches the coexistence of true and false disciples till the last judgment (the "harvest"; W. 36-43). The mustard seed (vv. 31-32) and the leaven (v. 33) emphasize the amazing growth of the kingdom. The hidden treasure (v. 44) and the valuable pearl (vv. 45-46) stress the supreme worth of the kingdom. The dragnet (vv. 47-50) reiterates the different fates of true and false disciples, separated at the last judgment.

The parable of the believing scribe concludes the discourse (v 52). The scribe's "new" treasure represents understanding gained from Jesus' teaching, and the old treasure stands for his still valuable knowledge of the Law (cf. 5:17-19).

When Jesus returns to Nazareth, the hometown crowd reacts skeptically to his teaching and miracles (vv. 53-58; cf. Mark 6:1-6), thus failing to recognize him as the Son of God. By limiting his miracle-working in this city of doubters, Jesus models his own instruction not to "throw pearls before swine" (7:6).

14 John's Death; Cause for Wonder

Cf. Mark 6:14-56; Luke 9:7-17; John 6:1-21.

Herod Antipas, ruler of Galilee, mistakes Jesus as John the Baptist come back from the dead. Herod had recently beheaded the imprisoned Baptist to please his dancing stepdaughter Salome, whose vengeful mother put her up to the grisly request. Scandal, lust, malice, and manipulation characterize the circumstances leading to John's decapitation, and he becomes the first martyred disciple of Jesus (vv. 1-12).

Responding to news of john's murder, Jesus seeks solitude (cf. 4:12). But soon the crowds find him, and he resumes his compassionate miracle-working. Five loaves of bread and two fish prove sufficient to feed 5000 men plus women and children, with a basketful of leftovers for each of his 12 disciples (vv 13-21; cf. Mark 6:30-44; Luke 9:1o-17; John 6:1-14).

Dismissing the disciples and the crowd, Jesus finally finds time alone to pray. In the morning he catches up with the storm-tossed Twelve by walking to their battered boat, now far from shore. Peter's faith prompts him to mimic the feat, but Jesus must rescue him from drowning when that faith wavers in the wind. The episode inspires the disciples' confession of Jesus' divinity.

After landing at Gennesaret, near Capernaum, Jesus continues healing the sick, often through their simply touching his cloak (cf. 9:20-22).

15:1-20 Redefining Defilement

Cf. Mark 7:1-23; Luke 11:37-12:12.

Religious leaders accuse Jesus' disciples of failing to observe the dietary law of washing hands as dictated by rabbinic tradition (Mark adds W. 3-4 as an explanatory note for Gentile readers), but Jesus responds concerning their own mere lip service to the Law of God. Addressing the surrounding multitude, Jesus perfects their understanding of "defilement": outward observation of the dietary laws does not make a person righteous, but evil speech, which betrays the state of the heart, reveals inward uncleanness. Jesus writes off the Pharisees as spiritually "blind guides of the blind" headed for the "pit" of God's judgment (v. 14).

In Parables

Parables are extended analogies that function like lenses to enable people to see and understand. Similarly to a mirror, a parable forces people to see how truth functions in a parallel arena and then urges them to transfer that insight to their own lives. For example, the parable of the unforgiving servant tells of a magnanimous king who forgives but also expects his servant to show the same graciousness to others. The parable is a lens through which we see the character and expectations of God. Except for the example stories (see below), parables are stories with two levels of meaning, the story level through which one sees and the reality level being portrayed.

Jesus told parables to prompt thinking and stimulate response in relation to God. They demonstrate what God is like and what humans are to become. Parables often use both explicit and implicit questions, forcing listeners to decide about the circumstances of the parable and apply the conclusions to their own lives. Sometimes this results in self-condemnation (cf. David's response to the story of the ewe lamb, 2 Sam. 12:1-9), but more often it entails a new understanding of the character of life with God. Nearly all Jesus' parables in some way urge reception of the gospel message and obedience to the Father's will, for his parables are primarily about the kingdom of God and discipleship.

Depending on how one defines "parable," approximately one-third

of Jesus' teaching in the synoptic Gospels is in parables, with no parables in the Gospel of John or the rest of the New Testament. If a parable is understood simply as a story with a moral, the Gospels contain about 40 parables. But if one includes illustrative sayings such as Jesus' teaching that one remove the beam from one's own eye before removing the speck from another's (Matt. 7:3-5), there are at least 65. The Gospel writers arranged the parables according to subject (the kingdom, Israel, future judgment, lostness, money, prayer), with most of them appearing in Matthew 13,18, 20-22, 24-25; Mark 4,12; and Luke 7-8, 10-20. Context, if given, is important for interpreting the parables, but with some of the parables no specific context has been preserved.

Jesus' parables are brief and symmetrical. They are quite diverse in form, length, and function. Some are addressed to the crowds generally, some to the religious authorities opposing Jesus, and some to the disciples. They feature normal aspects of Palestinian life such as family, master-servant relations, and workers. They use everyday features, but the are not everyday occurrences. They are more pseudorealistic than realistic, often having elements of exaggeration or surprise (e.g., a debtor owes $1o million and in the end is given over to torturers; Matt. 18:24, 34). Parables often were intended to shock, for Jesus sought to stop the nation of Israel in its tracks, make

people aware of the judgment they faced, and call them back to God - messages still as relevant as ever.

Different kinds of parables are evident:

Some scholars would add allegories as a fourth category. An allegory is usually defined as a series of related metaphors with the result that each (or most) of the elements in the narrative correspond to some feature in reality (as in the parable of the Sower). Contrary to those who argue that parables have only one point, many parables have several points of contact between story and reality. Allegory is best seen not as a separate category but as a way of thinking. Stories with related metaphors, such as the parable of the Sower, are still narrative parables.

For centuries Christians assigned theological significance to elements in the parables that had little to do with Jesus' intent. They made Jesus' parables mirror their own theology point for point, as though they were theology set to story, somewhat like Pilgrim's Progress. At the end of the 19th century Adolph Julicher argued that Jesus' parables were not allegories, did not have allegorical correspondences, and made only one general point. These limitations are as

wrong as the church's theological readings. The key in interpreting the parables is determining how Jesus' analogy works in his context, not in finding correspondences. Nearly always that key will occur at the end of the parable and often will require a reversal of expectations (e.g., the toll collector is shown to be in the right, not the Pharisee; Luke 18:9-14).

For Further Reading

Blomberg, Craig L. Interpreting the Parables. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1990.

Snodgrass, Klyne R. Stories with Intent. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, zoo8.

KLYNE SNODGRASS

15:21-39 Jesus Reaches Out to Gentiles

Cf. Mark 7:24-8:10.

Traveling north to the Phoenician seaports of Tyre and Sidon, Jesus encounters a Canaanite woman who begs him to heal her demonpossessed daughter. By addressing Jesus both as "Son of David" and "Lord," the non-Jew recognizes both Jesus' Jewish messiahship and his deity. Initially insistent on limiting his mission to the Jews, Jesus refuses the woman's petition (cf. 10:5-15). But the faith evidenced by her humble persistence changes his mind (v 28).

Literary context suggests that Jesus returned to the predominantly Gentile western side of the Sea of Galilee, where he healed great throngs (vv. 29-32). Again, he miraculously provides food for a hungry multitude (vv. 29-39; cf. 14:13-21), this time numbering 4000 men plus women and children (cf. 16:9-10; Mark 6:30-44; 8:1-10).

16:142 Signs and Evil "Leaven"

Cf. Mark 8:11-21.

The ultraconservative Sadducees join forces with the Pharisees in hounding Jesus to prove his identity with a miracle on demand (cf. 12:38ff.). Jesus dismisses the challenge by castigating them for their failure to recognize him from the miracles he has already worked (the "signs of the times;" v. 3). On the "sign of Jonah" (v. 4), see 12:39-41.

Jesus seizes the disciples' concern for bread to warn against the "leaven" of the Pharisees' hypocritical teaching, which crowds out faith (vv. 5-12).

16:13-28 Correctly Identifying Jesus and His Mission

Cf. Mark 8:27-9:1; Luke 9:18-27.

In the vicinity of Caesarea Philippi, the northernmost area of Jewish settlement, Peter confesses Jesus as the messianic Son of God. This confession contrasts with the mistaken identification of Jesus by others, who variously view him as John the Baptist, Elijah, Jeremiah, or another prophet. Jesus' calling Peter "Barjona" ("son of Jonah") associates him with the previously promised "sign of Jonah;' which will consist in Jesus' death, burial, and resurrection (cf. v. 4;1239-41). In verse 18, Jesus plays on the meaning of "Peter" (Greek for "rocl"') to communicate the strong foundation on which Jesus will build "his church" (cf. Acts 2-5). The change of address from "you ... Peter" to "this rock" makes it likely that Jesus has in mind his teaching as the sure foundation of the church. Peter receives the "keys to the kingdom" as indication of his pivotal role in forming the church (v. 19). "Binding" and "loosing" represent rabbinic authority to interpret the Law; Jesus authorizes Peter (and later the disciples) to maintain discipline in the church (cf. 18:18).

Now that the disciples have recognized Jesus' true identity as the Messiah, he begins to prepare them for his suffering, death, and resurrection. Jesus takes Peter's protest as a fourth temptation, so he calls the disciple "Satan" and orders him back to his position as a follower ("behind").

Then Jesus reiterates to the disciples the selfdenying requirements of discipleship and the superior worth of eternal life over worldly gain (cf. 10:28, 38-39). Verse 27 predicts his second coming at the last judgment.

17:1-23 Jesus, the New Moses

Cf. Mark 9:2-32; Luke 9:28-45.

Jesus chooses Peter, James, and John - three of the first four disciples he had called (4:18-22) - to accompany him up an unidentified "high mountain," where they witness his "transfiguration." The event recalls Moses' encounter with God atop Mount Sinai (Exod. 34:29-30). But Jesus embodies the new and greater Moses who perfects the Law, so his transfigured face shines "like the sun," and even his garments become "dazzling white." Moses and Elijah accompany him as witnesses to his authority. God again declares Jesus his "beloved Son" (cf. 3:17).

On descending the mountain, Jesus instructs the disciples not to report this event until after his death and resurrection (v. 9). He explains that John the Baptist embodied the second Elijah, forerunner of the Messiah as foretold in Mal. 4:5-6.

Jesus uses the disciples' inability to cure an epileptic child to challenge them to greater faith (vv. 14-20). Their anticipatory grieving over Jesus' suffering and death, for which he continues to prepare them, shows that they understand the awful future (vv. 22-23).

17:24-27 Paying the Temple Tax

All Jewish males over the age of 19 had to pay an annual tax for the upkeep of the Jerusalem temple. The two-drachma tariff amounted to two days' wages for the average worker. Jesus clarifies for Peter that as members of the royal family of God, the Owner of the temple, they (and the other disciples) enjoy exemption from the temple tax. But so as not to offend their fellow Jews, they pay it voluntarily. The miraculous provision of the stater (= four drachmas) means that God himself pays the housekeeping bills incorrectly addressed to his "sons."

18 Obligations within the Christian Community

Cf. Mark 9:33-45; Luke 9:46-48; 15:3-7; 17:1-4.

In this fourth "teachings" section, Jesus expands his concern for the "least in the kingdom of heaven" in a discourse on Christian community (cf. 11:11). Entry into the kingdom requires repentance and childlike humility, an acknowledgment of dependence on God. Membership in the kingdom carries the responsibility of nurturing children in faith. The person who causes another to "stumble" (by forsaking his faith) is better off dead (vv. 8-9).

Verses 15-17 prescribe spiritual correction within the Christian community. One-to-one reproof of the sinning member should start the process. If this action fails to effect changed behavior, the reprover should try again in the presence of one or two other people, the required number of witnesses to convict an accused criminal. As a last resort, the rebuke should go public within the church. If the sinner still refuses correction, he forfeits treatment as a member of the community (vv. 18-20).

All this talk about sinning prompts Peter to ask about the limits of forgiveness within the Christian community. Jesus' answer, "70 times seven" (alternatively translated "77 times"), draws on the number seven, which represents completeness and perfection, and thus implies limitless forgiveness of fellow Christians.

The slave (= sinner) in Jesus' parable owed as much as he could possibly owe. The sale of his wife (a transaction forbidden by Jewish law), his children, and his possessions would not come close to commanding enough money for repayment of the debt - the equivalent of 15 years' wages for a manual laborer - and the slave could never repay the full amount, even if granted the "patience" for which he begs. But his failure to act mercifully toward his own debtor (= fellow Christian), who owes him a relatively minor amount (3-4 months' wages), betrays his lack of heartfelt appreciation for the king's (= God's) graciousness. The king hands the slave over to "torturers" till the ingrate pays up - no more possible for him to do than before (= eternal punishment). The parable teaches that the Christian's receipt of God's gracious forgiveness for unrepayable debts of sin obligates him to limitless forgiveness of fellow believers (cf. 6:12).

19:142 Jesus on Divorce, Remarriage, and Celibacy

Cf. Mark 10:1-12; Luke 16:18.

When Jesus heads south from Galilee to the Transjordanian region east of Judea, Pharisees test him concerning the legality of divorce. Jesus points out that from the beginning God established the marital relationship as an unbreakable union. Moses merely permitted divorce to regulate what the hard-hearted Hebrews were already doing. His "command" that rejected wives receive a certificate of divorce protected them from the false charge of desertion and discouraged pettiness on the part of disgruntled husbands (Dent. 24:1-4). Jesus teaches that divorce, though a practical fact, does not in reality obliterate the marriage, so remarriage after divorce constitutes adultery. "[Sexual] immorality" violates the marriage bond, but Jesus does not teach that the violation nullifies that bond, nor that biblically allowed divorce on account of infidelity nullifies it (v. 9; 5:31-32).

The disciples react by doubting the worth of assuming the risks in such a permanent commitment. Jesus acknowledges the greater difficulty of the alternative - becoming "eunuchs" (cf. 1 Cor. 7:1-16). Thus Jesus reserves sex for marriage.

19:13-30 The Requirements and Rewards of Discipleship

Cf. Mark 10:13-3o; Luke 18:15-30.

When the disciples try to block the bringing of children to Jesus for a blessing, they display their failure to grasp the Lord's teaching in 18:1-5. Children may rank lowest in status in 1stcentury Palestine, but Jesus boosts them to the top in the kingdom of heaven (vv. 13-15).

A young ruler, whose great wealth represented to his contemporaries a divine reward for righteousness, by human standards stood first in line to inherit eternal life. But only by humbling himself - becoming materially dependent on God by selling all of his possessions - can he "mature" to the childlikeness that Jesus requires for discipleship. Jesus' recognition of the difficulty for the rich to enter the kingdom of heaven joins his similar statements about the Pharisees and other religious leaders in contradicting popular understandings of those qualified for admission.

Peter's question (v 27) contrasts the disciples' response to the call of Jesus with that of the rich young ruler (vv. 21-22). For their obedience, Jesus pledges them positions of prominence in the coming kingdom, with the promise of heavenly reward for all who have met the demands of discipleship (v. 29; cf. 10:37-39).

20:1-16 Parity in the Kingdom

Cf. Mark 10:31; Luke 18:30.

Through the parable of the Workers in the Vineyard, Jesus teaches the ungrudging acceptance of Gentiles into the kingdom. The "first" represent the Jews, to whom Jesus ministers initially but who in the parable receive their "wages" last, so that they know how much the Gentiles are paid. The "last" represent the Gentiles, who, though second to receive Jesus' invitation into the kingdom, receive their reward first. The "third hour" means 9 a.m. - three hours after dawn, when the sunup-to-sundown workday began. Thus the workers who sign on later in the day - some not till the final, "eleventh hour" (5 p.m.) - receive a full day's wage for only a partial day's work. God's policy of equal pay puts the Gentiles on par with the Jews.

20:17-21:17 Suffering and Servanthood

Cf. Mark 10:32-11:11; Luke 18:31-43; 19:28-46; 22:24-27; John 2:13-22; 12:12-15.

Jesus now predicts his passion for a third time (20:17-19). Unaware of the private conversation between Jesus and the Twelve, the mother of James and John makes a bid that her sons receive privileged positions in Jesus' kingdom (cf. 18:1). Jesus emphasizes first that those given such positions must be able to suffer ("drink the cup") as he soon will, and second that the appointments are not his to make. He holds up his example of servanthood as the means to greatness. By giving his life Jesus will make obsolete the Jewish sacrificial system, which provided for forgiveness of sins via the substitutionary offering to God of a slain animal. Jesus' death is a "ransom for many" (20:28), rather than "all," not because his sacrificial death cannot atone for the sins of all humanity, but because it effects atonement only for those who become his true disciples (cf. 26:28; John 1:11-12).

Jesus exemplifies his admonition to servanthood by continuing to work miracles of mercy as he approaches and enters Jerusalem (20:2934; 21:14).

Old Testament quotations and Jesus' acclamation by "children" in the temple underscore his entry into Jerusalem as fulfillment of prophecy (18:1-6; 19:13-15; cf. Mark 10:13-16). His gentleness, which accords with his teaching on servanthood, does not prevent him from exercising his authority as the messianic king (signified by his mounted entry to the city; cf. Zech. 9:9) or casting opportunistic businessmen out of the temple (21:12-13; cf. Isa.56:7; Jer. 7:11). The merchants were selling offerings for a profit, and Jewish pilgrims bringing foreign currency from outside Palestine faced an additional moneychanging fee for their price-inflated purchases.

21:18-22 Jesus Curses the Fig Tree

Cf. Mark 11:12-14, 20-24.

The fruitless fig tree, doomed by Jesus to remain barren, represents the Jewish leaders, betrayed by the "bad fruit" of their reaction to Jesus and destined for destruction (cf. 3:7-10). Jesus uses the incident to underscore the power of faith, coupled with prayer (cf. 17:20).

21:23-22:14 The Church of the Chosen Replaces the Chosen Nation

Cf. Mark 11:27-12:12; Luke 14:16-24; 20:1-19.

When Jesus returns to the temple, the religious officials demand to know who gave this outsider authority over their turf. Jesus responds by asking them the source of John's baptism. The unwillingness of the priests to answer justifies his refusal to respond directly, but the three parables that follow ensure that they do not miss the implication of his question.

In the parable of the Two Sons (21:28-32), the

first son (representing the Jewish leaders) feigns respect for his father (God) but fails to deliver on his promise of cooperation. The second, disrespectful son (symbolizing the tax collectors and prostitutes) regrets his initial defiance and demonstrates his changed attitude with action (repentance). This time, the chief priests and elders do answer Jesus' question, but in doing so they condemn themselves.

In the parable of the Vineyard (21:33-44), the landowner represents God, the vineyard the Mosaic covenant established at Sinai (Exodus 19ff.), and the vinegrowers the chosen nation of Israel. The slaves sent to collect the landowner's dues symbolize the prophets who preach repentance, and the son whom the tenant farmers kill stands for Jesus himself. The temple officials sign their own sentence when they predict a "wretched end" for the vinegrowers and their replacement by honorable tenants (the church, made up of Jews and Gentiles). The religious leaders of Jerusalem understand Jesus' meaning all too well, but they refrain from arresting him for fear of his multitudinous supporters.

The third parable (22:1-14) likens the kingdom of heaven to a wedding feast given by a king (God) for his son (Jesus). The summoning slaves stand for the prophets, and the unresponsive invitees represent the chosen people. The expansion of the guest list signifies the opening of the kingdom to the Gentiles; the evil and good guests represent false and true disciples (both Jews and Gentiles), distinguished from one another by their clothing; and the king's inspection symbolizes the last judgment.

22:15-46 Jesus Dumbfounds His Detractors

Cf. Mark 12:13-37; Luke 20:20-44.

The Jerusalem Pharisees and supporters of Herod (the "Herodians;" v. 16) challenge Jesus with a question that mixes politics and religion in a thinly veiled attempt to cause him trouble with Rome (vv. 15-22). Jesus' failure to incriminate himself by advocating tax evasion in the name of religion robs the Pharisees of an opportunity to accuse him of inciting civil disobedience (cf.17:24-27). The silver denarius bore the image of Tiberius Caesar.

Next the Sadducees, who control the high priesthood, test Jesus with a question that takes the laws regarding "levirate marriage" to an absurd, hypothetical end in the afterlife (vv 23-33; see Deut. 25:5-10). Jesus points out the Sadducees' failure to understand the nature of resurrected life and bases his answer on the Torah (Exod. 3:6), the only Scripture they accepted.

The Pharisees launch a second offensive (vv. 34-40) by enlisting a specialist in Mosaic law to force Jesus into elevating one of its 613 commandments above all the rest. Quoting from Judaism's central prayer, the Shema (Deut. 6:4-5), and from Lev. 19:18, Jesus obliges his antagonists by naming not only the foremost command - total love of God - but also its corollary - genuine love of others (cf. the Golden Rule, 7:12). Then by affirming that these two laws govern "the whole Law and the Prophets," Jesus upholds the entire Old Testament legal system and leaves the opponents no fault to find with him.

Finally, Jesus poses his own challenge (vv. 4146). But the Pharisees' inability to understand the Messiah in heavenly terms, not just human ones, makes the question an unanswerable riddle for them. Shamed by their speechlessness, they give up for good the attempt to trap Jesus with his own words.

23-25 Jesus' Fifth and Final Discourse

23 Warning and Woe Cf. Mark 12:38-40; Luke 11:37-52; 13:34-35; 20:45-47.

Having silenced the Jewish leaders, Jesus instructs his listeners to follow the law as expounded by the scribes, who teach while seated in the "chair of Moses" in each synagogue. But Jesus warns his audience not to follow the example of the status-seeking religious leaders, who fail to practice what they preach. His disciples must show humility and shun honorific titles. Jesus alone is their Teacher ("rabbi;' lit., "my great one"), and they may refer only to God as "Father."

Jesus denounces the scribes and Pharisees in a series of woes that contrast with the Beatitudes of ch. 5 (vv. 13-36). Here the overarching sin of the religious establishment consists in hypocrisy, both nurtured and masked by their legalism. Swearing by the temple or by an of fering left on the altar means holding up these items as collateral against a debt (vv. 16-22), but which items a creditor could confiscate in the event of the creditor's defaulting since technically they belonged to God. The leaders' unremarkable tithing of common garden herbs (vv. 23-24) parallels the relatively petty pains they take to strain out tiny gnats from their wine to avoid ingesting the ritually unclean insects. But their noteworthy neglect of more important responsibilities - justice, mercy, and faithfulness - is tantamount to swallowing an unclean camel. Whitewashing tombs prevented accidental contact with the dead, which rendered a Jew ritually unclean (v 27).

Jesus charges the religious leaders with selfdeception in considering themselves morally superior to their ancestors (vv 29-30). Their abuse of the current servants of God makes them heirs to their forebears' guilt for murders of the innocents, from Abel (in Genesis) through the priest Zechariah (in 2 Chronicles, the last book in the Hebrew Bible) and all those in between.

The desolation of the "house" (v 38) signals Jesus' imminent departure from the temple (24:1) and perhaps also its coming destruction by the Romans (A.D. 70). The prophesied acclamation of Jesus by the Jerusalemites recalls the cry of the multitudes when Jesus entered the city (see 21:9) and previews his warm welcome at the second coming.

24-25 The Surprise End Cf. Mark 13; Luke 12:3946;1723-37;19:12-27; 21:5-33.

On leaving the temple Jesus prophesies its destruction, which prompts from his disciples questions about the future, particularly the end times. Jesus cites phenomena that will lead up to the actual end: the appearance of false messiahs; the occurrence of wars and natural disasters; the persecution of Christians (a theme developed eschatologically in 24:15-28); apostasy, betrayal, and hatred within the Christian community; the rise and success of false prophets; and, as a positive consequence, the worldwide preaching of the gospel.

Jesus speaks of a "desolating sacrilege" (24:15; cf. Dan. 11:31) that will precede the destruction of the temple. Many scholars consider the erec tion of Roman standards in the temple in A.D. 7o as an abomination similar to that caused by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167 B.C., especially since the Romans followed up their takeover of the sanctuary by destroying it along with the rest of Jerusalem. Flight on the Sabbath would force the transgression of the Law's distance restrictions on Sabbath travel, deprive fugitives of roadside services suspended on the day of rest, and put lone fugitives in danger of attack by highway bandits (cf. the parable of the Good Samaritan, Luke 10:25-37).

The worldwide "elect" are those followers who "endure to the end" (24:13) of the shortened period of "great tribulation" (vv 21-22) and whom Jesus at the second coming gathers from "the four winds" (v 31). Throughout the Bible, the darkening of the heavenly luminaries, the appearance of clouds, and the loud call of a trumpet signal the presence of God (24:29-31; cf. Exod. 19:16; 40:34-38; Rev. 6:12-17). The 1stcentury fulfillment of "all these things" (24:34) would culminate in the Romans' destruction of the temple, with the ultimate fulfillment of the prophecies at the "end of the age" (see Revelation, esp. 1:7; 7:1ff.).

Short parables that urge readiness for the end while pursuing the normal activities of life (eating and drinking, marrying, working) appear in 24:32-25:46. The secret timing of Jesus' return, known only by God, necessitates constant personal preparedness for the final judgment. The devastating consequence of moral nonchalance - eternal punishment - is shown in the fate of the unfaithful slave (24:45-51); the five foolish bridesmaids (25:1-13); the lazy slave (vv 14-30, where "talent" names the highest monetary unit in 1st-century Palestine); and the uncaring "goats" (vv. 31-46), all of whom represent false disciples. In contrast, the respective counterparts of the doomed inherit eternal life: the faithful slave; the five wise bridesmaids; the industrious slaves; and the compassionate "sheep" - all true disciples. The parable of the Sheep and Goats addresses the ways people receive Jesus' message and apply it in love toward their neighbors.

The transfiguration of Jesus; 6th-century mosaic, Monastery of St. Catherine, Sinai. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)

26:1-5 Conspiracy and Cowardice

Cf. Mark 14:1-2; Luke 22:1-2.

With Passover just two days away and the disciples fully aware of Jesus' coming crucifixion, the Jewish leaders of Jerusalem gather in the courtyard of the high priest Caiaphas and conspire to kill Jesus. In front of the multitudinous pilgrims that swell the capital city for the festival, he has humiliated the religious establishment by exposing their hypocrisy and has stupefied them with his superior insight into the Scriptures (see esp. chs. 22-23). But Jesus' popularity with the grass roots prompts the cowardly, power-hoarding plotters to go underground with their murderous scheme.

26:6-16 Jesus Anointed for Burial

Cf. Mark 14:3-11; Luke 22:3-6; John 12:1-8.

Meanwhile, at Jesus' lodgings in Bethany (see 21:17), a woman pours a whole bottle of costly perfume on Jesus' head as he reclines (on his side, propped up by an elbow) at mealtime. The disciples protest the act as wasteful, but Jesus recognizes it as a preparatory anointing for his burial - in Jewish practice a most honorable deed (cf. Luke 7:36-50). Burial practices involved covering corpses with spices and perfumes to mask the stench of rotting flesh (cf. Luke 24:1).

Jesus' sanctioning of the woman's act prompts Judas to turn traitor. He offers his services to the chief priests, who advance him 30 pieces of silver" to orchestrate a sting that targets Jesus.

26:17-29 The Last Supper

Cf. Mark 14:12-25; Luke 22:7-23; John 13:1-30.

In contrast to Judas's individual treachery, the disciples as a group demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus by obeying his instructions regarding Passover preparations in Jerusalem. During dinner on Passover eve, Jesus announces his betrayal by one of the Twelve, who are all partaking from the common bowl with him. Jesus does not single out the traitor, but his response to Judas's feigned ignorance about the treachery clearly implies that he can identify his betrayer. Judas shows himself a false disciple by hypocritically addressing his victim with the honorific title "Rabbi" ("my great one"), and Jesus lets Judas's words stand as a self-condemnation.

In the ancient Near East, the sharing of a meal sealed a treaty, or covenant (e.g., Gen. 26:30; Exod. 24:3-11). The Last Supper seals in advance the new covenant established by the imminent sacrifice of Jesus, the ultimate Passover lamb (see Exodus 12). He commands the disciples to eat bread and drink wine representative of his body and blood, the offering of which effects not the temporary covering up of sins (as with animal sacrifices under the old, Mosaic covenant), but their permanent remission or removal (v. 28; cf. 20:28).

26:30-56 Jesus Arrested

Cf. Mark 14:26-52; Luke 22:39-53; John 13:36-38; 18:1-11.

On the way to Gethsemane, located on the Mount of Olives opposite the Temple Mount, Jesus warns the disciples that they will all desert him "this night." Peter declares his loyalty to the point of death, but Jesus predicts that Peter will deny him three times before the first light of day, announced by a crowing cock.

As at the transfiguration, Jesus shows a particular bond with Peter, James, and John, in whom he confides his grief of soul (cf.17:1ff.).

Jesus asks them to stay awake with him and pray and himself prays that he might avoid the "cup" of suffering in store for him; but he also expresses his willingness to accept "No" for an answer (vv. 39, 42, 44). After each of his three private prayer sessions, Jesus returns to his disciples only to find them fast asleep. Peter's three failures to pray leave him without the spiritual steeling he needs to resist the three temptations to deny Jesus later that night. In contrast, the prayerful Jesus receives strength to endure his arrest in the garden (vv. 47-56) and the events that follow.

Arriving at Gethsemane and backed by an armed mob, Judas addresses Jesus as "Rabbi" (cf. V. 25) and heightens his hypocrisy by greeting him with a kiss of betrayal. Jesus' ironic acknowledgment of Judas as "Friend" exposes him as a false disciple, like the inappropriately clad guest in the parable of the Wedding Feast (22:12). Jesus exemplifies his admonishment to meekness when he halts a disciple's violent resistance to the arrest and refrains from calling for overpowering angelic protection (6000 troops made up a Roman "legion"). The desertion of the disciples fulfills the prophecy Jesus uttered just hours before N. 31), and together the events fulfill Hebrew prophecy concerning the Messiah.

26:57-68 Trial by the Sanhedrin

Cf. Mark 14:53-65; Luke 22:63-71; John 18:19-24.

The trial of Jesus by the Jewish council ("Sanhedrin;' made up of 71 aristocrats and presided over by the high priest) proves bogus from the start. It takes place in the middle of the night and on the eve of the Sabbath - practices forbidden in later rabbinic regulations - and lacks any witnesses for the defense. Bent on the single purpose of obtaining capital evidence against Jesus, the council pins its hopes on willing perjurers, but to no avail. When two witnesses claim that Jesus threatened to destroy the temple, the high priest tries forcing Jesus to defend himself against this charge of sedition. But only when Caiaphas queries Jesus about his divine, messianic status does he open his mouth - not to give a direct answer (consistent with his own teaching, he refuses to be put under oath; v. 63; cf. 23:16-22), but instead to turn Caiaphas's command into a confession (v. 64; cf. Jesus' response to Judas in v. 25). With incriminating evidence nowhere to be found and the high priest unintentionally acknowledging Jesus' divinity and messiahship, Jesus voluntarily hands the Sanhedrin the excuse they seek: he voices his equality with God, no doubt fully aware that the unbelieving councilors will consider the claim blasphemy - according to Jewish law, punishable by death. Their immediate declaration of a sentence violates the Law, which sought to thwart impulsive judgments by delaying pronouncement of a verdict till the day after a trial.

26:69-75 Peter Denies Knowing Jesus

Cf. Mark 14:66-72; Luke 22:54-62; John 18:15-18, 25-27.

As members of the Sanhedrin physically and verbally assault Jesus (vv 67-68), Peter shows the courage-sapping effects of prayerlessness (see W. 30-56). Retreating from his courtyard seat near the proceedings, he thrice denies any association with Jesus. Challenged as an outsider because of his Galilean accent, he swears to his truthfulness. (Contrast Jesus' refusal to take an oath in v. 63.) The crow of the cock sparks his remembrance of Jesus' forewarning (vv 3334), as well as bitter remorse (see 10:32-33).

27:1-26 Judas's Suicide and Pilate's Self-Exoneration

Cf. Mark 15:1-15; Luke 23:1-5,17-25; John 18:28-19:16.

Though Jewish law stipulated capital punishment for certain religious crimes, in New Testament times the Roman government reserved the sole right of execution. So the Sanhedrin takes its case against Jesus to Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect (governor) of Judea; tells him that Jesus claims to be "King of the Jews"; and hopes that Pilate finds him guilty of treason.

Meanwhile, a deeply regretful Judas, powerless to undo his treachery, flings his blood money into the temple and goes off to commit suicide (cf. Acts 1:16-20). Forbidden to use ill-gotten gains for sacred purposes, the chief priests purchase a burial ground for foreigners with Judas's silver.

Pilate questions Jesus to see whether the prisoner poses a threat to Rome. Jesus tacitly accepts from Pilate the designation "King of the Jews" by replying "You say so"; thus the governor unwittingly becomes a co-confessor with the high priest, Caiaphas (cf. 26:63-64). Nevertheless, Pilate senses no political threat from Jesus; but the dynamics of the trial clarify for him the source of the Jewish leaders' malice: jealousy. So he leaves it to the Jewish crowd to decide Jesus' fate. Manipulated by their leaders, the people prefer a convicted murderer named Barabbas (Mark 15:7) to the miracle-working Galilean, whose execution as a criminal they demand. Pilate acts on his wary wife's dreaminspired confession of Jesus' righteousness and his own verdict of "innocent" by literally washing his hands of the Jewish matter (cf. Deut. 21:1-9). The riot-inclined mob accept for themselves and their children full responsibility for taking Jesus' life. The Romans customarily flogged the condemned before their execution.

27:27-66 Jesus' Crucifixion and Burial

Cf. Mark 15:16-47; Luke 23:26-56; John 19:17-42.

Roman soldiers stationed at Pilate's headquarters (the Praetorium) intensify the abuse of Jesus begun by the Sanhedrin (cf. 26:67-68). Little do they realize the irony of the mock coronation they stage.

In the Roman period, a person sentenced to crucifixion customarily carried the horizontal bar of his cross to the execution site. Matthew notes the conscription of a man from Cyrene (home to a thriving Jewish colony on the Libyan coast) to take up the task for Jesus. In the environs of Jerusalem, Golgotha served as a regular place of execution.

The ridicule continues at Golgotha with the relentless berating by onlookers, including the Jewish leaders and the criminals crucified beside him. The publication of his crime on a placard ironically proclaims his kingship (c£ v. 11). But ominous signs surface at noon, the "sixth hour" from dawn. Three hours of inexplicable darkness fall, and at about 3 p.m. Jesus, crying out to God, quotes Ps. 22:1 in Aramaic. Some bystanders mistake the address, "Eli" ("My God"), as a shortened form of "Elijah" and think that Jesus might be appealing to the prophet for help in coming "down from the cross," as challenged (v 49; cf. V. 42).

The relatively brief time Jesus hangs on the cross before dying, the physical strength evidenced in his final, loud outcry, and his taking the initiative to "yield up" his spirit indicate that he - not his executioners - occupies the position of power in the matter of his death (cf. 26:64). The remarkable phenomena that attend his expiration confirm the divine hand in Jesus' self-sacrifice. The spontaneous rending of the temple "veil;' which separated the holy place from the holy of holies, signifies the immediate obsolescence of the old, Mosaic covenant. The raising of deceased saints foreshadows Jesus' resurrection and inspires death-defying courage on the part of persecuted disciples. The awesome events make believers out of the Gentile guards, but not the Jewish leaders (vv. 63-64). Pilate continues to let the Jews decide what to do with Jesus (cf. V. 24). He allows a disciple to dignify Jesus' corpse with a proper burial (rather than tossing the body into a mass grave), but on the Sabbath Pilate sanctions the posting of a guard by the Pharisees, who fear that Jesus' followers will steal the corpse to inspire popular belief in his resurrection - a "deception" they consider worse than belief in Jesus as the divine Messiah.

28 The Risen Christ

Cf. Mark 16; Luke 24:1-12; John 20:1-21:2.

Unlike the skittish apostles, several of Jesus' female followers remain on the scene. These observers of the crucifixion and mourners at Jesus' burial return to his tomb at daybreak on Sunday (v. 1). An angel - whose fearsome ar

rival has made the grave guards faint - greets the women, announces Jesus' resurrection, and invites them to see the opened, empty tomb for themselves. On the way to tell the disciples the good news, the women encounter Jesus himself, and their grasping of his feet in worship confirms his physical reality. He repeats his intention of reuniting with the disciples in Galilee and sends the women to summon the Eleven northward (see 26:32). Since the testimony of women counted for little in the ancient court system, the appearance of Jesus first to these female witnesses affords them a noteworthy reward for their faithful ministry to the persecuted Messiah.

Meanwhile the revived guards report their ordeal to the chief priests, who have a vested interest in keeping the disappearance of the body quiet (cf. 27:63-64). Both the guards and the Jewish leaders have something to lose, so they strike a bargain: the guards take a big bribe to lie that the disciples stole Jesus' body - a "deception" that would squelch belief in his resurrection - and the leaders promise to keep the guards out of trouble with Pilate for having failed at their guardpost.

The disciples catch up with Jesus in Galilee, perhaps on the Mount of Beatitudes (v. 16; cf. 5:1). His universal authority justifies his commissioning them to a worldwide ministry; the baptism of disciples in his name, along with those of God the Father and the Holy Spirit (cf. their presence at Jesus' baptism in 3:16-17); and the teaching of followers to observe all of his commands (the Great Commission). That Jesus himself has endured persecution and conquered death strengthens for these first missionaries the impact of his promised presence through the tribulation-laden "end of the age" (cf. ch. 24 and Jesus' instructions for missionary work in 9:35-10:42).

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