Measuring Time
Goliath towered at six cubits and a span, and his spear's head weighed 6oo shekels of iron (1 Sam. 17:4, 7). Nineveh's size is calculated as a three days' journey across (Jonah 3:3). Hosea buys his wife for 15 shekels of silver, a homer of barley, and a lethech of wine (Hos. 3:2). Jesus speaks in a parable about a man who while traveling entrusts his servants with one to five talents (Matt. 25:15). The biblical authors assume their readers' familiarity with a variety of measurements of distance, mass, and capacity, and an understanding of these ancient weights and measures illuminates the Bible.
While fixing exact standards to biblical weights and measures is quite tentative, approximations can be derived from three sources: (1) the Hebrew Bible and New Testament, (2) other ancient Near Eastern sources (notably Egyptian and Mesopotamian metrologies), and (3) archaeology. Excavations have revealed architecture from which linear measurements can be deduced, weights inscribed with their value, and standardized pottery forms and storage areas that quantify volumes.
Strict regulations controlled the uniformity of weights and measures throughout the ancient Near East. Thus Lev. 19:36 dictates, "You shall have honest balances, honest weights, an honest ephah, and an honest hin"
Linear
The cubit is the most common form of linear measurement in the ancient Near East, calculated by the average length of a person's forearm, from the elbow to the tip of the finger. While this length varies considerably, evidence from both archaeology and literature suggests an average length for the common cubit of 17.5 inches (44.5 cm.). For smaller linear measurements, the cubit is divided into two spans, which represents the maximum distance between the thumb and the little finger in an outstretched hand (Exod. 28:16). Thus Goliath's stature of six cubits and a span converts to 9.5 feet (2.85 m.), although the Septuagint and manuscripts from the Dead Sea record a height of four cubits and a span, a more reasonable 6.5 feet (1.95 m.). The cubit is further divided into six handbreadths (Exod. 25:25; 2 Chr. 4:5), and one handbreadth consists of four fingers or 2.9 inches (Jer. 52:21).
Units of Weight and Measure with approximate metric and English equivalents
For linear measurements larger than the cubit, a fathom represents the distance covered by outstretched arms (Acts 27:28), approximately four cubits, while a reed consists of six cubits (Ezek. 40:3, 5-8; 42:16-19). Consequently, the common cubit yields the following conversions: 1/6 reed = 1/4 fathom =1 cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingers. The picture is complicated by the fact that just as there were two cubits in Egypt and Mesopotamia, we learn from Ezek. 40:5 and 43:13 that a longer cubit existed which measures seven handbreadths as opposed to six. This longer measurement is frequently referred to as a "royal cubit"
Longer distances in the Hebrew Bible are approximated by a "bowshot" (Gen. 21:16), a "furrow's length" (1 Sam. 14:14), a "day's journey" (1 Kgs.19:4; Jonah 3:4; Luke 2:44), and a "three days' journey" (Gen. 30:36; Jonah 3:3). A day's journey has been estimated in the 10- to 20-mile (16-32 km.) range. In the New Testament, the stadion represents 400 cubits, about 200 yards (183 m.; Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:2o; 21:16). The "Roman Mile" in Matt. 5:41 represents 1620 yards (1481 m.).
Weights and Money
Small objects were most often weighed through the use of handheld balances in the ancient Near East. Such devices usually were constructed by a beam supporting two pans. These balances are referred to in several passages in the Hebrew Bible (Lev. 19:36; Isa. 4o:12; Ezek. 5:1; 45:10; Ps. 62:9; Job 6:2; 31:6; Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Dan. 5:27; Hos. 12:7; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6:11). The Israelite system of weights was largely borrowed from their Mesopotamian neighbors, as the benefits created by a standard system of measurement greatly enhanced commerce for all participants. Nevertheless, while the Israelites maintained the Mesopotamian terminology for their weights, they seem to have reassigned their values. The Mesopotamian system was sexagesimal, that is, the number 6o served as its base. Contrarily, the Israelites incorporated a quinquagesimal system, in which the base was 50. Thus in the Mesopotamian system one talent consisted of 6o shekels, whereas in ancient Israel the talent was composed of only 5o.
References to money in the Hebrew Bible designate measures of value in goods, including grain, oil, or wine, or in precious metals, primarily silver. Accordingly, the terminology for monetary values reflects that used for weights and measures. Literary evidence suggests that coinage originated in Asia Minor in the second half of the 7th century B.C.
The shekel was by far the most common weight in the Bible, and shekels of silver were the most frequent method of payment. The Hebrew word "shekel" is derived from a root meaning "to weigh" Yet, just as there were two cubits employed for linear measurements, there were at times two separate weights assigned to the shekel. The "shekel of the sanctuary" (Exod. 30:24; 38:25-26) and the "shekel by the king's weight" (2 Sam. 14:26) seem to be slightly larger than the average weight for the common shekel of 11.405 grams.
A collection of ancient Israelite weights. (Hecht Museum, University of Haifa)
The largest weight in the Bible is the talent, consisting of 50 shekels. The word "talent" is derived from Greek talanton, meaning "weight" The Hebrew term is kikkar, literally a "round object," in reference to the frequent circular shape of the weights. For smaller weights, there is one reference to a pim, the price for sharpening iron (1 Sam. 13:19-21). A pim averages 7.8 grams, or roughly 2/3 of a shekel.
The shekel is further divided into two bega`, a word meaning "to split" (Gen. 24:22; Exod. 30:13-15; 38:26). Finally, 20 gerahs compose a shekel (Exod. 30:13); nevertheless, archaeology provides evidence that through most of the Israelite period, there were 24 gerahs in the average shekel.
Far fewer references to weight exist in the New Testament. The Greek talent equaled 6000 drachmas (Matt. 18:24; 25:15-28). The drachma was roughly equivalent to the Roman denarius, or 1/4 of a silver shekel. The exact weight of the mina (Luke 19:13-25) is uncertain. Last, the pound (Gk. litra) of ointment was equal to 12 ounces (336 g.; John 12:3; 19:39).
A variety of silver coins from the region of Samaria. (Phoenix Data Systems, Neal and Joel Bierling)
Area
The measurement of surface area is poorly attested to in the Hebrew Bible and completely absent in the New Testament. In the Hebrew Bible, two references approximate land area by a yoke (1 Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10; cf. Ps. 129:3). The yoke probably represents the amount of land that a team of oxen might plow in a day, or just under an acre. The only other method of determining land area in the Hebrew Bible is by estimating the amount of seed necessary to sow it (1 Kgs. 18:32; Isa. 5:10).
Dry Capacity
The homer serves as the standard expression of dry capacity in the Hebrew Bible. The word "homer" is cognate to "ass" and serves as an approximation to the normal load carried by this animal. The cor is of equal value to the homer, both measuring approximately 6.25 U.S. bushels (220 1.; Ezek. 45:14). The homer/cor standard is divided into 2 lethechs (Hos. 3:2),10 ephahs (Ezek. 45:11-14), and 30 seahs (Gen. 18:6). The omer represents a day's ration of grain, or 1/i00 of a homer (Exod. 16:16-18). The smallest unit seems to be the kab, referred to only once in the Hebrew Bible (2 Kgs. 6:25). The kab measures only 1/180 of a homer. Thus we arrive at the following conversions for Hebrew Bible measures of dry capacity: 1 homer = 2 lethechs = 1o ephahs = 30 seahs =100 omers = 18o kabs.
In the New Testament, the bushel (Gk. modios) represents approximately 1/4 U.S. bushel (Matt. 5:15; Mark 4:21; Luke 11:33).
Liquid Capacity
The standard measure of liquid capacity in the Hebrew Bible is the "bath;" converting to about six U.S. gallons (231.;1 Kgs. 7:26, 38; 2 Chr. 2:10; 4:5; Isa. 5:10). The word "bath" derives from the Hebrew word "daughter" and presumably represents the capacity of water jars carried from the well (cf. Gen. 24:15, where a young Rebekah carries out this task). Larger measurements are again expressed by the homer, the same term used for dry capacity (Ezek. 45:11,14). The liquid homer is composed of 1o baths. Units smaller than a bath include the hin, 1/6 of a bath (Exod. 29:40; 30:24; Lev. 19:36; 23:13; Num. 15:4-7, 9-10; 28:5, 7,14). The hin is further divided into 12 logs (Lev. 14:10,12,15, 21, 24), a log consisting of approximately 0.3 quarts/liters. Thus the following conversions for liquid capacity for the Hebrew Bible are arrived at: 1ho liquid homer =1 bath = 6 bins = 48 logs.
In the New Testament, the metretes (John 2:6) has been estimated to contain anywhere from io to 30 gallons. A less tentative value may be ascribed to the choinix (Rev. 6:6), which equals 1 quart (.95 l.).
FOR FURTHER READING
Powell, Marvin A. "Weights and Measures." OEANE 5:339-42.
MICHAEL M. HOMAN