Judges
Joshua picks up where Deuteronomy left off, after Moses' death. Titled after Israel's Egyptianborn military leader during the so-called conquest of Canaan, Joshua represents the second book of the Deuteronomistic History, which gives an account of Israel's life in Canaan. Tradition refers to Joshua, judges, and the books of Samuel and Kings as the Former Prophets. Joshua presumes its readers' knowledge of the preceding books (compare 24:32 with Gen. 50:25; Exod. 13:19; 14:6-15 with Num. 14:24, 30), and the book draws many parallels between Joshua and his predecessor and former master, Moses. (On their relationship and the transfer of leadership, see Exod. 24:13; Num. 13:1-16; Deuteronomy 31, 34•)
Content
Joshua's theological focus consists in God's fulfillment of his covenantal promise of land - a promise first made to Abraham (Gen. 12:1). With God fighting for the Israelite army, Joshua leads his troops in claiming Canaan by dispossessing its pagan inhabitants; at the entrance to God's tent, Joshua and the high priest Eleazar oversee the division of the land among the Israelite tribes. But peppering the narrative are frequent reminders that the Israelites must be faithful to the covenant if they are to retain and realize further their divinely favored status.
Background
The date and manner of the conquest of Canaan under Joshua remains unresolved. Taken at face value, internal evidence from the Old Testament itself seems to favor an early date, ca. 1400 B.C. (cf. 1 Kgs. 6:1; Judg. 11:26), as does archaeological evidence from two cities that figure prominently in Joshua's account of the conquest: Jericho and Hazor. The numbers given in the texts cited, however, may convey a symbolic message, not a literal accounting, and the majority of archaeological evidence both within and outside Canaan favors a later date, ca. 1240, for Israel's initial military activity and settlement in and around the promised land. While overall Joshua conveys the sense that the Israelites accomplished the conquest quickly and completely, the book of judges pictures the process of possessing Canaan both as prolonged and partial. See "Entering the Land" (172-73).
Authorship
The author of Joshua remains unnamed. Some scholars see in the book editorial strands of material they identify in the Pentateuch (E and P; see "Authorship" [177] in the commentary on Genesis). Internal, textual evidence suggests that the oral traditions that preserved the memory of events recorded in Joshua found their way into written form around the time of Samuel and before David conquered Jerusalem (compare 15:63 with 2 Sam. 5:6-10). The repeated statement that certain monuments and traditions endured "to this day" (4:9; 13:13) probably indicates that an editor compiled the book some time after the events it records.
1 Preparing to Enter Canaan
The reminder of Moses' death and the reference to him as the "servant of the Lord" link Joshua and Deuteronomy literarily (1:1-2; cf. Deut. 34:5). Chapter 1 confirms God's determination to fulfill his one remaining covenantal promise to his people by relating his charge to Joshua to lead the Israelites across the Jordan to possess Canaan. God's presence with Moses' successor and former servant (cf. Numbers 13) provides the foundation for the courage Joshua must display in undertaking his military task (vv. 5-6; cf. Gen. 26:24; 28:15; 39:2; Exod. 3:12). The exhortation to "be strong and courageous" emerges as the clarion call (vv 6-7, 9,18), one bolstered by God's promise to do for Joshua what he promised to Moses (vv 3-5; cf. Deut. 11:24-25). Since Joshua's covenantal obedience will guarantee his success in the land, he must devote his thoughts to the "book of the law" (cf. Deut. 31:24-26) and take care to obey it completely (cf. Deut. 17:18-20 for similar instructions for a hypothetical human king of Israel).
In obedience to God, Joshua orders that the Israelites prepare to enter the promised land within days. He also reminds the Transjordanian tribes - Reuben, Gad, and half-Manasseh - of their responsibility to help their countrymen claim the covenantal inheritance in Canaan, and these tribes pledge their allegiance to Joshua's leadership (cf. Num. 32; Deut. 3:1220). Indeed, they form the vanguard that leads the invasion force across the Jordan.
2 Rahab and the Spies
As Moses had done with Joshua and 11 other Israelite men 40 years earlier, so now Joshua sends spies into Canaan in preparation for taking possession of the promised land (cf. Numbers 13). This time, however, the reconnaissance mission reveals the Canaanites' fear of the Israelites rather than producing in the Israelites a stifling fear of Canaan's inhabitants (contrast Numbers 14).
At Joshua's direction, the two spies concentrate on Jericho, where they find discreet lodging with a local harlot named Rahab. Along with others throughout Canaan, Rahab has heard of God's activities on the Israelites' behalf (v. 10). Because Rahab believes God will also grant the Israelites victory when they invade Canaan, she forms an alliance with the spies by supplying valuable information and then hiding them from the city officials, who at the advice of the king's informants come knocking in an attempt to capture the Israelite spies (v. 11; cf. Heb. 11:31). Rahab sends the officials out the city gate in pursuit of the spies along the roads; meanwhile, she lowers the spies from her window in the city wall and directs them into the hills until the Jericho posse gives up the search and the spies can return safely to their camp in Transjordan. In exchange for her help, Rahab receives the spies' promise of deliverance from doom for herself and her family through the sign of the scarlet cord she leaves hanging in her window (cf. 6:22-25). The spies' faith-filled report to Joshua concerning the Israelites' imminent mission of conquest contrasts sharply with the fear-inspiring warnings of the earlier spies, save Joshua and Caleb (v. 24; contrast Num. 13:28-33).
Jericho marked the land's midpoint between north and south, and the city sat west across the Jordan River opposite Shittim ("acacias"), where the Israelites camped. As in many other and-millennium cities, casemate walls may have surrounded Jericho. Casemates consisted of two parallel walls that encircled a city, with ample space between them for rooms separated by crosswalls. Rahab's house may have sat between the two walls of such a fortification or simply up against a single wall; in either case, her window cut the city's perimeter defense. A flat roof covering Rahab's house provided space for drying flax, which she probably used to spin linen thread and under which she hid the spies.
Rahab figures prominently in this story despite her unholy profession. Later, she becomes a naturalized Israelite through marriage to Salmon. The Bible later traces Rahab's line, from her son Boaz, to his descendant King David, to Jesus himself (cf. Matt. 1:5-6,16).
3 The Israelites Cross the Jordan
Just as God delivered the Israelites from Pharaoh's clutches by miraculously providing passage through the Red Sea, God now brings his people into the promised land by temporarily stopping up the normally tame and narrow Jordan River, swollen in springtime from the melting snows of Mount Hermon, until the nation has crossed into Canaan. That the ark of the covenant, not Joshua, enables the miracle, reveals the lesser position Joshua assumes, as compared to Moses, in communicating God's will, and previews the prominent position the ark will assume in representing God's presence and protection throughout the book. Yet God accomplishes the feat to inspire the Israelites' confidence in their new leader (v. 7).
Entering the Land
Throughout their long wanderings following their escape from Egypt, Israel cherished the promise of land given to Abraham (Gen. 12:7; Exod. 3:8). To enjoy that promise, Moses' mandate was that Israel annihilate the land's Canaanite inhabitants, destroy their idols, and settle down (Deut. 7:1-5; 20:16-18). But biblical reports offer differing pictures of events - pictures of both complete (Joshua 1-12) and incomplete conquest (Joshua 13; Judges 1). Some scholars view the latter accounts as the more accurate, but others suggest that, taken together and illumined by archaeology, both offer a general though not always completely clear picture of Israel's entrance into Canaan.
Egypt still exercised its historic control over Canaan when Israel arrived (mid-13th century B.C.). The pharaoh had governors and officials in major cities (e.g., Gaza, Megiddo) and garrison towns in others. Most of the local population lived along the coast and in the Jezreel and Jordan valleys, and petty city-states dominated daily political and economic life. Egyptian records prominently mention Ashkelon, Gezer, Megiddo, Beth-shean, Hazor, and Jerusalem. They also report major military campaigns to suppress rebellions in Canaan by Pharaohs Seti I (ca. 129o), Ramesses 11 (ca. 1275), and Merneptah (ca. 1220). In the early 12th century, both Merneptah and Ramesses III defeated the "Sea Peoples," sea-borne invaders of Canaan from the Aegean. Among
them were the Philistines who seized and settled in Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. Archaeological remains of this chaotic period confirm the destruction and pillage of many Canaanite towns (e.g., Bethel, Beth-shemesh, Hazor) and suggest a declining standard of living for their residents. But the evidence prevents our distinguishing destruction made by Egypt and the Sea Peoples from that by Israel or other invaders. Besides, the Bible claims that Israel "attacked" many cities but "burned" only Jericho, Ai, and Hazor - apparently excep
tions to the rule since Moses had promised to Israel cities in Canaan (Deut. 6:1o).
Detail of the Merneptah Stela (ca. 12104207 B.C.) containing the earliest known reference to Israel outside the Bible. (Cairo Museum)
Exodus 23:28-29 anticipated a long, gradual conquest and settlement because of Israel's small population (cf. Deut. 7:7). Semino-
madic little Israel would need time to attain numbers large enough to control Canaan. Joshua and Judges yield glimpses of that extended process. Granted, Joshua 1-12 portrays it as a Blitzkrieg-type conquest of Jericho and Ai (chs. 2, 6-8) followed by victorious southern and northern campaigns (chs. 9-11) - and 11:23 reveals that 'Joshua took the whole land...." But 13:1-6 lists vast areas still unconquered, and early settlement reports acknowledge surviving cities and peoples, some of whom Israel enslaves rather than annihilates (15:63;16:1o;17:12-13,16;
Judg. 1:18-36). Inexplicably, seven tribes had to find their own land for Joshua to allot (Josh. 18-19) - undoubtedly a lengthy procedure. One telling comment (Judg. 1:28) suggests a long struggle, with land and cities possibly changing hands several times. In retrospect, Joshua 12 could rightly celebrate Yahweh's stunning conquest of 31 kings, but at the time the process of possessing the land was probably slow-going and involved both advances and setbacks. Apparently, the most resistant strongholds lay along the coastal plain, on the southern ridge of the Jezreel Valley, and in Jerusalem.
Archaeological evidence for the period illumines our understanding, but only somewhat. Neither Jericho nor Ai shows traces of significant occupation or destruction at the time. Some scholars believe that centuries of erosion may have washed away relevant mudbrick ruins at Jericho, but one scholar recently claimed to find overlooked evidence for its destruction in older excavation reports. Ai means "ruins," a name perhaps earned by centuries as a ghost town (ca. 2500-1200), and some scholars view Joshua 8 as simply an explanation of the city's stunning ruins. But Ai had few residents (7:3), and forces from nearby Bethel joined those of Ai in chasing Israel (v. 17). This suggests that the "ruins" may have been a lightly manned defensive outpost for Bethel and unlikely to leave behind traces of occupation.
Some evidence points positively toward Israel's presence in
Canaan. The victory stela of Pharaoh Merneptah lists an "Israel" among Egypt's conquests in Canaan (ca. 1220) - the first nonbiblical reference to it. Interestingly, it classifies Israel not as a nation or city but as a people living in open country. Archaeological remains also attest a significantly increased population in the central highlands and an explosion of new settlements between ruined cities. They also show the sudden appearance of a non-Canaanite pottery style and of a new kind of dwelling, the "four-room house." No inscriptions connect these new developments with "Israel," but the convergence of biblical and archaeological data point in that direction. One surprising discovery - the virtual absence of pig bones in these areas - strongly suggests that these new settlers were Israelites (Lev. 11:7-8). If so, initially Israel settled in towns or villages in the central highlands rather than in cities - in other words, not in areas the Bible lists as unconquered.
Scholars have recently proposed several theories to explain the conquest of Canaan. The "peaceful infiltration theory" claims to find the "real history" behind the Bible's idealized picture - a gradual movement into Canaan's vacant central mountains by six tribes, who grew large enough to take
over the whole land peacefully. The "peasant's revolt theory" argues that some Israelite tribes settled peacefully in Canaan, that others arrived later after experiencing the "exodus," and that the united tribes overthrew their Canaanite oppressors. But the archaeological evidence of destruction undermines the former theory, while the latter lacks persuasive evidence of pre-infiltration Israelites. The "minimalist theory" proposes that Israel did not enter Canaan from outside but sprang up inside as a branch of the Canaanites that became "Israel" centuries later. But besides its excessive skepticism of biblical evidence, this theory founders on the archaeological evidence reviewed above.
The details concerning Israel's entrance into Canaan remain a matter of dispute. The Bible itself shows awareness of their complexity, and its different pictures in part derive from the genres of the reports. Joshua 1-12 offers a theological, celebratory "big picture" from a retrospective distance, Judges 1 a more realistic report on the ground" probably closer to events. The fullest understanding of Israel's entry into Canaan emerges from careful consideration of both.
ROBERT L. HUBBARD JR.
God's people must purify themselves ritually in preparation for the start of their divinely sanctioned holy war (v. 5). They must demonstrate their reverence for God by maintaining a respectful distance (a little more than half a mile) between themselves and God's "throne;" the ark (v. 4).
The crossing proceeds according to God's directions, with the Jordan ceasing to flow as soon as the priests carrying the ark dip their feet in the water. Landslides in A.D. 1267 and 1906 dammed the Jordan, and a collapse of the clayey riverbank soil caused by an earthquake in 1927 blocked up the river's waters for 211/2 hours at the same place cited by the present text: Adam (modern Tell ed-Damiye), ca. 18 miles north of Jericho.
4 Memorials Commemorate the Crossing
Joshua and one representative from each of the tribes erect two piles of 12 stones each to memorialize their crossing of the Jordan "on dry ground" One cairn stood at the Israelites' first campsite in Canaan (Gilgal, "circle"; v. 19), and the other rested in the middle of the Jordan where the priests stood with the ark to hold back the waters. John the Baptist conducted his ministry and baptized Jesus in this same part of the Jordan.
Chapter 4 takes pains to note the careful obedience of Joshua to God and of the Israelites to Joshua. Verse 12 mentions in particular the faithfulness of the Transjordanian tribes (Reuben, Gad, and half-Manasseh) to their communal commitment - they even cross before their countrymen (cf. 1:12-15). As God promised in 3:7, Joshua's leadership in crossing the Jordan gains the Israelites' reverence for him, much as they had earlier respected Moses.
5 Ritual Preparations for Holy War
Chapter 5 presents still more parallels with the account of Moses and the previous generation of Israelites. All males must undergo circumcision - a practice not applied to males born during the 40 years of wilderness wandering. God's command of a "second" circumcision applies to males over 40, whose initial, partial circumcision took place in Egypt. The abundance of flint in Canaan provided a ready tool for the task. The nation's vulnerability, caused by its fighting force's temporary disablement, does not prove a cause for concern, because the Israelites' miraculous crossing of the Jordan has struck fear of them in the hearts of Canaan's inhabitants (v. 1). The circumcision of Israel's males serves to mark the nation as a whole with the sign of the covenant (v. 8; cf. Gen. 17:10-11).
The day after celebrating the Passover, the Israelites eat some of the Canaan's crops. Beginning the next day, God's provision of manna ceases, for now his people can find food from the land "flowing with milk and honey."
The appearance of the "captain of the Lord's host" to Joshua at Jericho signals the divine aid available for the mission of conquest and fore
shadows Jericho's impending downfall. Yet the angelic commander makes clear that he fights not for humans but for God, and therefore Joshua's and the Israelites' obedience to God's covenant will determine the extent of divine aid they receive. Disobedience may occasion divine opposition. Joshua removes his sandals in recognition of the holy ground on which he stands in the presence of God's heavenly representative (cf. Moses at the burning bush, Exod. 3:5).
6 The Fall of Jericho
While Abraham acquired water rights and purchased a plot of land for a family grave in Canaan centuries earlier (Gen. 21:22-34; 23), the account of the conquest of Jericho signals the first major step in Israel's claiming her covenantal inheritance in the promised land. An important oasis guarding the main routes into the heart of Canaan, Jericho ("moon city," probably dedicated to the Canaanite moongod) was the first pagan enclave put under the "ban:" The ban dictated that the Israelites kill all people and animals in the Canaanite cities they conquered and also prohibited them from taking precious metals as personal booty. Instead, these spoils were to go into the treasury for the Lord's house. From the beginning, then, the Israelites violate the rules of holy war by sparing Rahab and her family, though God redeems the Israelites' gracious action in his plan of salvation not only for Rahab but also for the rest of humanity throughout the ages.
The Israelites take Jericho in a ritualistic manner that both announces the commencement of the holy war and wreaks psychological havoc on the city's inhabitants. On each day of their six-day siege, the Israelite warriors conduct about a half-mile march around the city, bearing the ark of the covenant and with seven priests blowing rams' horns sandwiched between the forward and rear contingents. As in the account of creation, the seventh day marks the day of completion and perfection. On this day, the Israelite soldiers march around the city seven times before joining their voices with the trumpet blasts in a thunderous shout, at which time the walls of Jericho fall and give the invaders free access to the city. After de stroying Jericho completely, the Israelites place Rahab and her family outside the Israelite camp until the foreigners observe the necessary requirements for ritual purification and incorporation into the Israelite community. Jericho, whose history dates back to 7000 B.C., lay dormant for four centuries, until the curse announced in v. 26 was realized during the reign of the faithless Israelite king Ahab (see 1 Kgs. 16:33-34).
The Divine Warrior
After God rescues Israel from an angry pharaoh at the Red Sea, Moses leads the people in a song that proclaims:
The LORD is a warrior; the LORD is his name.
(Exod. 15:3)
This verse is the first explicit reference to God as a warrior, but it is far from the last. Throughout the Bible, God's people recognized that the Lord was in the midst of their struggles, fighting on their behalf.
In the Old Testament God's warfare took the form of conflict against Israel's flesh-and-blood enemies. The examples are too numerous to mention with any degree of completeness. A prime example, however, is the battle of Jericho. Before the battle, Joshua encountered a mysterious figure outfitted like a warrior (Josh. 5:13-15). As the story unfolds, it becomes clear that this is an appearance of God as warrior, who then gives Joshua strategy for the upcoming battle. The strategy itself demonstrates the heart of the theology of divine warfare. Victory is not the result of human ability or resources, but rather is the result of God's will. Thus Israel's role is simply to march around the city once a day for six days, and then seven times on the climactic seventh day. At their lead was the ark of the covenant, the most potent symbol of God's presence. On the last day, after
the seventh circuit, the priests sounded the horn with a loud blast while the people shouted. Without lifting a weapon, then, the venerable walls of that ancient city crumbled, and Jericho was theirs (Joshua 6).
Throughout the period of the conquest, the judges, and the monarchy, God appeared to his people as a warrior. The prophet Nahum, for instance, provides an example of a relatively late instance of the divine warrior's action on behalf of Israel. As Nahum looked forward to the destruction of the oppressive city of Nineveh, he saw as its cause the appearance of the divine warrior, who is:
A jealous and avenging God; the LORD takes vengeance and is filled with wrath.
The LORD takes vengeance on his foes and maintains his wrath against his enemies.
(Nah. 1:2 NIV)
When Nineveh fell in 612 B.C., the human eye saw the destroying force as Babylonians and Medes, but the reality was that God caused the destruction of Nineveh.
Unfortunately for Israel, however, God was not always on their side. Indeed, Israel's covenant with God made it clear that God would fight for them when they were obedient, but he would judge them and defeat
them when they were disobedient (Deut. 28:7, 64-68). Lamentations illustrates this sad truth. Because of Israel's persistent rebellion, God ultimately brought the Babylonians against Jerusalem, destroying the city and leveling the temple. The author of Lamentations knows full well who was behind this tragedy:
The Lord is like an enemy; he has swallowed up Israel
(Lam. 2:5 NIV)
Even so, this is not the last word on the subject in the Old Testament. During the exile and after, God raised up prophets who looked into the future and saw redemption in the form of the coming warrior. Daniel 7 announces that God will send a cloud rider, one like a son of man," to destroy the forces of evil, represented in the chapter as a series of hybrid monsters coming out of a chaotic sea. It is with this note of hope that the Old Testament ends.
The New Testament completes the picture in a surprising fashion. While many, including John the Baptist himself (Matt. 3:7-12), expected a violent Messiah, Jesus died on the cross rather than leading a successful battle against the Romans. Paul understood, however, that Jesus' death was a great victory over Satan and the spiritual powers and authorities (Col. 2:13-15). Jesus is the divine warrior, and his death informs his followers that their struggles are spiritual and must be waged with spiritual and not physical weapons (Eph. 6:10-20). Moreover, the New Tes-
tament tells us that, though the victory has been secured, the war is not yet completed. The book of Revelation and other apocalyptic passages announce that at the
end of time Jesus will appear again and bring the battle to a final conclusion (cf. Rev. 19:11-16).
TREMPER LONGMAN Ill
7 Achan Disregards the Ban
Israel's military disgrace at Ai ("the ruin"; traditionally identified as et-Tell but not confirmed archaeologically) contrasts sharply with the nation's devastating victory over Jericho. Evidently, the captain of the Lord's host fought for the Israelites at Jericho but abandons, if not fights against, them at Ai (cf. 5:13-14), for in secretly defying the ban on taking booty from Jericho the Judahite Achan ignites God's anger against the nation as a whole. Ignorant of Achan's disobedience, Joshua orders an assault on Ai, but the attack fails miserably. In petitioning the Lord, Joshua learns the reason for his army's defeat. A series of lot-castings singles out the culprit, Achan, whose confession nevertheless does not save him or his presumably co-conspiring family from the death penalty (vv. 20-21; cf. the fate of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram and their families in Num. 16:25-33). As the entire nation suffered because of Achan's sin, so it must participate in meting out his fatal punishment by stoning and burning (cf. Lev. 24:10-23). This action completes the congregation's consecration and purification from sin (v. 13; cf. 3:5). Achan's family cairn in the Valley of Achor ("trouble") stands as a reminder of each individual Israelite's responsibility to obey God's commands in order for the nation as a whole to realize the covenantal blessings.
8 The Defeat of Ai
In his second assault on Ai, Joshua takes his orders from God rather than relying on the advice of the Israelite spies. With God's promise of victory, Joshua musters the entire fighting force but positions a relatively small contingent behind the city between Bethel (now diminished, but several centuries earlier a prosperous and well-fortified city) and Ai. The majority of Israelite soldiers lure the men of Ai to chase them as Joshua's men this time fake a retreat. The Israelite ambushing force storms the now undefended city and sets it on fire. With the smoke from Ai rising in the distance, the Israelite army turns on its homeless pursuers and slays all of them as well as the city's inhabitants fleeing from the destruction. The Israelites take the king of Ai captive but subject him to the dishonorable death of hanging on a tree (perhaps impalement on a pole; cf. Deut. 21:22-23). This time, the Israelites take cattle and spoils from Ai with God's express permission (W. 2, 27).
Verses 30-35 record Joshua's fulfillment of God's command that the Israelites conduct a ceremony to ratify the covenant in the promised land (cf. Deuteronomy 27). This takes place near Shechem (ca. 20 mi. north of Bethel and Ai) on Mounts Ebal and Gerizim and involves the offering of sacrifices and recitation of the Mosaic law. (The patriarch Jacob had earlier purchased land at Shechem; Gen. 33:18-19.)
9 A Treaty with the Hivites of Gibeon
Aware of the Israelites' military successes since entering the promised land, the Canaanite kings form an alliance against Israel. But the Hivites (Hurrians) of Gibeon (probably el-Jib) develop another plan. Rather than taking their chances with the alliance, they scheme to trick the Israelites into making a peace treaty with them. Bedraggled envoys from Gibeon convince Joshua that they have come from a far-off country to become servants of the people for whom God has accomplished the mighty works that have gained international renown. Ignoring the lesson from Ai about taking action without consulting God (7:2-5), Joshua enters into a treaty with the disguised Gibeonites (note the covenantal meal in v. 14; cf. Exod. 24:3-11), only to learn later their true identity as inhabitants of Canaan, with whom God has forbidden the Israelites to make covenants (Exod. 23:32). But Joshua cannot cancel the agreement, and much to his chagrin the Hivites' four cities come under the protection of the treaty (vv. 16-18). Though the covenant reduces the Gibeonites to slavery, at least they secure for themselves protection from annihilation by the Israelites. Later they serve the Israelites in Jerusalem, the place of God's choice (v. 27). That God punishes Israel for Saul's slaying of the Gibeonites some 200 years later, and that David allows the Gibeonites to take revenge against Saul's house for the killing, testify to the enduring and binding nature of covenantal agreements in the ancient Near East (2 Samuel 21).
Hazor, a strategically important city controlling northern Canaan, "utterly destroyed" by Joshua and the Israelites. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)
10 Five Kings Attack Gibeon
Alarmed by the nearby Gibeonites' defection, Jerusalem's king Adoni-zedek ("my Lord is righteous") rallies four other Canaanite kings to march against this major stronghold. In response, Gibeon calls on Joshua's army to fulfill its treaty obligation of helping defend the city. Joshua and his troops take all night to complete the as-mile, uphill march from their camp at Gilgal. They soundly rout Gibeon's attackers, whom God pelts with fatal hailstones that kill more Canaanites than Joshua's army does. Verses 12-14 acknowledge God's hand in the Israelites' amazing victory, whether the text relates a miraculous extension of daylight, an unusual refraction or diffusion of light, a divine prolonging of the dawn darkness, an astrological omen - the sun and moon in the same sky - or a poetic metaphor emphasizing God's power over nature. Because of the Aijalon Valley's location along a major east-west roadway (v. 12), this setting has played host to numerous battles throughout the centuries.
Despite the Israelites' decisive victory, the allied kings escape to the cave of Makkedah, in which Joshua's men close them up. When Joshua arrives, he initiates a symbolic ritual wherein the Israelites place their feet on the necks of the captive kings to signify their total subjugation (cf. 1 Kgs. 5:3; Ps. 110:1; 1 Cor. 15:25-28) before killing them and humiliating them further by exposing their dead bodies (cf. 8:29).
Verses 28-43 relate Joshua's initial, though apparently short-lived, conquest of the major regions of Canaan as far south as Kadeshbarnea, as far west as Gaza, and as far north as Gibeon - the Negev, Shephelah (lowland), and hill country (cf. ch. 13 for a different picture). Canaanite survivors of the battle at Gibeon who managed to flee home for refuge meet their death in Joshua's subsequent southern campaign, wherein he completely destroys the cities of the kings allied with Adoni-zedek, as well as Makkedah, Libnah, and Gezer - the strategic cities of the south. Jerusalem avoids annihilation, but the territorial conquest and the obliteration of the Canaanite population in these regions appear otherwise complete, thanks to God's fighting on Israel's behalf N. 42; contrast the picture of the conquest painted by ch. 13 and the book of Judges; see "Entering the Land" [172-73]).
11 Joshua Defeats the Northern Alliance
On hearing of Joshua's military exploits in the south, the king of Hazor, who heads Canaan's northern territories (v. io), forms a second, more formidable alliance against the Israelites. Located 1o miles north of the Sea of Galilee along the trade route between Egypt and Mesopotamia, Hazor's Zoo-acre metropolis housed 40 thousand inhabitants during this period - four times as many as King David's Jerusalem. The Canaanite force assembles with horses and chariots at the waters of Merom, which drain southeast into the Sea of Galilee. The victory of Joshua's army once again appears decisive and complete as the Israelite fighting force follows God's battle instructions to the letter. Joshua even pushes the enemy 40 miles north to Sidon, on the coast of Lebanon (v. 8). As before, Joshua follows his victory on the battlefield with the capture and destruction of the allies' cities and their inhabitants (though he sets fire only to Hazor) to complete the conquest of the north. (Again, contrast ch. 13 and judges.)
Verses 12, 15, 20, and 23 remember Moses as the one to whom God originally gave his commands regarding possessing the promised land. Joshua appears utterly faithful to the divine instructions communicated through his predecessor (esp. v. 15). If 10:1-11:15 give the impression that Joshua completed these victories within a relatively short period, v. 18 dispels that notion. Judging from Caleb's stated age at the beginning and end of this phase of the conquest, the triumphs thus far spanned seven years (cf.14:7; Deut 2:14). Verse 20 recalls God's hardening of Pharaoh's heart and Sihon of Heshbon's spirit (Exod. 4:21; Deut. 2:30). That the Israelite army even defeats the mighty Anakim living in Canaan's hill country testifies to the unfounded faithlessness of the previous generation of Israelites, who refused to enter the promised land in part for fear of these giant warriors (but cf. 14:12; on the Anakim, see Num. 13:25-14:4). Some Anakim remain in three of the five Philistine strongholds: Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. Verse 23 makes brief men tion of Joshua's parceling out the conquered land to the Israelite tribes.
12 A Summary of Successes
Verses 1-6 summarize Israel's military successes in Transjordan and state the boundaries of their territorial claims in the east as far north as Mount Hermon, on the Israel/Lebanon border, and as far south as the Pisgah ridge (home to Mount Nebo), at the northern end of the Dead Sea. The defeated kings Sihon and Og controlled large territories east of the Dead Sea ("Salt Sea, "sea of the Arabah") and Sea of Galilee ("Sea of Chinneroth"), respectively (cf. Num. 21:21-35; Deut. 2:24-3:11). The Arabah refers to the wide Jordan Rift Valley between the two seas. The 31 defeated Canaanite kings listed in vv. 9-24 mostly represent city-states in each major region of Canaan, as well as individual ethnic groups whose land God promised to give to Abraham's descendants (v. 8; cf. Gen. 15:18-21).
13-21 Apportioning the Land
13 The distribution of Israel's inheritance in Canaan begins before the completion of the conquest. Philistine city-states on and near Canaan's southern Mediterranean coast remain untaken, along with large areas to the north on the plain of Phoenicia and in Lebanon (cf. Judg. 3:1-5). Not until David at least two centuries hence will Israel defeat the Philistines and subdue the Syrians in the north, but even David cannot lay claim to Phoenicia, and the additional territories he does control slip away after his son Solomon's reign. Neither do the Israelites completely dispossess all the Canaanites living in the areas they manage to dominate (v. 13; 15:63; 16:10).
The remainder of chapter 13 rehearses Moses' allotment of lands east of the Jordan to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half-Manasseh (cf. Numbers 32; Deut. 3:12-17). The text again reports that Levi has already "received God" (the service of the tabernacle and later the temple) as its inheritance, rather than land (vv. 14, 33; cf. Deut. 18:1-2). Verse 22 mentions Balaam, the professional diviner who figures prominently in Numbers 24.
14 Joshua, the high priest Eleazar, and heads of households from the remaining nine and onehalf tribes participate in the division of territory west of the Jordan. Eleazar may have used the Urim and Thummim in casting lots to assign land to the various tribes (cf. Exod. 28:30). The distribution includes setting aside Levitical cities according to God's instructions in Num. 35:1-8. In making a special request for his own landed inheritance in the hill country south of Jerusalem, Caleb appeals to Moses' promise of a reward for the faith Caleb showed as a spy (v. 9; cf. Num. 14:24) - a faith undiminished and undaunted by the prospect of battle with the remaining Anakim (Cf. 11:21-22). Caleb receives Hebron, which later becomes a city of refuge but whose surrounding fields and villages Caleb retains as his possession (cf. 15:13-14; 21:11-13).
15 Judah receives a large parcel of land covering southern Canaan that cuts due west of the Dead Sea from its northern and southern extents. Judah's territory includes land in the hill country, Shephelah (lowland), coastal plain, Negev (south), and wilderness and incorporates Caleb's territory (vv 13-19), the cities of the Philistines, and Samson's hometown of Timnah (v. 57). At least part of Jerusalem, which remains under Jebusite control until David's reign (2 Sam. 5:610), falls within Judahite territory (compare vv. 8, 63; Judg. 1:8 with 18:16; Judg. 1:21).
16-17 The tribes named after Joseph's sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, inherit large parcels of land north of Judah that extend from the Jordan Valley west through the central hill country and the coastal plain to the Mediterranean. Though the southernmost Ephraimites fail to drive out the Canaanites in Gezer, the tribe does reduce them to servanthood (16:10). Much later, Solomon gains control of Gezer (1 Kgs. 9:16-17). The daughters of Manasseh's sonless descendant Zelophehad receive land in Canaan in accordance with God's ruling in Num. 27:7 (17:4).
Manasseh already possesses additional territory east of the Jordan (17:1; cf. Numbers 32; Deut. 3:12-20), but Ephraim and Manasseh complain that they have not received enough land to support their numbers. They blame this on their drawing only one lot between them, despite the fact that they both receive separate and comparatively large territorial allotments in Canaan (v. 14). Joshua wisely identifies the real problems: despite the fact that their very numbers give them strength, Joseph's descendants lack the faith and nerve to drive the Canaanite charioteers out of the plains, and they lack the industriousness to clear the forested hill country for habitation. Their great size itself holds the key to solving their perceived problem, and Joshua leaves his response at that.
18 Though 14:1-5 indicates that all the western tribes received their assignments of inherited land at Gilgal, 18:2 reveals that seven tribes put off taking possession of their territories. With Israel's base camp, including the tabernacle, now repositioned at Shiloh, Joshua challenges the procrastinating tribes to claim their inheritance by sending representatives to survey the remaining land before he and Eleazar cast lots to determine the distribution of territory (cf. 19:51; for the territorial assignments outlined in chs. 18-19, cf. the list of tribal cities in 15:20-62). Following the surveyors' report, Benjamin's lot sandwiches this tribe between Judah on the south and Ephraim on the north, and the assignment includes at least part of Jerusalem (compare 15:8 with 18:16; also 15:63; Judg. 1:8 with Judg. 1:21).
19 Simeon's lot follows Benjamin's. Because Judah received more land than it could manage, Simeon inherits territory within Judah's allotment - including the Negev city of Beer-sheba, where Abraham first gained a small but significant claim to land in Canaan by legally acquiring water rights (Gen. 21:22-34). Eventually, Simeon was absorbed into the tribe of Judah.
Zebulun's inheritance falls in the central landscape north of Manasseh. The Bethlehem of v. 15 refers to a northern town that bears the same name as the city of Jesus' birth that lies south of Jerusalem.
Issachar's lot sits southeast of Zebulun's and includes the fertile Jezreel Valley. Mount Tabor marks Zebulun's western border, and the Jordan River south of the Sea of Galilee defines the tribe's eastern extent.
Asher receives land along Canaan's northern coast (mostly north, but also a bit south, of modern Haifa). Prominent cities, such as Rehob and Aphek and the ports of Tyre and Achzib, fall to Asher.
Naphtali's allotment arcs around the western side of the Sea of Galilee but remains east of Zebulun. Naphtali extends northwest of the Huleh basin (north of the Sea of Galilee) and borders Asher on its west. This tribe's territory includes the main trade route running from Jezreel to areas north of Canaan.
Dan's portion lies primarily in the lowland west of Jerusalem in an area inhabited by Amorites and Philistines (cf. Judg. 1:34 and the stories of the Danite Samson in judges 13-16). The Danites fail to defeat their southern foes, and this tribe eventually migrates to the far north above Naphtali, where their military efforts find success (cf. Judges 18).
Finally, the Israelites present Joshua with an inheritance of his own (vv 49-50; cf. Judg. 2:9), as Joshua had done with his faithful comrade spy, Caleb (14:13-14). Verse 51 indicates that the lot-casting took place "before the Lord, at the doorway" of the tabernacle to convey God's control over the apportioning process and his sanctioning of it.
20 The Israelites set apart the six Levitical cities of refuge provided for in Num. 35:6; Deut.19:1-10. Deuteronomy 4:41-43 has already recorded the designation of three of these cities among the Transjordanian tribes. The unintentional manslayer who flees to one of these cities receives a pretrial by the elders, who exercise their legal authority at the city gate, before he undergoes a public trial by the congregation (vv. 4, 6). The cities of refuge provide the manslayer with asylum from his accidental victim's blood avengers.
21 Aside from the six cities of refuge, the Levites receive 42 additional cities (and their surrounding pasturelands) spread throughout the tribal territories, not as an inheritance (cf. 18:7) but simply as designated dwelling places for the Levites in accordance with God's provision in Num. 35:6-8. Aaron and his priestly Kohathite descendants receive cities in the southern tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, territory that includes Jerusalem, which became home to the tabernacle in David's time and the temple during Solomon's reign. Caleb retained the pasturelands surrounding his individual inheritance at Judahite Hebron, where he defeated the descendants of Anak (v. 11) - renowned warriors related to the mighty Nephilim (cf. Num. 13:33; Deut. 9:2).
The cities allotted to the rest of the Kohathites lie in the next ring out from Jerusalem: in Ephraim, Dan (prior to this tribe's migration north; ch. 19; cf. Judges 18), and half-Manasseh west of the Jordan. The Gershonites' cities lie far north in Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and halfManasseh in Transjordan. The Merarites also receive allotments on both sides of the Jordan: in Zebulun on the west and in Reuben and Gad on the east. On the Levitical responsibilities of the Kohathites, Gershonites, and Merarites, cf. Numbers 3.
Verses 43-45 emphasize the fulfillment of God's one heretofore outstanding promise to Abraham: that of land (Gen. 12:1-3). God's promises to Joshua in 1:5-6 regarding the Israelites' conquest of Canaan find theological completion in W. 4344• But Judges 1 will soon make clear that, from a practical standpoint, prolonged struggles to possess and retain the promised inheritance lie ahead.
22 The Transjordanian Tribes Return Home
With Canaan subdued and divided between the nine and one-half western tribes (contrast judges 1), Joshua dismisses the supporting soldiers of Reuben, Gad, and half-Manasseh to return to their families and territorial holdings in Transjordan (For their obligation to help conquer Canaan, cf. 1:14-15; Numbers 32; Deut. 3:12-20.) These tribes' action of building an altar on the eastern fringe of Canaan as they exit the promised land looks like disobedience to the western tribes, however, since legitimate sacrifice has, up to this point, centered around the tabernacle (now at Shiloh) in accordance with God's command in Deut. 12:13-14. Recalling God's previous judgment on the entire nation for the sins of individual Israelites and fearing similar corporate punishment for their kinsmen's transgression, the western tribes begin preparing for holy war against their Transjordanian countrymen (on Peor [v 17] see Num. 25:1-9; on Achan [v 20] see 7:1-26). Before the nine and one-half tribes initiate a fight, however, Eleazar's son Phinehas, who earlier defended the right worship of God over Baal (Numbers 25), and 1o Israelite tribal chiefs confront their kinsmen with the perceived problem. Alarmed at their brothers' interpretation of their actions in building the altar, the Reubenites, Gadites, and Manassehites insist that their intentions consisted not in rejecting God but, rather, in ensuring the preservation of their "portion in the Lord." Their acknowledgment of Israel's God in V. 22 testifies to their sincerity, and their explanation satisfies Phinehas and his companions. With civil war staved off, the altar remains as a monument to the 12 tribes' religious solidarity.
23 Joshua's Parting Address
Joshua's admonition to the Israelites at the end of his life includes reminders made familiar by Moses in his speeches in Deuteronomy 1-11; 28:1-31:13. The Israelites must remain faithful to God and his covenant with them (vv. 6-8); they must use their experience of the covenantal blessings realized thus far as inspiration for their continued love of their Lord and as the basis of their hope for the future (vv 9-11); they must remember that the curses of the covenant, which include God's destruction of his chosen nation, will surely materialize if Israel persists in breaking the covenant (W. 12-16).
The Great Sea of v. 4 refers to the Mediterranean. Verses 5 and 13 preview the picture in Judges 1 of the conquests that remain at the end of Joshua's life.
24 The Covenant Confirmed Again at Shechem
Joshua 24 portrays a second confirmation of the covenant at Shechem (cf. 8:30-34). The format follows that of a 2nd-millennium overlord-vassal treaty (see "Covenants" [121-24]) and begins in typical fashion by identifying the initiator of the covenant (here, God; V. 2). Verses 2-13 begin with Abraham in recounting the history of God's relationship with his people. This section mentions God's intervention in the Balak/Balaam incident (vv. 9-10; Numbers 22-24) and uses the image of the hornet probably to illustrate the panic God struck in Israel's Amorite enemies Sihon and Og and their subjects (cf. Num. 21:21-35). The chapter then lays out the covenantal stipulations, which stress loyalty to God alone (vv. 14-18). As Moses forwarded a choice between life-giving covenantal obedience and death-producing transgression (Deut. 30:15-20), so now Joshua challenges the Israelites to "choose whom you will serve" N. 15). By declaring his own determination to follow God, Joshua sets an example that the congregation follows with enthusiasm. A summary of the covenantal curses (vv. 19-20) appears before the conclusion to the ceremony: Israel's erection of a memorial stone as a witness to the covenant (v 27).
Late Bronze fortress temple at Shechem featuring a great standing-stone (masseba) in the forecourt. Here the twelve tribes confirmed the covenant entered at Sinai. (Phoenix Data Systems, Neal and Joel Bierling)
Another era in Israel's history passes with the death of Moses' and Aaron's successors, Joshua and Eleazar (vv 29, 33), but V. 31 emphasizes Joshua's continued positive influence on the Israelites even after his passing. The reckoning of Joshua's age at death (110, V. 29) parallels that of Joseph and may symbolize an age considered ideal in the ancient world (cf. Gen. 50:22). The Israelites fulfill their ancestors' promise to Joseph on his Egyptian deathbed (Gen. 50:2425; Exod. 13:19) by burying Joseph's remains in the promised land at Shechem, where his father Jacob had purchased the second parcel of land in Canaan owned by the patriarchs (Gen 33:18-19) and where the Israelites have reconfirmed their covenantal fidelity.